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+{"0017fed9-2491-5013-bbc2-31bc26b2aa07":{"title":"Scenes from life","description":"In the 19th century, women in the Arab and Ottoman world gradually began to feature more prominently in public life. Their living conditions varied depending on where they lived. In the countryside, mountains and desert areas, women working in the fields and in animal husbandry could move around freely, but their lives were harsh and austere. Women in towns might enjoy better living conditions, but most concentrated on domestic affairs. Their status as wife and mother often earned them respect but did not protect them from repudiation or polygamy. Prominent and elite women often engaged in business and trade, were able to own property and commissioned charitable institutions for education and religious practice. Most Muslim women observed some form of veiling outside the home. Non-Muslim women dressed according to the conventions and requirements of both their own and their host communities. Schooling was therefore key to their emancipation.","quote":"“I think that almost everyone … would admit the injustice of excluding half the human race from the greater number of lucrative occupations.” John Stuart Mill"},"00a1e3fb-228c-596d-a2a8-95ba8bb14e9c":{"title":"Education","description":"Education was a central question in 19th-century European debate on issues of obligation and secularity. In the second half of the century, the colonial powers – particularly France and the United Kingdom – made efforts to advance these (to them) vital issues in their colonies, protectorates and spheres of interest in the Arab and Ottoman world. Sociopolitical movements on both sides of the Mediterranean attributed importance to the ultimate purpose of modern public education as a key factor in the economic, political and cultural advancement of society. Subsequently, in the Middle East, two systems came to coexist: Western-style public and private school education, which left little room for Arabic language and Arab culture, and traditional teaching in Qur’anic schools, which affirmed religious faith and Arab identity."},"011c5847-612b-53ac-9000-4a8a979a44d5":{"title":"Dams","description":"Dams represented some of the most innovative works in the Arab and Ottoman world. The building of these new gigantic works attracted workers from around the region and even from Europe. They reshaped the geography of these territories and affected the life of people both in the countryside and in the cities. From the beginning of the 19th century, dams were built to improve agricultural production as part of the reforms aimed at transforming the territories of the Arab and Ottoman world into “modern” countries, capable of exporting large quantities of agricultural products or commodities such as cotton.","quote":"Water management was always a crucial issue in the arid and semi-arid zones. Dams were essential for intensive agriculture and power generation."},"032b5089-0424-5a02-b4da-3083fe645726":{"title":"Journalism in the Arab and Ottoman lands","description":"Napoleon Bonaparte introduced Egypt’s first printing press with the French-language newspaper *La Courier d’Egypte* (29 August 1798) and the quarterly journal *La Décade Egyptienne* (1799). Khedive Muhammad ‘Ali and his successors then introduced journalism for an Arabic-reading public with publication of *al-Waqa’i‘ al-Masriyya* (Egyptian Affairs), *al-Yasub* (a monthly medical journal), *Rawdha al-madaris* (a literature magazine), *Wadi al-Nil* (a bi-weekly political newspaper) and *Masr* (a weekly newspaper). Lebanese immigrants in Egypt founded two of the most prestigious journals that still exist today: *al-Ahram* (The Pyramids, 1876) and *al-Hilal* (The Crescent, 1892). In 1877, Yaqub Sanu‘ founded the first Arabic-language satirical magazine *Abu Naddara*. In Ottoman lands, in 1860 and 1891 respectively, *Tercüman-ı Ahvâl* (Interpreter of Facts) and *Servet-ı-Fünun* (The Wealth of Knowledge) were among the first non-state sponsored periodicals to be published.","quote":"Journalism was another importation from Europe, adapted to satisfy the public’s need for information about different aspects of life."},"03df9cf1-e1db-5beb-a1cb-458edcf0419e":{"title":"Innovative technologies","description":"The 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century was the age of innovative technologies. The advancement in science and the application of this advancement in various fields marked this period. The big improvement in steel production was dictated by the need for steel in the construction of bridges and railways and in producing military equipment and weapons including revolvers, artillery and military vehicles.  \n  \nIn 1814 the first practical steam-powered railway locomotive was built. A few years later in 1825 the first public steam-powered railway in the world was in use. The year 1838 saw the first transatlantic steamship services, while 1900 marked the first successful airship and three years later the first motor-driven aeroplane.  \n  \nEngines progressed from stove-heated to steam powered and then to internal combustion. Dictated largely by the needs of the more industrialised countries, which were seeking a better connection with the sources of raw materials, manufacturing centres and markets, the leaders in these innovative technologies were the northern countries of Western and Central Europe while the introduction of these innovations in the Ottoman, Arab and some other European lands was taking place more gradually."},"0428e571-a9fe-5fdd-a0ef-a5d3761d8007":{"title":"Contemporary suggestions","description":"The spread of a positivist culture, faith in progress born from developments in science and technology, industrialisation and colonialism could not fail to evoke among the middle classes feelings of piety and a humanitarian concern for improving the lives of the most disadvantaged. Accordingly, the International Exhibitions also found themselves involved in social issues: the heroic achievements of medicine were joined by a silent public awareness about the “victims of labour” and the brutality experienced by rural workers. Arab and Ottoman artists, visiting the studios of Western painters, partly encouraged the cultural exchange between East and West, but while some Western styles and techniques were introduced, their paintings appear to give rise to a figure of contemporary womanhood that was closer to reality and which is represented with renewed sensitivity. The same female figures that emerged at the beginning of the 20th century as the protagonists in Gustave Klimt’s decorative schemes interwoven with gold and polychrome tiles were derived from Byzantine mosaics.","quote":"International Exhibitions began to focus more on social issues."},"04c88dc0-5f52-5d3b-b94d-9c450ad11c58":{"title":"Foreign affairs","description":"Egyptian foreign policy is characterised by plurality and conflict due to the difference of interests among the countries of the region. Egypt has been and remains a key player politically in the Arab region, and has also taken a decisive lead culturally both in the arts and media. Egyptian foreign policy concerning the African continent has been cautious, but the African Levant was important to leaders of the 23 July Revolution of 1952.  \n  \nThe French campaign in Egypt raised awareness among the population of the need for the restoration of their heritage and a return to their glorious civilization according to modern tenets. This was the dream that Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha, the *Wali* of Egypt, turned into reality when he declared Egypt’s independence from the Ottoman Empire and escalated Egypt’s scientific, cultural and economic relations with Europe. In doing this ‘Ali Pasha was able to establish a powerful nation, although in turn Egypt’s success threatened the empires that existed during the period. For this reason Britain occupied Egypt and the country remained under British rule until 1954, despite the unilateral declaration of Egyptian independence of 1922."},"06e2b161-1f15-5d64-a574-9e389e995e1a":{"title":"The birth of archaeology","description":"The 19th century saw the birth of systematic archaeology. Europeans searched for their cultural roots at home and abroad. New fields of study were created: classical archaeology, Egyptology, Assyriology, and biblical archaeology.  \n  \nExcavations in the Arab and Ottoman world were fundamental. A growing appreciation of pre-classical art broke the monopoly that Greek art had previously held on the public taste.  \n  \nArchaeology and colonialism were inescapably connected. French and Italian soldiers identified with their Roman imperial predecessors. They drew maps, published discoveries in scholarly papers, and used aeroplanes for a new type of archaeological survey.  \n  \nGermany advised the Ottomans on a new railway, opening new areas for archaeology. But were the archaeologists also spying? T. E. Lawrence “of Arabia”, recruited by British military intelligence, encouraged the Arab Revolt."},"08f89789-e76f-5a27-ace3-8110bec67e0f":{"title":"The birth of Romania","description":"The institutional and administrative unification of Moldavia and Wallachia under the same ruler, with the recognition of the Ottoman Empire, was achieved by the Romanian political elite between 1859 and 1861. Several years later the next important objective, the independence of the new state, which was called Romania, was also attained. Then, at the beginning of the 20th century a consolidated Romania, which had become a kingdom in 1881, added to its territory southern Dobruja, which belonged to Bulgaria, after getting involved in the second Balkan War. Finally, the creation of Romania was completed after World War I, when the provinces of Banat, Bukovina, Transylvania, Partium and Bessarabia united with the Romanian Kingdom following the disintegration of Austro-Hungary and tsarist Russia."},"0bf3ccf8-5c5f-574f-a03c-eaed66b90f8d":{"title":"Imperialism as an obstacle to a renaissance","description":"At the dawn of modern times, the former, ancient Hafsid Ifriqiya, now an Ottoman province, opens up vis-à-vis the Ottoman Orient and the European Occident. This is a time when, as the power of the central government in Istanbul is crumbling and the authority of the Turkish metropolis is weakening, the dynasty of the Husaynid beys in the Regency of Tunis is consolidated. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, the Husaynid beys act as both reformers and builders. Tunis, the capital of the regency, now secure, saw an influx of European commerce: Italian, Genoese, Leghorn Jews ... then English and French ... settled there. But the regency fanned once again the greed of possessive European powers, France in particular.","extra":{"remark":"Imperialism as an obstacle to a renaissance"}},"0c32b757-fae5-51ab-bb4d-023a986fedd2":{"title":"Historical Profile / Saudi Arabia","extra":{"hb_type":"country"}},"0d51bd80-a9c8-585a-96a8-911b8ae8d9f5":{"title":"Mamluk revival","description":"The Mamluks ruled Egypt and Syria for three centuries until the Ottoman conquest of 1517. It is considered a glorious period when sultans commissioned lavish architectural projects, encouraged the production of fine artworks, and turned Cairo into a prosperous cosmopolitan centre. From the middle of the 19th century, this past was central to the artistic inspiration known as the Mamluk revival. The rediscovery of an indigenous legacy was used to establish a nationalistic “Arab style”, where the Mamluk repertoire was perceived as the classical vocabulary. As original artefacts were collected, craftsmen used techniques such as inlaid metalwork or enamelled glass to make modern interpretations, which they applied to traditional or European-inspired prototypes such as furniture.","quote":"The art of the Mamluks inspired both Europe and the Middle East."},"0d6a1796-1c65-528a-b375-c1a9ffc51627":{"title":"Migrations within the Ottoman Empire","description":"From the 16th to the late 18th century, the conquests of the Ottoman Empire resulted in continuous migratory flows through its ever-expanding lands. Between 1790 and 1923, 7 million people left their homelands due to the constant conflicts between a weakening empire and European powers on one side and indigenous people struggling for freedom and self-determination on the other. The independence of Greece in 1829, Romania in 1856, Bulgaria in 1878, followed by Bosnia, Herzegovina, Crete and, in 1913, Macedonia, Thrace and most of the Aegean islands, led to the exodus of many – Muslim and Christian, Greek, Albanian, Armenian, Arab, Kurd, Circassian and Turk – seeking a safer and more prosperous future elsewhere. But not all migration in the empire was triggered by conflict, and seasonal migration was common among many mountain people and nomads in the region."},"0eae66db-d5ca-5b6f-a116-8e7643a51538":{"title":"Railways","description":"The first successful project to build a railway locomotive was in the UK in 1811. In the following decades, railways spread across Europe and the Arab and Ottoman world. The development of steel production technology in the 19th century not only helped in manufacturing viable steel rails but also enabled engineers to construct much larger bridges. Steel’s high tensile strength made both rails and bridges safer and more durable. Railways eased contacts between Europe and the Arab and Ottoman world and their construction influenced not only trade and travel, but also social life. Railways were either a symbol of industrialisation or, especially in the Arab and Ottoman world, an expression of political, administrative, military and fiscal reforms, as well as an attempt to safeguard independence from the European presence by introducing local industry and infrastructure. At the same time, the railways built by European firms were an innovation promoted autonomously and a means of strategic control as part of the colonial infrastructure.","quote":"Railway transport was an outstanding monument to industrialisation. For the first time travelling was made fast and comfortable. For industry it connected sources of raw materials to industrial centres."},"0efd2c14-96c0-59c8-a1ae-ad91adff5cc4":{"title":"Read more"},"0fb47da8-0396-56b9-8dea-c552fc44edf9":{"title":"Revolutions and wars","description":"During the modern era, Egypt witnessed several wars in which Egyptians were ordered to battle by the Ottoman Sultan. Egyptians fought in the Wahhabi Wars (1811–18) and in the Greek War of Independence (1821–32). In addition, Egyptians fought at the request of the Khedive of Egypt Muhammad ‘Ali, whose expansionist ambitions provoked wars in Sudan and the Levant. Egyptian forces also participated in wars during the reigns of Muhammad ‘Ali’s successors, some of which were fought in order to support the Ottoman Sultans at the Topkapı Palace, or to put down revolts that took place in other areas under Ottoman rule. Other wars were fought to support France in Mexico and to support expansion into Sudan, the latter of which resulted in tense relations between Egypt and Abyssinia, leading to a war between them, and the expansion of Egypt into East Africa.  \n  \nEgyptian forces also supported Palestine and Arabism, by participating with Arab forces in an attempt to bring down the Zionists in 1948. The Egyptian Army continued to defend Egyptian lands during the wars of 1956, 1967 and 1973."},"118184dd-3d6f-5850-b875-de8f1a6d34b7":{"title":"Traders and craftsmen","description":"Many economic migrants within the Ottoman empire were traders, artisans, craftsmen and skilled labourers looking for reliable patronage and a more prosperous future. Although officially the Ottoman government sought to restrict people’s individual movement and often directed it, many succeeded in seeking their fortunes away from their homelands. Beyond the capital Constantinople, many headed for the most dynamic, quasi-independent courts in the 19th century to seek business or work for the ruling elite. Architects, construction workers, wood and stucco workers, potters, jewellers and calligraphers were among those leaving home to find work elsewhere, and much of the architecture and material culture that survives in the region today attests to their presence all over the Arab and Ottoman world.","quote":"Professional skills and knowledge help to consolidate links between people and civilisations."},"11ac9fb6-be0a-532a-80c2-ff2cce1cd3f4":{"title":"Independent state (1878–1918)","description":"After the Berlin Congress in 1878, Serbia obtained territorial expansion and independence. In 1881, political parties were introduced in Serbia. Also in 1881, the Principality of Serbia obtained the status of a monarchy and it became the Kingdom of Serbia, of which Milan Obrenović became its first king. In 1903, there was a military coup and the Karađorđević Dynasty returned to power. Between 1912 and 1913, Serbia participated in two Balkan Wars. After these wars, Turkish domination in the Balkans ended and Serbia expanded its territory. In 1914, the Kingdom of Serbia entered World War I and fought against Austria-Hungary, Germany and their Allies (the so-called Central powers). At the end of World War I, in 1918, Serbia became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (the Kingdom of Yugoslavia from 1929)."},"11bf2b06-720d-53bc-bf0e-b812ac17715e":{"title":"Flying devices and planes","description":"The dream of flying became a reality in the 19th and the first quarter of the 20th centuries. As early as 1853 a passenger-carrying glider was built successfully. The first steam-powered craft was built in 1894. This was closely followed by the achievements of the Wright brothers in 1903. With the invention of steam and internal combustion engines it became possible to control flight in devices heavier than the air. As with every other technological invention, flying devices were put to use in military actions. The first country to use them was Italy during the Italian–Turkish war in 1911–12. The beautiful dream of flying became a nightmare for some. World War 1 served as a test arena for aeroplanes.","quote":"Humanity dreamed of flying since its dawn; 19th century inventions made that possible."},"1282f991-d34d-5b88-9294-65b755ae7bd3":{"title":"Political background","description":"From 1798 to 1939 Spain abandoned the *ancien regime*: political factions, sometimes led by the military, fought for power in a deteriorating economic situation. In the meantime, the country suffered three civil dynastic wars and, looking for lost prestige, was involved in international conflicts in North Africa, America and Asia.  \n  \nAfter a successful coup (*pronunciamiento*), the politicians in government tried to implement their reforms within the Constitution and between 1812 and 1876 five constitutions were proclaimed. The Bourbon Royal family’s prestige had suffered so they were removed from the throne, but after a failed king and a republic they were reinstated.  \n  \nMost politicians belonged to one of two parties, either liberal or conservative. A façade of democracy was established and the country could attempt to develop. Moving into the 20th century new political forces – trade unions, nationalism, republicans – appeared on the political scene and upset the system. The Restoration crisis led to a new civil war in 1936."},"1321ebbd-54e2-5dc1-b98f-2463cd725227":{"title":"Work","description":"The 19th century saw a great upheaval in the way work was ordered in Europe as a result of technological revolution, and a new way of organising society emerged. Ever-increasing numbers of factory workers organised into trade unions to protest against working conditions. European women from the least privileged social classes worked in the fields, in factories or in domestic service. It was not until the end of the century that poor children started to go to school instead of to work.  \n  \nIn the Arab and Ottoman world, where industrialisation was less advanced, traditional professions professions – primarily in the hands of men – continued to exist. Very few women worked in urban professions, but many were involved in trade and commerce or were active in agriculture. In regions under European control, the local labour force was exploited, poorly paid and had limited rights. Trade unions were set up relatively late, since the workers took a long time to organise."},"1389af47-089d-58fd-af54-d9e1a8242882":{"title":"The Great Arab Revolt","description":"Increasing political and economic pressure from the Western colonial powers during the 19th century contributed to the administrative breakdown of the Ottoman Empire and to its economic decline. Consequently the quality of Ottoman rule began to deteriorate. Distant regions seceded to form independent states and they started to challenge the legitimacy of the sultans. This was accentuated by the coming of the “Young Turks” to power in 1908 whose nationalistic policies aroused Arab fears and resentment. On 9 June 1916 the Grand Sharif of Mecca, Husayn ibn ‘Ali, encouraged by the UK, declared the Great Arab Revolt against the Turks in exchange for British support of the independence of the Arab countries in western Asia (Greater Syria and Iraq) and the creation of an Arab kingdom with Sharif Husayn as the king of the Arabs.","extra":{"image_captions":{"mwnf3_sharing_history:sh_countries_historicalbackground_images:20":{"en":{"name":"The Great Arab Revolt Plaza","location":"Aqaba, Jordan"}}}}},"14483bf6-e6bb-55af-beaa-7d7ce46f3dfc":{"title":"First Saudi State","description":"The First Saudi State was established in 1744 when leader Sheikh Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab settled in Dir‘iyya (in central Saudi Arabia or the Najd region) and Prince Muhammad ibn Saud agreed to support and espouse his cause, with a view to cleansing the Islamic faith from distortions. The House of Saud with other allies rose to become the dominant state in Arabia controlling most of it: the First Saudi State lasted for about 75 years.  \n  \nConcerned at the growing power of the Saudis, the Ottoman Sultan instructed Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha to re-conquer the area. ‘Ali sent his son Ibrahim Pasha, who was successful in routing the Saudi (Wahhabi) forces in 1817. It would be only a few years before the Sauds would return to power, forming the Second Saudi State.  \n  \n**Rulers of the First Saudi State:**  \n–Imam Muhammad bin Saud (1726–65)  \n–Imam ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn Muhammad ibn Saud (1765–1803)  \n–Imam Saud ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn Muhammad ibn Saud (Saud al-Kabir) (1803–14)  \n–Imam Abdallah ibn Saud (1814–18)"},"14de464f-3c92-51f7-b8ab-e4e0731e43b7":{"title":"Syrian pilgrimage route","description":"By the 16th century all the territories bound to Islam were gathered under the authority of a religious and political chief, the Ottoman sultan. For almost 400 years Jordan was part of the Ottoman Empire, the most powerful state known in the Islamic world since the time of the early Arab Caliphate. Often the Ottomans provided good government to areas that had previously suffered from chaos and dislocation. At the beginning, the main interest of the Ottomans in the territories to the east of the River Jordan lay in the fact that these lands were the most convenient land link with the holy sanctuaries of Islam in Mecca and Medina. Along the pilgrimage route fortresses to guard the route and caravanserais were built to facilitate the journey of pilgrims to the most holy places of Islam.","extra":{"image_captions":{"mwnf3_sharing_history:sh_countries_historicalbackground_images:16":{"en":{"date":"Hegira 937 / AD 1531","name":"Qatrana Fortress","location":"Qatrana, Jordan"}},"mwnf3_sharing_history:sh_countries_historicalbackground_images:17":{"en":{"date":"Hegira early 10th century / AD 16th century","name":"Dhab'a Fortress","location":"Dhab'a, Jordan"}},"mwnf3_sharing_history:sh_countries_historicalbackground_images:18":{"en":{"date":"Hegira 1142–5 / AD 1730–33","name":"Mudawwara","location":"Mudawwara, Jordan"}}}}},"17705e0e-2cf1-586f-b705-94995d37c129":{"title":"Christian pilgrimage","description":"Over the centuries, Christians the world over have set out to visit the cradle of their faith in Palestine or – as they reverently call it – the Holy Land. In the 19th century, the region, with its numerous sacred locations and cities – Jerusalem most important among them – formed part of the Ottoman Empire. Improved transport links and communications networks, as well as a favourable political climate and the relative tolerance of the Ottomans towards foreigners and religious minorities, now meant that the European faithful and visitors from elsewhere felt free to explore the region. According to their respective denomination, the purpose for the journey might vary from ritual pilgrimage to pious edification and contemplation. Indigenous Christian communities across the Middle East and North Africa, meanwhile, continued to maintain their own diverse traditions and they, too, would visit Palestine as well as many other spiritually significant places in the region.","quote":"“As I make my slow pilgrimage through the world, a certain sense of beautiful mystery seems to gather and grow.” (A. C. Benson)"},"17d4d9ff-a2aa-56ff-af1c-4f5dc3ea3176":{"title":"Rediscovering the Past","description":"The 19th century was when we learned to understand our place in today’s world by studying the past.\n\nCultural connections between Europe and the Arab and Ottoman world were nothing new. The Mediterranean had always served as a bridge and not a barrier between Europe, North Africa and Asia. But the intensity of the renewed interactions of the 19th century was unprecedented. The process would change everyone it touched significantly and irreversibly.  \n  \nAs the 19th century opened, study of the past was in the hands of amateurs: diplomats, soldiers and travellers. Expert surveyors mapped the location of ancient sites and made plans of their ruins. At the turn of the 20th century, professional scholars deployed new tools and techniques in pursuit of newly defined fields; members of scholarly bodies, they published their findings in dedicated journals. Air force pilots, in the course of their duties and independently, took aerial photos of sites.  \n  \nEuropeans marvelled at the pyramids, at the desert city of Petra and at the discovery of fabled Troy. They flocked to museums to see the mummies and other finds from ancient sites. Their fascination with the exotic “East” grew with each new discovery.  \n  \nThe growing interest of foreign visitors stimulated awareness in the Arab and Ottoman world of the significance of their cultural heritage. This was seen as both a source of national pride as well as a valuable asset, as income from tourism. As a consequence of tourism, institutions were established to preserve and display the monuments and finds and ensure the sustainability of the heritage sites.  \n  \nCuration of the finds from archaeological explorations had been in European collections. Throughout the 19th and into the early 20th century, museums were founded in Turkey, North Africa and the Arab world, in a variety of circumstances. Museums were founded in Algiers (1838), Cairo (1861), Istanbul and Beirut (both 1868) and Tunis (1888). New regulations controlled excavations and directed the flow of finds to local institutions.\n\nJonathan Taylor  \nThe British Museum, London, United Kingdom  \n  \nFouad Mahdaoui  \nMinistry of Culture, Directorate for Cultural Heritage,  \nRabat, Morocco(Contributor)  \n  \n**Copyeditor(s)**  \n  \nMandi Gomez  \nLondon, United Kingdom","extra":{"bibliography":{"en":["Atil, Esin *et al.*, *Voyages and Visions: Nineteenth Century European Images of the Middle East from the Victoria and Albert Museum*, London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 1995.","Córdoba, Joaquín María, *La aventura española en Oriente (1166–2006): viajeros, museos y estudiosos en la historia del redescubrimiento del Oriente Próximo Antiguo*, Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura, 2006.","Córdoba, Joaquín María, *The Spanish Near Eastern Adventure (1166–2006): Travellers, Museums and Scholars in the History of the Rediscovering of the Ancient Near East*, Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura, 2006.","Fontan, Elisabeth, *De Khorsabad à Paris: la découverte des Assyriens*, Paris: Réunion des musées nationaux, 1994.","Larsen, Mogens Trolle, *The Conquest of Assyria: Excavations in an Antique Land, 1840–1860*, London: Routledge, 1996.","Llewellyn, Briony, *The Orient Observed: Images of the Middle East from the Searight Collection*, London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 1989.","Milwright, Marcus, *An Introduction to Islamic Archaeology*, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2010.","Shaw, Wendy, *Possessors and Possessed: Museums, Archaeology, and the Visualization of History in the Late Ottoman Empire*, Berkeley, CA et al: University of California Press, 2003.","Trümpler, Charlotte, *Das grosse Spiel: Archäologie und Politik zur Zeit des Kolonialismus (1860–1940)*, Ditzingen: DuMont, 2008.","Akurgal, Ekrem, *Ancient Civilisations and Ruins of Turkey*, İstanbul: Net Turistik Publications, 2001."]},"legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","new_status":"N","project_id":"AWE"}}},"19019623-d365-5a4b-9351-45ecceba1248":{"title":"The official showcase of the nations","description":"As the official image of the Universal Exhibitions was related to aspects that were designed to legitimise the choices of the organisers (economic relations, educational missions and demonstrations of power), it is not surprising that the preferred locations to host these events were capital cities. From the first exhibition held in London in 1851, the extraordinary potential of these initiatives was immediately obvious from the number of visitors the event attracted. Celebrations of significant events were other factors that guided the choice as to which city would host the next exhibition: the opening of the Suez Canal in Cairo (1869), the centenary of the French Revolution in Paris (1889), the centenary of the Declaration of Independence in Philadelphia (1876) and the discovery of the Americas in Chicago (1893). As relations between Europe and the Arab World intensified during the 19th century, exchanges between the two cultures became ever more complex, not just materially in terms of the arts and architecture, but also in terms of relations between peoples."},"1b376278-5538-5527-8dcc-7d8dbc61d618":{"title":"Artists travelling in the “Orient”","description":"Artists travelling to the Arab and Ottoman world went there in search of light, colour and picturesque, exotic scenes. Many, having read the fanciful accounts of their contemporaries’ travels then tried to recreate their Orientalist fantasies, by now firmly embedded in the European imagination, in images. The foremost aim of many artists was to cater for the growing and profitable market created by a thirst for depictions of a distant, alluring world that promised an escape from the restrictions of conventional life in Europe; a world of romance, sensual allure and danger. Even though some artists spent many years in the Ottoman Empire and North Africa, their exposure to the realities of local life, and indeed their interest in it, often remained extremely limited; only a few endeavoured to relay an accurate, sympathetic image of the cultures among which they moved. Others, indeed, had never physically travelled to the region at all, but created their Orientalist scenes inspired exclusively by the works of others in an attempt to capitalise on the near-insatiable European appetite for the “exotic”. Their images joined the many others that did much to distort Europeans’ ideas about the East.","quote":"Most European travellers to the “Orient” – artists foremost among them – did not see and record things the way they were but the way they saw them."},"1ca83fc6-4861-5186-8e3b-b345ca2d3d3f":{"title":"New building types, new designs and architectural alterations","description":"Industrial and technical developments presented challenges that brought huge changes to 19th- and early 20th-century societies. This provided architects, as creators of structures in the built environment, with new tasks to create building types that would meet the needs of the modern age, greatly altering the urban web as well. The presence of European communities in the Arab and Ottoman world altered the languages of both urban and landscape architecture.  \n  \nTraditional Islamic city-construction had focused on religious-pious buildings, such as mosques, mosque complexes and other devotional edifices, but in the 19th century new private and public buildings in the Western style marked the changing times. The railways that connected far-away lands were represented by magnificent railway stations, high-tech constructions that celebrated the materialism, technical innovations and achievements of the era: the Bourse signalled the new age of the money markets, harbours were built to accommodate trade and commerce; the post office pointed to modern communications; Western-type hotels were built for tourists and other buildings housed migrants who had settled in particular areas; council officials directed city life from municipal buildings; and museums, opera houses and theatres were constructed to serve a new institutionalised culture and to transmit the collective memory. New types of hospitals and military buildings emerged, as did public clocks and clock towers, which not only provided citizens with a reference to the time but helped to orientate them as well in the ever-growing city.","quote":"When part of the urban structure undergoes change it is a challenge to retain or to create a well proportioned visual harmony and maintain the coherent use of space."},"1d44571b-6eba-55dc-9f55-e016a6be399c":{"title":"Rights of workers and trade unions","description":"Throughout the 19th century, European workers fought relentlessly for improved working conditions including rest days, shorter working hours and no child labour. As a result, trade unions were set up all over Europe to defend these rights, using various methods, from destroying tools (for example, in England), strikes, and dialogue with owners and government (for example, in Germany). Strikes were sometimes broken by force. International Workers Day commemorates such violent confrontations. European governments gradually accepted the presence of trade unions, with certain reservations. In France, trade unions were authorised by the Waldeck-Rousseau law (1884), although civil servants were excluded. In British and French colonies and protectorates, trade unions were only legally authorised after World War I. French predominance, for example, prevented Tunisia from applying the 1884 legislation.","quote":"“The realm of liberty begins only where work that is determined by need ceases.” Karl Marx"},"1e979c01-8558-57f6-b082-94e1239a1a6b":{"title":"Ballet","description":"In the 19th century, the art of dance developed into a combination of virtuosity and dramatic storytelling. The influence of Romanticism and the European fascination for the “Orient” were expressed in the choice of “Oriental” themes that included the Orientalist elements of the mystical, exotic and the irrational. The French ballet dancer Marius Petipa (1818‒1910), who was chief ballet master of the Imperial Theatre at St. Petersburg from 1869 to 1903, created a series of ballets in the Orientalist style that included *The Daughter of the Pharaoh* (Egypt), *Le Roi Candaule* and *Le Corsaire* (Turkey) and *La Bayadère* (India). The Russian choreographer Mikhail Fokine (1880‒1942) and his ballets for the Ballet Russes *Cleopatre*, *Les Orientales* and *Scheherazade* are further examples of “story ballets” in this vein. Needless to say, however, none of these works reflect any desire to relate ethnographic knowledge; rather they are the result of Western imagination and stereotyping.","quote":"“In the ballet the whole meaning of the story can be expressed by the dance.… The dance should explain the spirit of the actors in the spectacle. More than that, it should express the whole epoch to which the subject of the ballet belongs.” (Mikhail Fokine)"},"1f123df9-1e8c-522c-833c-709f517c53f5":{"title":"Great Inventions of the 19th Century","description":"Revolutionary achievements in all fields of communication and other technologies reshaped the relations between Europe and Arab and Ottoman lands.\n\nFor many centuries, the Ottoman and Arab lands were at the forefront of human civilisation and achievement in arts, sciences, philosophy, military skills and technology. Until the 18th century, the inhabitants of the region were certain that beyond the borders of Islam, especially in Western Europe, there were only “worthless barbarians”. As a result, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment and the technological revolution in Europe passed them by unnoticed.  \n  \nBy the end of the 18th century the ideas of the French Revolution, the incursion of Napoleon’s French expeditionary forces in 1798 and the three-year occupation of Egypt and Syria, which clearly demonstrated the technological, administrative and scientific supremacy of France, opened the eyes of the Ottoman state and its subjects in the Arab world to the new realities. This encounter made the ruling elite aware that all was not well in their countries. A sense of inferiority to the technological accomplishments, powerful nation states, and economic and military power of the West had developed. The reforming rulers focused on the visible military and economic expression of European power, while the underlying cultural and sociopolitical foundation of European power was ignored.  \n  \nThis urge for modernisation started at least half a century before colonialism. Modern technologies were adapted by hiring expertise or sending young people to be trained and educated in the West, but, most of all, by transferring the final products of the technological and scientific revolution: steamships, railways, tramways, electricity, telegraph and other postal services. This exchange in the context of the relations between the European and Arab and Ottoman lands and the dynamics of the 19th century deepened the political and economic dependency of the Arab and Ottoman lands on Europe, which led eventually to their colonisation in the second part of the 19th century.\n\nMohammad Najjar  \nAmman, Jordan  \n  \nShireen Gaber  \nBibliotheca Alexandrina, Cairo, Egypt  \n  \nMaria Francesca Carvelli  \nRome, Italy(Contributor)  \n  \nWith contributions from  \nNational Museum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia  \n  \n**Copyeditor(s)**  \n  \nMonica Allen  \nLondon, United Kingdom","extra":{"bibliography":{"en":["Hourani, Albert, *A History of the Arab Peoples*, London: Faber, 1991.","Said, Edward W., *Orientalism*, London: Vintage, 1978.","Ben-Srhir, Khalid, *Britain and Morocco during the Embassy of John Drummond Hay, 1845–1886*, tr. by Malcolm Williams and Gavin Waterson, London: Routledge, 2005.","Burke, Edmund, III, *Prelude to Protectorate in Morocco: Precolonial Protest and Resistance, 1860–1912*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976.","Issawi, Charles, *The Fertile Crescent 1800–1914. A Documentary Economic History*, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.","Jayyusi, Salma K. (gen. ed.) with Renata Holod et al. (special eds), *The City in the Islamic World*, vol. 1 (2 vols). Handbook of Oriental Studies: “The Near and Middle East”, vol. 94/1, Boston and Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2008.","Philip, Thomas, and Schaebler, Birgit (eds), *The Syrian Land: Processes of Integration and Fragmentation*, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1998.","Behdad, Ali, and Gartlan, Luke (eds), *Photography's Orientalism: New Essays on Colonial Representation*, Los Angeles: Getty Publications, Series Issues & Debates, 2013."]},"legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","new_status":"N","project_id":"AWE"}}},"2094f1cf-b678-5347-8cdd-d16515f3c8f9":{"title":"Studying sites","description":"The process of planning a building or an urban context begins with the study of every aspect of the site: its environment and climate, research into locally available materials, knowledge of the local cultural, economic and historical contexts, and surveys that detail the needs of the community, including individuals and public entities. This knowledge helps to inform the construction methods and features of the urban plan or design of a building. When studying the built environment, therefore, examination of the local context and the impact it had on the wider area are fundamental elements, because from this, information about the scientific and technical knowledge of a society and its cultural and social life become apparent. Different historical periods connect with different urban patterns and architecture. Knowledge about these can be gained from archaeological finds, plans and maps or other representations of a city and can either depict or help restore the image of urban space, a building or monument, or even an entire city.","quote":"Studying the site of a proposed construction is an important element of building design ‒ studying the built environment, therefore, provides information about the social, economic and cultural life of past societies."},"21bcf135-ed6e-5443-8cc6-a880a0c462e2":{"title":"Identity","description":"Urban sites and architecture embody the socio-cultural identity of a society. They contain symbolic and historical messages as well as material content. One of the main messages embodied in the 19th-century architecture and urban design in Arab and Ottoman lands is the cultural, economic, political and military presence of the European “Great Powers”, and as the environments inhabited by European communities there expressed the European lifestyle and identity they should also be considered as tools of political-national propaganda. At the same time, local architects utilised the architectural language and aesthetic of Western architecture as symbols of national modernity while the presence of the local Arab and Ottoman architectural languages and traditions as well as locally adapted alterations also confirmed and underlined the national identities of the Arab and Ottoman world.","quote":"A city’s architecture reflects the culture and ethnicity of its inhabitants and holds clues about their social and economic state; it tells of their relationship with the past and reveals how they meet the challenges of their present as well."},"2353a4ff-1dd5-5807-9b96-c146b09485c2":{"title":"Migrations","description":"Since time immemorial, the phenomenon of migration has always existed. Despite the tragedy it may involve, it is not only a simple movement of people but also a transfer of histories and of knowledge.\n\nWhy do people migrate? The causes and reasons for migrating are manifold, but the main factors are political and economic. History shows us that there are two major types of migration: forced migration and voluntary migration. Indeed, they coexist and are particularly interlinked with one another.  \n  \nThe three centuries of Ottoman supremacy represent the golden age of the privateering war at sea. Muslim and Christian privateers battled relentlessly in the Mediterranean to take captives who served as bargaining chips or as a labour force. In 1816, the English expedition led by Lord Exmouth sounded the death knell for privateering in the Mediterranean. The powerful Ottoman Empire had some 50 provinces in Europe, Asia and Africa, stretching from the Balkans to North Africa, including the Middle East and Egypt. As a crossroad of diverse influences, the empire inherited a long tradition of migration and transit. From the 16th century it began taking in and integrating different communities from east and west and sent out streams of migrants in different directions. The collapse of the empire following World War I in particular triggered mass movements.  \n  \nIn the 19th century, migratory flows from north to south became more significant and commonplace: the migration of political refugees, especially Italians; economic migration, facilitated by geographical proximity, which offered a second chance to improve living conditions; and migration related to colonisation (officials, soldiers, settlers, entrepreneurs etc.).  \n  \nDespite the human tragedy caused by migration, migrants have helped to reshape the society of their host countries demographically, socioculturally and economically.\n\nSaloua Zangar  \nTunis, Tunisia  \n  \nGiulia Barrera  \nDirectorate General of Archives, Rome, Italy  \n  \n**Copyeditor(s)**  \n  \nMonica Allen  \nLondon, United Kingdom","extra":{"bibliography":{"en":["Brown, L. Carl, *The Tunisia of Ahmed Bey*, 1837–1855, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1974.","Clancy-Smith, Julia, *Mediterraneans: North Africa and Europe in an Age of Migration, c. 1800–1900*, Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2011.","Guellouz, Azzedine, Ahmed Masmoudi, Mongi Smida and Ahmed Saadaoui, *Histoire générale de la Tunisie, Tome3, Les temps modernes*, Tunis: Sud Editions, 2007.","Kasaba, Reşat, *A Moveable Empire: Ottoman Nomads, Migrants, and Refugees*, Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 2009.","Ness, Immanuel (ed.), *The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration*, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.","Panzac, Daniel, *Les Corsaires barbaresques, la fin d'une épopée, 1800–1820*, Paris: CNRS éditions, 1999.","Pendola, M., *Gli italiani di Tunisia: storia di una comunità (XIX-XX secolo)*, Foligno: Editoriale Umbra, 2007.","Revault, Jacques, *Palais et Demeures de Tunis, XVIIIe et XIXe siècles*, Paris: CNRS éditions, 1983.","Sebag, Paul, *Tunis, histoire d'une ville, Collection Histoire et perspectives méditerranéennes*, Paris: L’Harmattan, 1998.","Van der Steen, Eveline, *Near Eastern Tribal Societies During the Nineteenth Century: Economy, Society and Politics Between Tent and Town*, London: Acumen Publishing, 2013."]},"legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","new_status":"N","project_id":"AWE"}}},"23e8e7cf-d131-5661-a26b-0af7cfaf71d2":{"title":"Studio photography (portraits)","description":"Studio photographers appeared after the period of the travelling photographers. The studios held a crucial importance for them. There were remarkable professional daguerreotype studios in the 1840s and 1850s in Istanbul, Algeria and Egypt, including the studios of Alary and Geiser, Antonio Beato, Pascal Sébah and Abdullah Frères. Popularity of the professional studios became widespread primarily because close-ups shots of people were required. For Westerners, women from the East were a popular theme in studio photography. As local female models were difficult to find in the Ottoman and Arab world, foreign female models, and sometimes even male models, dressed up in local styles. Studio photographers exposed the East to a Western audience using fictionalised scenes.","quote":"In the mid-19th century in Istanbul, in Pera (Grand Rue de Pera), which was known as the most western street in the Ottoman Empire, the first photographic studios began to open."},"2408a113-cd78-5be3-9b98-dd994e43fe55":{"title":"Financing trade","description":"European industrialisation and the subsequent expansion of international trade across the Mediterranean and into all regions of North Africa and the Middle East soon required many regional rulers and governments to implement costly economic and monetary reforms in order to try to meet the challenge of ever greater European economic and therefore political penetration and interference. With government budgets increasingly inadequate to cover the costs of reform, European finance institutions were called upon to provide ever more loans, often granted on unfavourable terms. In many countries, debts accumulated to such a degree that state bankruptcy had to be declared, a state of affairs that not only enabled European powers to take direct financial control but also gave them the pretext for projects aimed at imperialist occupation and colonialisation. Meanwhile, British imperialism was incorporating areas such as the Arab-Persian Gulf into its regional, India-based finance and currency systems."},"2427ec1e-0f3d-5fb5-8620-b0fedb42fe0b":{"title":"Islamic archaeology","description":"European focus was on the peoples who could be claimed as ancestors of the Europeans: Greece as ancestor and role model, the Middle East for its biblical relevance. Islamic sites drew less attention.  \n  \nIn Spain, the Islamic past was valued as a part of the national heritage, and was something that set Spain’s identity apart from that of other European nations. Study of Islamic art and archaeology had already begun there in the 18th century.  \n  \nThe fine quality of materials and workmanship made Middle Eastern artefacts desirable. Growing appreciation of Islamic art made this subject one of the new professional fields studied. But archaeology lagged behind. The foundations were laid in work at Fustat (Egypt) and German excavations at Samarra 1910–13 under Friedrich Sarre and Ernst Herzfeld.","quote":"Spain’s Islamic heritage was a key part of its modern identity."},"243dad0a-448e-5b25-b9bd-6d85dd21b07a":{"title":"West and East, fine art at International Exhibitions","description":"Certainties about the future, based on industrial development and a belief in progress that underpinned the International Exhibitions, did not stop artists, writers, intellectuals or members of the emerging bourgeoisie from looking to the “East” as a place of longing, beauty and inspiration, while the increase in trade enabled more people to own refined and unusual objects. Romantic thought, moreover, tended to search for a distant dimension, both in time, recalling previous historical periods, and space, in the search for the “exotic”. The principles of realism, which were dominant in the mid-19th century, pervaded both trends in different ways. The International Exhibitions appear in general to have excluded cutting-edge artistic expression, which was found in less institutional spaces such as the Salons. There were nonetheless frequent exchanges between the two, and the International Exhibitions reflected the issues of the time to differing degrees."},"243e71ae-ca9b-5604-84f3-6f20f2952ec3":{"title":"A little-known story: Italian workers in Tunisia","description":"Many Italians immigrated to Tunisia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The first migratory wave comprised many professionals and traders, often Jews from Livorno in Tuscany. Mass migration of poor peasants and workers from Sicily began in the second half of the 19th century, alongside the to-and-fro movement of seasonal workers such as miners from Sardinia. In 1881, the number of Italians in Tunisia was just over 11,000 (72 per cent from Sicily); they formed more than half of the European population in Tunisia, a proportion significantly higher than that of the French community, which counted only 708 individuals. In 1921, a French census registered almost 85,000 Italians in Tunisia, a figure many historians believe to lie below the actual total of around 90,000–100,000.","quote":"In the 19th and early 20th centuries, thousands of Italians preferred immigrating to North Africa rather than going all the way to America."},"24886656-d708-5839-9d18-301fa1b5341e":{"title":"The image of the city","description":"As cities are built by and for human civilisations, thus socio-economic and cultural changes in society leave evidence of their impact on the forms and types of public and private spaces contained within them. These sites, individual buildings and their connections ‒ the streets, squares, parks and gardens ‒ embody messages about the life of individuals as well as the collective community. As centres for the dissemination of knowledge and science and where culture, trade, commerce, power and poverty are diffused, the density of sites for worship are concentrated more in urban formations than they are in rural settlements.  \n  \nThe period spanning the 19th century to the early 20th century is a milestone in Arab‒Ottoman and European interaction: as a fast-changing modern Europe was emerging, so methods, materials and techniques from there were introduced to the Arab and Ottoman world. This encounter significantly changed the appearance of Arab and Ottoman cities; in some instances creating so-called colonial architecture built by European architects employing their own architectural languages, or architecture built by local architects that absorbed a selection of local traditions and interpreted Western architectural vocabulary to suit the local tradition. In line with this, an indigenous architectural modernity was introduced to Arab and Ottoman cities that applied Western styles and techniques to local traditions."},"25a33c9e-c425-55c3-9295-49666de31fe8":{"title":"Photos of the “Orient”","description":"With the development of the daguerreotype in 1839 a relatively simple method of recording pictures was invented. The new technique – due to its unprecedented potential to record important events and encounters relatively instantly – was soon widely disseminated and used in a range of circumstances. Travellers, too, benefitted from this new technology; many – whether diplomats, scientists, explorers, early elite tourists, or indeed, artists – accumulated a large body of photos during their sojourns in the Arab and Ottoman world. Shots could be purely documentary, like the first ever panorama of Istanbul taken in May 1854, but others – most popular from the second half of the 19th century onwards – captured ethnographic subjects and “exotic” types to satisfy the Western interest in “Oriental” society and the “Other”. Curiosity, fascination, imagination and voyeurism drove some photographers; others created images driven by an imperialist ideology, designed to assure people back home in the West of their culture’s superiority and legitimate the right of the colonisers to rule over the colonised.","quote":"The invention of photography in the late 1830s revolutionised the ways in which travellers to the “Orient” could record – with an “artistic eye” – what they saw and imagined."},"286c50ca-e05b-593d-bcc0-b98364f51128":{"title":"Orientalism in the West and in the East","description":"Orientalism ‒ an intellectual movement in Western literature, art and music ‒ is linked to a fascination with all aspects of the “Orient” as perceived by the West. A body of knowledge about the “Orient” has been collected and systematically studied and argued among scholarly Orientalists since the 18th century, but among those critical of the ideal in the modern period is the Palestinian-American author Edward Said (1935‒2003) whose book *Orientalism* (1978) unpicked the negative connotations of the term. As a phenomenon, Orientalism can be divided into the romantic and the scholarly: romantic Orientalism can be seen as part of this movement in Europe, which developed as a reaction to 18th-century realism and rationalism; thus, while to European eyes the “Orient” was a world of mystery and sensual pleasures, above all it was a world of unrestrained emotions. By the turn of the 19th century however, when Orientalism had become a scholarly discipline, the cultures labelled “Oriental” were frequently depicted as alien and sometimes inferior.","quote":"Literary studies uses the term Orientalism to characterise the Western imitation and depiction ‒ whether fact or fiction ‒ of “exotic” aspects of Middle Eastern cultures."},"28839a00-5df2-59b8-bca3-3c01e3fd6b06":{"title":"Leisure activities","description":"In the life of immigrant communities, leisure activities played an important role in preserving cultural identity and group solidarity. When they met in family gatherings or for a drink in smart hotels, or when they watched a theatre performance together, immigrants were not only having a good time: they were also preserving and reasserting ties with their kin and compatriots. Such networks helped immigrants to cope with the challenges they met in their adopted countries.  \n  \nAt the same time, places for socialising were also sites for cultural interchange. During the 19th century – thanks to the initiative of European immigrants in Tunisia, and under the impulse of the Khedive in Egypt – several theatres and concert halls opened where international troupes, ballets and orchestra companies performed for the European immigrants and the local elite.","quote":"In the cities with extensive immigrant communities, cultural and leisure associations soon sprang up to cater for their entertainment and provide a focus for social interaction."},"28dcc6a5-6121-5282-b75e-c0b5ad0ff81f":{"title":"The Rise of Nationalism","extra":{"hb_general_type":"topic"}},"294e1cce-8b64-5423-8d63-7b4564209228":{"title":"Markets"},"29fae78e-c935-5cec-b311-34d95ec35efa":{"title":"The end to a traditional way of life","description":"Due to the harsh conditions of south-eastern Arabia, people living on the coasts of the Gulf and Indian Ocean have always depended on the sea for their livelihood through fishing, pearling and trade. In the 18th century key trading networks were in the hands of local powers such as the Qawasim (Al-Qasimi), a powerful mercantile confederation based in Julfar (later Ras al-Khaimah) and Sharjah, both of which are areas on the coast of the Indian Ocean and the Persian littoral. The gradual economically and geostrategically motivated British penetration of the Gulf soon threatened the indigenous status quo. Attempts by the Qawasim to defend their livelihood were denounced as “piracy” by the British in order to justify devastating naval attacks, which culminated in the destruction of their trading empire in 1819. The ensuing Peace Treaty imposed by Britain on the Qawasim and other local leaders saw the start of steadily increasing British interference in local, economic and political affairs."},"2a8a5870-c4ff-5a65-a769-359f5994b90e":{"title":"Historical Profile / United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)","extra":{"hb_type":"country"}},"2a97470a-9867-5cc0-b88f-7dce99d5506f":{"title":"Houses","description":"Within the urban structure, as the nucleus of private space, the house tends to reflect the social status of its owner. In traditional Arab and Ottoman cities, houses were orientated inwards and did not project anything in particular about their inhabitants onto the streets. Generally speaking, domestic dwellings were built out of sun-dried or baked bricks of mostly uniform organic colours, and their height was restricted to between one and four storeys; coloured and decorated glazed tiles, carved stucco and ornamental panels were used to decorate the façade and to adorn the all-important inner courtyard, which was used for communal socialising, relaxation, fresh air and ventilation and as a light source.  \n  \nIn the 19th century, aimed at the more affluent among Arab and Ottoman societies and in order to accommodate European communities, taller buildings or Western-type apartment blocks were built using new construction methods and materials. These dwellings introduced elements of European architecture and planning, such as wider streets, with buildings that projected a more street-based presence and with greater attention paid to the appearance of the façade, but with vertical windows and *mashrabiyya* still arranged in order to ventilate the interior.","quote":"As the nucleus of private space, the house was a fundamental unit of the urban structure and an imprint of wider society."},"2cdff9a6-e812-5fdf-a5e3-7969a0de0fd6":{"title":"Refugee victims of the break-up of the Ottoman Empire","description":"The 19th century witnessed the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. Its constantly redrawn borders ended up dividing former territories in Serbia, Montenegro and Albania in the Balkans, the Crimea on the Russian border and the Kurdish zones on the Ukrainian border and elsewhere, causing communities and even villages to be split and dispersed. Millions of refugees were displaced, and 2 million Muslim refugees from the Russian Empire and Eastern Europe settled in the Ottoman Empire, particularly in Anatolia. Cities such as Aleppo, Izmir, Alexandria, Cairo and Damascus began to grow dramatically as a result, in some cases doubling their population. After World War I, the creation of the modern Republic of Turkey resulted in movements of millions of people as large-scale population exchanges took place on either side of the new international borders.","quote":"In the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire increasingly became a land of mass migration following a series of devastating wars."},"2d132051-b0b4-5573-adc8-724881557d3f":{"title":"Historical Profiles","description":"Historical Background country profiles of the Sharing History AWE project."},"2d7f3d14-462f-5dce-84ac-d2128dd59cec":{"title":"Historical Profile / Tunisia","extra":{"hb_type":"country","map_descriptions":{"map_1":{"en":"Tunisia, 1850"}}}},"2d80d88b-1c1b-5b51-afe9-c99e746500af":{"title":"A matter of land: Agricultural settlements in Tunisia","description":"In colonial Africa, land was the main source of conflict between the colonisers and the colonised. On the Mediterranean coast, this was the case of Algeria, which was seized by France in 1830 and where European settlement resulted in the eviction of Arab peasants.  \n  \nTunisia (a protectorate and not a colony) did not experience comparable mass eviction of local peasants. After 1881, French authorities encouraged French settlements. Some big companies bought large tracts of land, but few French peasants settled in Tunisia, because they were better off in France. By contrast, many landless peasants from Italy and Malta settled in Tunisia, often as labourers or sharecroppers. In 1892, 400 French landowners had a total of 404,200ha. None of them lived there. The other 1,000 Europeans (mostly Italians) who owned land had a total of 27,350ha, and they all lived on their farms, working as peasants.","quote":"A coin with two faces: both big French land-owning companies and poor southern European landless peasants settled in Tunisia."},"2e31e040-7079-59cf-904b-2d61432fd154":{"title":"Music venues in 19th-century Egypt, the Ottoman Empire and Tunisia","description":"Before the 19th century in the Middle East and North Africa music was performed in many places – outdoors or in palace courtyards – but not in purpose-built halls. Three distinct approaches to venues built for music performances developed after 1850. The Cairo Opera House, commissioned by the Khedive Isma‘il and designed by Italians, opened in 1869 with Giuseppe Verdi’s *Rigoletto*. Its construction in central Cairo reflected Isma‘il’s programme of modernisation and adoption of European institutions. In Istanbul, Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid II added numerous buildings to the Yildiz Palace between 1893 and 1902, including a theatre. Within the palace grounds, it would have functioned as a private, royal hall for music and drama. The third type of theatre was built in Tunis, designed by French architects in the Art Nouveau style in the European quarter of the city, presumably with a European colonial audience in mind.","quote":"“In considering all parts of the society, one should not hesitate to say that Constantinople [Istanbul] can well match any European city in the field of music.” (From Bartolomeo Pisani)"},"2f070c93-61e3-55a8-92cf-7d4a52817314":{"title":"Monuments","description":"There are many definitions for the term “monument”. Today we tend to nominate all built structures that are considered important to national or international cultural heritage as monuments, and insist on their preservation and protection. But in this exhibition a narrower definition is employed, to include outdoor constructions erected to commemorate or remember a person or an event; outdoor columns, obelisks, figurative statues, memorials, such as those to commemorate wars, triumphal arches, and in a wider sense, historical inscriptions, fountains and mausoleums as well.  \n  \nAlthough outdoor figurative statues have a long history in the West and in the ancient East, the first truly public statues in Arab and Ottoman lands appear only in the 19th century when, inspired by European examples, Isma‘il Pasha revived the tradition in Egypt.","quote":"There is a long tradition of commemorating events and immortalising personalities by erecting outdoor structures for public exposure."},"317b5d52-ca02-5bc8-acec-1924aca34447":{"title":"Imagining the past","description":"The 19th century brought liberation from the old paradigm of ancient Greece and Rome as the epitome of taste, all else dismissed as primitive or degenerate. The senses were stimulated by an intoxicating flow of exciting new ideas. Everyone wanted to show how up to date their knowledge was regarding the new discoveries.  \n  \nFashionable jewellery and other artistic works with oriental motifs made desirable conversation starters. Artists carefully researched the latest finds to depict scenes from famous stories full of authentic details. In theatre, audiences witnessed Josephin Peladan’s *Semiramis*, rich with Middle Eastern names and costumes. In opera, Giuseppe Verdi entertained sell-out crowds with his *Nabucco* (short for Nabuchodonosor, king of ancient Babylon).  \n  \nWith mass production and the growth of product branding, companies selling chocolate, cigarettes and other popular goods put attractive collecting cards in their packets. Among the images used were ancient kings or famous artefacts.","quote":"Archaeological discoveries stimulated the European imagination, inspiring dreams of the ancient past."},"31d8ab23-7e7b-5aae-b421-1b6690c3cdc8":{"title":"Archaeology as inspiration","description":"The new science of archaeology was front-page news in the 19th century. Strange and amazing artefacts from distant lands brought people face to face with ancient cultures: here were Egyptian mummies and life-size figures of Assyria’s fearsome kings. The public flocked to museums to see these wonders for themselves. No longer did we have to rely on written accounts produced by other, often hostile, cultures. Here we could see for the first time the physical reality of the lost peoples. Would what they have to tell us confirm or disprove the written accounts?  \n  \nAt the Great Exhibitions, ancient cultures joined their modern successors in showing off their achievements. Before moving pictures were invented, public lantern slideshows both educated and entertained. At the turn of the 20th century, picture postcards enjoyed the popularity Twitter does today. Archaeological topics were part of these crazes.","quote":"The European public eagerly immersed themselves in the latest archaeological discoveries from the Arab and Ottoman world."},"31f07725-e875-5b7d-a947-e6e7ca112d2e":{"title":"Mapping the past","description":"In the 19th century, the European drive to document both the natural and material worlds extended to the ancient world. The sites of ancient cities were located, surveyed and mapped in increasing detail. Many such maps were made by well-educated military personnel with the best surveying skills and use of the latest technology. After World War I, aeroplanes were put to use in a new type of archaeological survey. The Palestine Exploration Fund’s pioneering Survey of Western Palestine was a monumental effort, encompassing all aspects of the territory. The focus was on the archaeology of the Holy Land, but it also helped with the administration and development of the region. Maps became so central to archaeology that the Ottoman Antiquities Law of 1884 demanded proper maps as a prerequisite for excavations. This prevented casual, amateur exploration and ensured scientific standards.","quote":"Maps connected the world and enabled modern states to function effectively."},"32a52a76-4089-5426-910e-e927ae53cbca":{"title":"Irrigation","description":"Efficient irrigation systems were crucial for the Arab and Ottoman world through the centuries in places where the rainfall was insufficient to support agriculture or where intensive agriculture was practised to meet the increasing demand for food. Traditionally, the Ottoman Empire had controlled and recorded the use of water for irrigation, but during the 19th century the increasing needs of agriculture determined the introduction of new irrigation systems, although some traditional irrigation methods were still in use during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Colonial propaganda also used irrigation works built by the colonial powers to show the “benefits” of colonisation in the occupied countries. Huge irrigation projects were also dictated by the intensification of agricultural crops (cotton in Egypt and grapes in Algeria) and the need to expand cultivatable land. In Egypt, for example, 500,000ha of previously uncultivated land had become usable through irrigation projects under Ismail Pasha.","quote":"Huge irrigation projects were initiated as a response to demographic pressure. Irrigation was an attempt to overcome environmental constraints."},"339e33ad-1dc9-5dab-bc3d-5c4a56eba689":{"title":"Photography","description":"As a result of Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt, the opening of the Suez Canal and France and Britain’s Middle East policy there was increased interest in the “Orient”. At the beginning of the 19th century, another way of making images, besides drawing them, was developed. This method could transfer anything visible to the human eye onto a two-dimensional surface with the correct perspective. The first fixed image was produced by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce in 1827. Louis-Jacques-Mande Daguerre was also interested in obtaining a permanent image, and in 1839, he announced the invention of the daguerreotype to the French Academy of Sciences and the Academy of Fine Arts. Towards the end of the 19th century, the desire for colour was fulfilled with watercolour-painted photographs in pastel shades. Stereoscopic photography, which became a highly fashionable medium in the early 20th century, may be seen as an early form of virtual reality as, with the creation of this technique, the viewer gained an illusion of a 3-D image. This new device was of particular interest to travellers to the “Orient” in the 19th century."},"33a5d611-575b-5cd7-aa48-3fa4bc39c3fd":{"title":"Historical Profile / United Kingdom","extra":{"hb_type":"country"}},"343d2799-2449-5edb-ae79-1ccf5a4afe21":{"title":"The era of Prince Bashir Shihab II (1799–1840)","description":"Prince Bashir Shihab II established hegemony over Lebanon in the first half of the 19th century in order to rule the country under the Ottomans. While he succeeded in keeping Lebanon neutral during conflicts, he maintained a good relationship with the Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte of France, which facilitated the French mandate over the country.  \n  \nLebanon had a strong cultural base, which was highlighted in the works of the British diplomat and writer Colonel Charles Henry Churchill, who wrote about the prince’s system of rule, which was known as *qaimaqamiyya*.  \n  \nBashir II encouraged development and Lebanon became known for its silk industry, which began in 19th century thanks to the skills that had evolved with the help of French spinners from Lyon, with the first silk mill founded in Btater."},"3572a06c-f05a-5a40-b494-da57398cf08c":{"title":"1815–1850: The emerging liberal state without the colony of Brazil","description":"With the Liberal Revolution of 1820 Portugal became a liberal and constitutional monarchy (Constitution 1822). King João VI returned from Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) where the Court had been based since the Napoleonic invasions (1807). In 1823 João’s son Prince Pedro proclaimed himself Emperor of Brazil, which meant independence for the colony. Pedro inherited the throne of Portugal on his father’s death but stood aside for his own daughter, the future Queen Maria II. Meanwhile, Prince Miguel, Pedro's brother, aimed for a return to absolutism (abolition of parliament and the Constitutional Charter of 1826). Civil war and political exile – to England and France – were the main highlights for the period till 1834, the year of the military liberal victory. The Setembrismo government introduced important liberal reforms and social changes, such as grammar schools, the Porto and Lisbon polytechnic schools and many political newspapers and popular magazines. Nevertheless, the danger of another civil war was still present."},"359c56a5-2383-5b86-93df-65eaafb6f823":{"title":"Biblical archaeology","description":"The Christian nations of Europe had long been interested in the Holy Land, and particularly in Jerusalem. Birs Nimrud in Iraq was thought to be the site of the Tower of Babel, destroyed by divine wrath. The Egyptians, Babylonians and Assyrians were known from the Bible as well as from classical sources. Interest in the archaeology of these lands was driven by their biblical relevance.  \n  \nLearned societies dedicated to the study of the Holy Land were founded, such as the Palestine Exploration Fund in the UK in 1865, with the King as Patron and the Archbishop of Canterbury as President. The PEF carried out a detailed survey of an area of 6,000 square miles between 1871 and 1878. The first systematic excavation in Palestine was carried out by William Matthew Flinders Petrie at Tell el-Hesi, thought by him to be Lachish.","quote":"Connections with biblical events and figures were a major interest of early archaeologists active in the Middle East."},"3646de22-28b2-5ddd-bae8-883173d65ed4":{"title":"Currencies","description":"Intensified trade with Europe as well as wars, epidemics and fiscal difficulties put considerable pressure on Middle Eastern and North African currencies in the 19th and early 20th centuries. European currencies increasingly infiltrated the region to the detriment of local currencies, which became increasingly devalued despite governmental attempts at monetary reforms along European lines. When the global silver price dropped dramatically in the 1870s, many countries adopted the international gold standard, further tying them to European financial systems. In the British-controlled region of the Lower Gulf, local currencies were all but supplanted by European coins such as the Maria Theresa thaler and, after 1857, the imperial British Indian rupee. By the early 20th century, partly imposed and partly unavoidable, European-style currency systems prevailed, including the use of paper money and carefully controlled exchange mechanisms.","quote":"In the 19th century, European currencies increasingly infiltrated the region to the detriment of local currencies, which steadily devalued despite governmental monetary reforms."},"38ae0273-04fd-5363-ab18-fd5784023be7":{"title":"Geographic maps, boarders of modern states","extra":{"hb_general_type":"topic"}},"3959d308-4962-5adb-ba83-aa602cb86810":{"title":"Preparing for the revolution","description":"In 1814 – an important date for the Greek nation – in Odessa (Russia) three Greeks, Emmanouil Xanthos, Nikolaos Skoufas and Athanasios Tsakalof found a secret organisation under the name of Filiki Etaireia (Friendly Society). The purpose of this organisation is to prepare the Greek population for the War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire. Initially acceptance of this effort is limited to Greeks living abroad. Alexandros Ypsilantis, a prince of the Danubian Principalities and a senior officer of the Imperial Russian cavalry, takes leadership of the organisation and begins the struggle from the Danubian Hegemonies in order to provoke a general rebellion."},"3965ca08-9140-5063-83ca-673f77399f38":{"title":"Political emigration","description":"Since the French Revolution in the late 18th century, and throughout the 19th century, popular uprisings and political repression caused waves of European political exiles to take refuge in Turkey and other Mediterranean provinces of the Ottoman Empire. The most significant wave occurred after the defeat of the 1848 revolutions that shook many European countries.  \n  \nOne of the countries producing the largest number of political exiles was Italy. From the 1820s, the repression of the movement for constitutional rule and national unification forced many to take refuge abroad. Some went north, including the Republican leader Mazzini who fled to London. Others went south, like General Garibaldi. After Italy’s unification in 1861, a smaller stream of exiles, composed of anarchist militants, moved to the Southern Mediterranean shores.","quote":"During the 19th century, cities such as Constantinople, Alexandria and Tunis became safe havens for many European political exiles."},"39b7b22d-c9a7-56c1-afb6-489eb1e31399":{"title":"Poetry in the Arab and Ottoman world, from neoclassicism to romanticism","description":"It has been said that historically Arabs congratulated one another for only three occurrences: the birth of a boy, the emergence of a poet and when a noble mare gave birth to a foal; further, it was believed that poets had a supernatural role to play within society. The more revered Arab poets of the 19th century turned to the glorious age of classical Arabic poetry of the 9th to 12th centuries. The most accomplished of these neoclassicists were Sami al-Barudi, Ahmad Shawqi and Hafiz Ibrahim of Egypt, and al-Zahawi (Iraq). Sulayman al-Bustani (Lebanon) translated Homer’s *Iliad* into Arabic verse in 1913. Evolving from neoclassical was romantic poetry whose main topics were the beauty of nature and human emotions. The most representative among the romantics are Gibran Khalil Gibran (Lebanon) and among women writers Aisha Taymur (Egypt), Warda al-Yaziji (Lebanon), Leylâ Hanım and Fıtnat Hanım, two pioneering Ottoman poets, and Nigâr Hanım who was the first to shift to modern free-style poetry.","quote":"Poetry is the register of the Arabs and their supreme art form."},"3ad3e3c3-934a-5c5b-b5d0-354c4d535a04":{"title":"Other innovative technologies","description":"The 19th century had witnessed many great achievements in putting electric power, with its almost limitless potential, into service. The electric battery was invented as early as 1800. A few years later in 1821 the first electric motor was invented and successfully tested. But the greatest achievements happened towards the end of the century. In 1891 the first electric power station was built in the UK. The basis had been laid for endless practical applications of electricity including transportation, heating, lighting, communications and many others.  \n  \nSome other smaller but no less significant innovations were introduced during this period such as telescopes, compasses and the fountain pen. The objects of common use are perhaps the best examples of how the innovations and the exchanges of ideas were absorbed by local historical traditions, giving life to an innovative cultural synthesis.","quote":"Various innovative technologies have empowered human society. Some of these inventions were immense and some were tiny, but all of them were important. Electricity is considered the backbone of any modern industrial society."},"3b1b828b-ef2d-5b27-9fba-302e8e7b91db":{"title":"Telephone networks and telephones","description":"In 1877, the face of communication services was changed yet again. This year marked the arrival of a new device in the range of telecommunications services, the telephone. Until then, the telegraph based on the transmission of dots and dashes had been predominant. While Alexander Graham Bell was attempting to improve the telegraph he discovered that speech could also be transmitted electrically. The widespread dispersal of the telephone through Europe and the Arab and Ottoman world was itself another innovation, which on the one hand improved communication but on the other had mixed consequences. The introduction of telephone networks in the Arab and Ottoman lands was one of the means by which innovations were used to counteract the European presence or to pursue their own modernisation. As happened with other innovations, the network of the colonial infrastructure could overwhelm the local initiative.","quote":"The telephone single-handedly lifted human interaction to a higher level."},"3c27baf2-aa1c-56fa-b823-91561427958c":{"title":"Russian Revolution","extra":{"hb_general_type":"topic"}},"3d36766b-0280-51da-a3e1-057b73566de5":{"title":"Local economies and international power struggles","description":"Throughout the 19th century the pearling industry and trade with India and East Africa lay at the heart of Qawasim prosperity and provided the most crucial focus for all economic activity in the Gulf. Local rulers exerted great skill in maintaining a delicate economic and political equilibrium in the face of determined British policies aimed at consolidating their hegemony and keeping competing European powers from gaining a foothold in the Gulf. In 1892, the leading sheikhs of the Gulf were enjoined to sign an “Agreement of exclusivity” in return for continuing British protection. It effectively prevented any local ruler from establishing economic or political links with any foreign entity other than Britain. This ensured Britain’s ultimate control over all affairs relating to the Gulf coast. By 1914, British hegemony had transformed the indigenous structures of the Gulf and laid the foundation for the realities with which we are familiar today."},"3de64a7f-42cc-5beb-9141-d8da1bdad25d":{"title":"Spies under cover","extra":{"hb_general_type":"topic"}},"3e3368f7-b770-59fc-8246-5539b182bea8":{"title":"Al-Zubarah"},"3f13a2ed-bcbf-58cd-a77d-c32e230f33eb":{"title":"Islamic pilgrimage","description":"The pilgrimage to Makkah (Mecca) in Saudi Arabia, known to Muslims as the Hajj, is of the utmost importance to Islamic communities worldwide. A component of the Five Pillars of Islam, the Hajj is an exceptional experience undertaken by all physically able and financially capable Muslims at least once in their lifetime. Taking place every year from the 8th to the 12th day of Dhu al-Hijja (the Hajj month according to the Hijri calendar), the Hajj is first and foremost a religious occasion and a chance to meet in faith. At the same time, it also gives Muslims from all over the world the opportunity to trade and engage in intellectual and social activities. Over the centuries, Islamic rulers prided themselves in supporting all aspects of the Hajj. For over 400 years the Ottomans in particular exerted much effort in this regard, also facilitating the production of the *Kiswa* (the cover of the Ka‘ba at the heart of the Holy Mosque in Mecca) and its transportation; it is conveyed within a special ceremonial tent (the *Mahmal*), as part of the official Hajj procession. At the same time, Ottoman rulers also took pride in maintaining and expanding the architecture of all the Holy Places, as well as honouring them with precious gifts, which included luxurious textile hangings for both the Ka‘ba and the precinct of Mecca and the Masjid al-Nabawi (the Prophet’s Mosque) in Medina (Madinah). With the opening of the Hijaz Railway in 1908, at least part of the pilgrims’ route was made easier, faster and more comfortable.","quote":"“And proclaim to the people the Hajj [pilgrimage]; they will come to you on foot and on every lean camel; they will come from every distant pass …” (Qur’an 22:27)"},"3f1e8a36-ad7a-516e-8cfc-08a086f504a1":{"title":"Battle for the country (1804–33)","description":"The period between 1804 and 1815 is marked by two major uprisings in Serbia and the beginning of the Serb’s fight for liberation from Turkish occupation, and abolition of feudalism. The leader of the first Serbian uprising was Đorđe Petrović, progenitor of the Karađorđević Dynasty, while the leader of the second Serbian uprising was Miloš Obrenović."},"40c3fbb9-7842-59dc-aff3-887ac14765f0":{"title":"European diplomatic visits","description":"With the establishment of permanent missions and embassies all over the Arab and Ottoman world in the 19th century, the political relationships between European and regional powers intensified in unprecedented ways. A key factor in this development was the “Eastern Question”, referring to the political instabilities and opportunities created around the Mediterranean, in particular by the steady weakening of the once mighty Ottoman Empire. Britain, France, Germany and other European countries now employed a wide range of diplomatic tools to jockey for position or, indeed, to work towards grabbing a permanent hold on strategically important and resource-rich regions across the Middle East and North Africa. Diplomatic visits from political or military delegations and heads of state played a vital part in furthering a power’s regional objectives.","quote":"Following the establishment of permanent missions and embassies all over the Arab and Ottoman world, European powers used high-profile diplomatic visits to demonstrate their political interest in the region, consolidate their influence, or indeed stamp their authority."},"43f46690-1d6e-5d64-b190-3e7fd3f18a07":{"title":"The concept of revivals","description":"One of the main characteristics of the 19th century is the notion of revivalism and appreciation of past styles, such as those of the ancient world, the Renaissance or the Gothic era. Although the roots of this craze were in the previous century it became increasingly important during this period, and was associated with trends such as the rediscovery of the past and developments in archaeology, while other trends were linked with national identities. Between Europe and the Arab world, a number of phenomena in the field of art and design mark the topic of revivalism from both sides of the Mediterranean: the rediscovery of the past of Egypt and Syria in the art of the Mamluks and the rediscovery of the art of Muslim Spain, and the adaptation of them both to the production of works of art."},"455e9772-e7c7-5b27-acb0-ec12bc4e468b":{"title":"Tourism","description":"The political realities of the day and the rapid development of modern transport allowed tourism to expand exponentially in the 19th century. Many Europeans now found themselves able to live out their fascination with the “Orient” and to travel to the fabled places they had so far only been able to visit in their imagination. Wealthy individuals in the Middle East and North Africa, meanwhile, travelled farther across the region and also started to venture into Europe. Mostly, though, travel was not only for pleasure and relaxation, as might be the case today. In fact, many travellers had specific aims as they set off – educational, scientific, commercial, financial, religious or political, or indeed all of these. Once in the region, the tourists of the day made sure to record what they saw and secure an array of impressive souvenirs to take back home, as evidence of the “exotic” worlds and cultures they had managed to discover. Many travellers published books or sold pictures of their journey, thus fuelling further interest in the “exotic lands of the East”."},"4561fca8-d47a-5892-b1d5-04d0298eb3d5":{"title":"Collectors and dealers","description":"The early collector of Islamic art is often referred to as an educated amateur. A closed circle of enthusiasts reviewed exhibitions in search of great works of art to furnish their homes. A network of dealers in the Middle East, especially in Cairo, but also in Europe including Spain, contributed to the formation of private collections. Many of the collections were donated or formed the basis for museum collections. The same network of dealers, however, offered works of art directly to museum representatives, a number of whom travelled for this specific purpose.","quote":"From exotic treasures to historical works of art, museum curators and enthusiastic collectors searched for the glories of the past."},"4583397f-6cfa-515a-a54f-84646be96965":{"title":"From Ottoman suzerainty to French domination","description":"During the 19th century, the power of the beys, who were aware of the dangers the Europeans posed, operated in favour of a policy of reforms: Ahmad Pasha Bey by modernising the army and abolishing slavery, while Muhammad Pasha Bey adopted the Fundamental Pact in 1857, one of the first declarations of human rights, followed by the Constitution of 1861. Finally, the changes implemented by the great reformer Khayr al-Din (1897–1969) touched both national institutions and the economy. But this policy of reforms, far from moderinising the country, finally led to its ruin. In the aftermath of the French Protectorate, popular resistance was on the rise; the elite weaved relationships with the population suffering this scourge of the 20th century, namely colonisation, and this in particular in the Arab world. On 1 April 1920, the first Tunisian political party was founded: the Tunisian Constitutional Liberal Party “Le Destour”.","extra":{"remark":"From Ottoman suzerainty to French domination"}},"45f48684-0e67-585f-b139-161e8f11bef8":{"title":"The diffusion of models and promotion of trade","description":"The Great Exhibition held in London in 1851 represented an unprecedented opportunity for European audiences to come into direct contact with a variety of Islamic art and compare artefacts. From then on, International Exhibitions played a key role, not just in disseminating works of non-European origin, but also in terms of kick-starting the production of artefacts and furniture inspired by the Arab world and the Ottoman Empire. The universal exhibitions offered ordinary visitors two remarkable experiences: first, it was a chance for those who had never travelled to faraway places to experience an exotic, fantastic world, which was made to feel absolutely “real” within the bazaars and the various national pavilions; and second, audiences were kept up to date with the trends in Orientalism by exhibits of the most sought after new craft and industrial products, displayed alongside the original artefacts intended for collectors. Deck and Maw ceramics, Castellani jewellery and Salviati glassware are only some of the numerous, well-known names exhibiting pieces at the time."},"4670315c-522a-5313-8ac7-b4c15b27a6aa":{"title":"Historical Profile / Spain","extra":{"hb_type":"country"}},"469771b0-0550-5326-bfd5-9c6e107d8c75":{"title":"Epidemics and international organisations","description":"The 19th century witnessed major epidemics such as cholera, which caused millions of deaths in Europe and in Asia. The \"Spanish flu\" pandemic in 1918 caused more deaths than World War I. Other illnesses, such as tuberculosis, also had a devastating effect. Doctors and researchers worked to identify viruses (e.g. plague and tuberculosis bacilli), to find vaccinations (e.g. against rabies), to improve examination methods (e.g. auscultation, radiography) and to discover new drugs. Surgery progressed rapidly, thanks to new asepsis and anaesthesia techniques. The spread of scientific knowledge and education helped people to understand the importance of hygiene in fighting germs and contagion. Associations were set up to help people with diseases. The Red Cross was set up in Europe in 1864 to provide care for wounded soldiers regardless of country or rank. The Red Crescent was subsequently founded in Arab and Ottoman countries.","quote":"“How is it possible that the poorer classes can remain healthy…? What can one expect but that they should suffer from continual outbreaks of epidemics and an excessively low expectation of life?” Friedrich Engels"},"4823c250-e612-5339-8795-f5ddd810f331":{"title":"Historical Profile / France","extra":{"hb_type":"country"}},"4852e298-30f3-59bb-998e-6509a2ad7371":{"title":"Water distribution","description":"During the 19th and the early 20th centuries, water distribution was part of the modernising programmes taking place in both Europe and the Arab and Ottoman world. The main challenge was the enhancement of city life with modern water supply services. The technical implementation of water distribution was seen as another aspect of “progress” and as a modern method of preventing epidemics. It is worth noticing that this was also carried out in continuity with the past. The need for water distribution had been as strong as in previous centuries for hygienic or religious reasons. “Modern” water distribution was based on state-of-the-art steam machines and pumping techniques, but in some cases, such as the aqueduct of Zaghouan in Tunisia, ancient infrastructure was adjusted to contemporary needs.","quote":"Access to clean water is a human right and water distribution is essential to new lifestyles."},"4982e405-bd06-583b-97b5-71634378533f":{"title":"Shops","description":"Up to the 19th century, traditional societies throughout the region bought staples and commodities from local markets and fairs, artisans’ workshops, itinerant traders and – in larger towns and cities – *suq*s and bazaars, which housed numerous individually owned retail units under one roof. By the late 19th century, increasing industrialisation and the desire for affordable but high-quality European goods led to the emergence of modern retail shops and – in large cities – luxurious department stores. In the Middle East, these were often owned by non-Muslims and closely integrated within the local business infrastructure. Innovative in concept and management, they were nevertheless designed to cater effectively and sensitively for a culturally and ethnically diverse clientele. Due to their convenience and array of goods, department stores in particular often led to the demise of traditional retailers. They also caused a degree of social dissent as they enabled men and women to mingle uninhibitedly within their spaces.","quote":"By the late 19th century, increasing industrialisation and the desire for affordable but high-quality European goods led to the emergence of modern retail shops and large urban department stores."},"49aacb58-7fb4-55eb-b1fd-bd1a22ffbcf2":{"title":"General Subtitle3 in EN","description":"The purpose of this text is to shortly contextualise the participation in \"Sharing History\". The Historical Background will be accessible from all \"Sharing History\" web pages and should be divided into three paragraphs of approximately 600-800 characters each:  \n  \n(First paragraph) What characterises the history of the country in the period under survey? (Second paragraph) Relations with the Ottoman Empire / the Arab World / Europe; ideally there should be a correspondence with the material contribution to \"Sharing History\"; for countries that were part of the Ottoman Empire this paragraph could provide the opportunity to emphasise specific aspects introducing the country's participation in \"Sharing History\".  \n  \n(Third paragraph) Other priorities in the country's international policy in the period under survey. This paragraph should enable the reader to understand and properly interpret the country's contribution to \"Sharing History\"."},"49d2498e-5686-5ef3-aa4b-1cd1d0fb3cef":{"title":"Designers","description":"The nineteenth century witnessed great interest in design. With the development of Orientalism, designers found inspiration through contact with Islamic art. A key work of the period was an encyclopaedic book on design, entitled *The Grammar of Ornament*, by theorist Owen Jones in 1856. This and other works displayed the richness and colour of Islamic art, especially the arabesque and geometrical ornament. A key monument and source of design was the Alhambra Palace whose decorations inspired architects and designers in Europe such as William Morris, Plácido Zuloaga, Jules Bourgoin, and Mariano Fortuny. Researching both the motifs and the fabrication techniques of decorative designs in an attempt to evoke the luxury of Islamic art, designers worked with both ancient techniques as well as modern ones: Zuloaga, for example, developed a new technique based on a medieval one of damascening; Théodore Deck, similarly, with the blue he used on ceramics.","quote":"“We will give splendid reproductions of the monuments, objects of art and of luxury which give evidence of an advanced civilization, the influence of which has been felt even in Europe.” (Émile Prisse d’Avennes)"},"4a9ea348-357e-5bb6-9e11-e26c48c2d0a1":{"title":"Costume as a marker of religious and tribal identity","description":"In the past, clothes and jewellery were signs of identity, and they remain so, by helping to identify members of one tribe or region from others. Although globalisation is quickly eliminating these identifying signs, in the 19th century in Europe and in the Arab‒Ottoman world they were still clearly defined. The costumes that once identified each region are now seen as typical or traditional dress. These tend to be elaborate costumes decorated, in the case of women’s garments, with jewellery, sometimes in great quantities. The jewellery further indicates the specific ethnic group or region it comes from, since the most characteristic jewellery-type was produced. In the Middle East and North Africa, where there is great ethnic diversity, traditional or typical dress was worn on a daily basis in the 19th century, but European influences meant that this clothing was reserved for celebrations and ceremonies. The same process occurred in Europe between the countryside and the city.","quote":"Fabrics, their colours, patterns and threads, and jewellery, they all bring facets of different cultures to life and help us to understand the complex meanings of them."},"4ad4669d-acb3-51a1-968b-d59c597839b5":{"title":"Mapmaking","description":"By the turn of the 19th century, mapping had established itself as a scientific enterprise, often government funded, and conducted by skilled military personnel. During the 19th century, European countries made national maps with enthusiasm. They were partly for economic and social improvement, and partly a statement of national identity and pride.  \n  \nAn international collaboration mapped the seas for the benefit of all. Growing international cooperation also established Greenwich as the prime meridian (1884), agreed time zones, and led to the production of an “International Map” of the whole world. Improvements in printing technology made maps cheaper (and more widespread) and now colourful. Other types of map were published, such as geological maps, or thematic ones, showing wealth or disease."},"4b01a0e4-7f13-517c-b774-de51640aacc4":{"title":"Virtual Exhibitions","description":"Curated virtual exhibitions of the Sharing History AWE project."},"4b5b2c25-ff29-5437-ae31-f26faa80a2f7":{"title":"The era of *mutasarrifiyya* (1861–1915)","description":"The influx of foreign missionaries into Lebanon contributed to the development of intellectual life. American missionaries founded the Syrian Evangelical School in 1866 and French Jesuits founded Saint Joseph’s University in 1875; new printing presses were established, such as the Catholic Press. The influence of Western civilisation began to show in the Lebanese way of life.  \n  \nIn 1908, a Lebanese association was established in Paris to pursue the independence of Lebanon from the Turks. Liberation was in sight.  \n  \nTransportation had seen significant improvements in the Ottoman era with the foundation of the Centre of Tramways Beirut. In 1881, the French began building a railway from Beirut to Damascus and the project was successfully completed in 1895.  \n  \nThe good relationship betwen Prince Bashir and the French resulted in the end of the *qaimaqamiyya*, marked by inscriptions on the rocks of Nahr el-Kalb to the Emperor Napoleon III. It can be seen alongside later inscriptions marking the end of World War I and French General Gouraud’ victory in the Battle of Maysalun on 25 July 1920."},"4b9814f3-954d-5e2a-8041-c1b4f73ec5a8":{"title":"Culture and education","description":"One of the challenges of this period was education, because most people were illiterate. Before 1857 there was no free education. Moyano’s Law was then introduced, which proclaimed free education for all children, girls and boys, from 6 to 9 years old and after that organised education in three levels (Primary, Secondary and University). Few resources were allocated to education by the government, but eventually the “Institución Libre de Enseñanza” was constituted to improve educational levels and teachers’ background. This brought to Spain European pedagogical and scientific points of view and in 1907 the “Junta para la Ampliación de Estudios” was introduced to develop research into science and culture.  \n  \nForeign influences such as Romanticism eventually reached Spain. Not-so-new trends collided with old ways, becoming an exaltation of the glorious past. The loss of the last overseas territories influenced an intellectual movement, the “Generación del 98”, which linked into “Regeneracionismo” (Regenerationism) and developed ideas for the needs of the country: education, democracy and Europisation, while having a critical overview of the past and the reasons for the decadence of the Spanish Empire."},"4bf0185a-28d7-50b2-a737-655c61118d6b":{"title":"Souvenirs","description":"Collecting objects while travelling became increasingly popular from the 18th century onwards, not only among the elite now, but also the emerging middle classes of Europe and – to a lesser extent – among Arab and Ottoman travellers. With the increased influx of a wide range of European travellers and – eventually – sight-seeing tourists to the Middle East, the urge to collect souvenirs took on new dimensions. Whether eager to physically connect with the past, hold on to the magic of a fabled destination, partake of a site’s spiritual blessing, prove one’s “having been there” to friends and family back home, or all of the above, travellers went to all lengths to collect, purchase, or obtain by other means – legal or otherwise – significant objects along the way. Local dealers in antiquities and art readily catered for the wealthy, while makers of trinkets and reproductions scrambled to attract those of lesser means. Photos and postcards, perhaps, were the most widely distributed type of souvenir at the time. Meanwhile, a variety of souvenirs were made exclusively to commemorate an important visit or event.","quote":"Souvenirs served to connect tourists to the past, fabled destinations and spiritual encounters – even when back home …"},"4cb9cad5-d790-52b3-8455-eaacdadd7290":{"title":"Ottoman fashion","description":"The Ottoman influence on European high fashion was significant, but it is also seen in the costumes of the Serge Diaghilev’s famous Ballets Russes, in particular in the ballet inspired by the publication of *Arabian Nights* and its main character Scheherazade. The use of richly decorated waistcoats and breeches, and dresses and accessories made from fabrics such as chiffon and gauze, inspired European fashion designers and appealed to the European craze for dressing “á la Turk”, as can be seen in the various portraits that immortalise the trend. The designs of fabrics and dresses, such as those produced by Mariano Fortuny, demonstrate the trend for the “Turkish” style.","quote":"“Fashion is a significant area of cultural borrowing that reflects the broader exchanges of ideas that occurred between the Ottomans and the West” (Charlotte Jirousek)"},"4e992412-a1be-5df4-8839-e2270dab9344":{"title":"Historical Profile / Turkey","extra":{"hb_type":"country","map_descriptions":{"map_1":{"en":"The Ottoman Empire, 1798–1923"}}}},"4e9b3b85-2c19-52f9-b53b-7e995d019e77":{"title":"Scenes from life","description":"In the 19th century, under the influence of photography and realist artistic trends, labour became a focus of interest, in particular because certain photographers and artists documented working methods that were to disappear with increasing mechanisation, in both farming and industry. This trend was complemented by a fascination with new machines related to the development of steam power. Representations of crafts, rural work and industrial work can all be found. These representations show us that working conditions were still difficult, and that there was a multitude of very specialised professions and tasks that were often still dependent on local economies and products manufactured on site.","quote":"“Mechanical and clipped,  \nWorkers, tight-lipped,  \nControl the natter  \nOf universal clatter  \nThe seething fever and screech  \nThat shreds, with its stubborn chatter,  \nAll banished human speech.” Emile Verhaeren"},"4ecdbed2-bbca-5817-b921-b43c7ace0522":{"title":"The political and juridical framework","description":"The Ottoman Empire had a complex legal system. Jurisdiction over issues concerning personal status varied according to religion (the different religious communities were granted wide autonomy). Moreover, treaties with European states (known as Capitulations) placed foreign citizens under consular jurisdiction. At the same time, Ottoman rulers generally placed limits over foreign property rights and activities. Such limitations progressively disappeared during the 19th century.  \n  \nAfter European powers took political control of former provinces of the Ottoman Empire, European immigrants became favoured over the local population, in ways that varied from case to case. In Tunisia, under the French Protectorate (1881–1956), the government introduced laws that favoured French nationals not only over the indigenous population, but also over other Europeans.","quote":"The Ottoman Empire gave European countries consular jurisdiction over their nationals and permission to run schools and other institutions."},"4ee30c83-4691-5e4e-a00a-6d94141740be":{"title":"Women","description":"In 19th-century Europe, women fought hard to gain the right to receive an education, to work and to vote. Women’s right to use public spaces triggered impassioned debate in Europe and in the Arab and Ottoman world, particularly in Egypt, where reformers such as Rifa‘a Rafi’ al-Tahtawi (1801–73) and Qasim Amin (1865–1908) advocated education for women as a means to advance Arab-Islamic society. The first schools for Muslim girls were established in Egypt, Tunisia and Lebanon. At the dawn of the 20th century, women began to emerge and occupy pioneering positions in teaching, the labour force and protest movements against colonial powers."},"512ed3b3-336e-5d96-8bc8-98a0ad71b574":{"title":"Finished products","description":"In Europe, the Industrial Revolution led to technological innovations that allowed the large-scale production of machine-made goods. In the 19th century the expanding trade of such commodities from Europe to the Arab and Ottoman world was largely based on the export of textiles, modern consumer goods, weaponry and luxury items that were aimed at the royal and urban elite in the region. As a result, traditional local industries and their products were soon no longer able to compete with European imports and consequently declined in output and quality, often ceasing altogether. Early attempts at industrialising the production of goods remained limited in the Arab and Ottoman world due to many complex factors, including the lack of appropriate raw materials and infrastructures.","quote":"In the wake of European industrialisation, high-quality mass-produced goods were increasingly exported to the Arab and Ottoman world."},"54d389ab-68ad-5a96-a294-f8a099706201":{"title":"Political structure and crucial treaties","description":"The Ottoman Empire was one of the world’s greatest states at the beginning of the 19th century when considering the size of its population size and territory. The Egyptian problem, the Balkan problem, the Straits problem and the great wars with Russia, these were the major troubles faced by the Ottoman Empire during this century, which saw the empire quickly begin to lose its territories. The political movements that emerged in the Balkan societies under Ottoman rule were largely an effect of the Russian and French Revolutions, both of which created and stimulated ideas of equality, liberty, justice and nationalism. The Edirne Treaty (1829) was signed at the end of the war with the Russian Empire; Greece gained its independence from the Ottoman Empire at this time; and Serbia also gained autonomy with this same Treaty. The Egyptian problem, which began as an internal affair, became a European problem when Governor Mehmet Ali Paşa (Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha) marched against Syria and Anatolia following rejection of his request that Syria should be governed by the Ottoman Palace. The Kütahya Treaty was signed in 1833: it involved negotiations among the European states following the Ottoman Empire’s request for help from Russia in order to put a stop to Mehmet Ali Paşa’s  expansionist ambitions for Egypt. Egypt finally became an autonomous state according to the London Treaty signed in 1840, the result of negotiations between European states and the Ottoman Empire, which saw the final solution for the Egyptian problem. Between 1877 and 1878, the Ottoman and Russian war ended with the Berlin Treaty: the Bulgarian Principality was founded; Serbia became an independent state; and Bosnia-Herzegovina became one of the most privileged provinces of the Ottoman Empire according to the Treaty."},"55d84115-c9f2-5a2d-9f3d-1c52ef400771":{"title":"The Young Turks","extra":{"hb_general_type":"topic"}},"55debb27-32a1-5186-8d72-a49b586da747":{"title":"The United Kingdom at home","description":"The Kingdom of Great Britain comes into being under the Treaty of Union of the kingdoms of England (which then included Wales) and Scotland on 1 May 1707. A Treaty of Union then unites the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. The Great Famine of 1845–52 is contributory to the formation of the Irish Free State comprising the twenty-six southern counties of Ireland that vote to secede from the United Kingdom in 1922. The six counties of Northern Ireland, however, vote to remain as part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.","extra":{"image_captions":{"mwnf3_sharing_history:sh_countries_historicalbackground_images:146":{"en":{"name":"Articles of Union between England and Scotland, Parliamentary Archives, HL/PO/JO/10/6/106/2307","location":"London, http://www.parliament.uk/archives"}},"mwnf3_sharing_history:sh_countries_historicalbackground_images:147":{"en":{"name":"An Act for the Union of Great Britain and Ireland, Parliamentary Archives, HL/PO/PU/1/1800/39&40G3n241","location":"London, http://www.parliament.uk/archives"}}}}},"56223935-f564-53f3-ad13-f510e2b53990":{"title":"Sub-Saharan African slaves","description":"Black African captives – enslaved in the wake of local wars among rival tribes or organised kidnappings – were brought in caravans to trading hubs on the shores of the southern Mediterranean. From here, they were dispatched to Europe, the Mediterranean region and the Islamic world to be employed as military personnel, domestic servants, agricultural workers or as crew members of privateering and other ships. Unlike the American system, slavery in those areas often allowed for improvement in slaves’ conditions. Many were accepted as respected members of the household, gained important military and political positions or even, on occasion, ruled. In the Ottoman Empire, as elsewhere, most black slaves were freed in the mid-19th century, as convictions that slavery should be abolished increasingly took hold.","quote":"Privateering in the Mediterranean went hand in hand with the slave trade from sub-Saharan Africa."},"5760ea9a-dc6f-52b5-bfd7-2c63dd3da757":{"title":"Cities and Urban Spaces","description":"Social changes, seen in the political, economic, military or cultural forms of societies in this era 1815–1918, are visibly embodied in alterations to the urban plans, views and architecture.\n\nThe study of the physical form of cities enables one to decode and describe many features of society. This is true in European cities as much as it is in cities of the Arab and Ottoman world. The significant changes that took place in cities during the 19th and early 20th centuries responded to the challenge of population growth, due partly to the migration of rural people to urban systems, and also partly the result of industrialisation, technical developments and modernisation.  \n  \nWhile the Arab and Ottoman world was influenced by the ideas, techniques and aesthetic values of the West, other cultural, economic and political impacts were felt as well. The response to the changing demographic in cities is visible in the buildings, in the new architectural types, in the conversion of old buildings and in the introduction of new forms of infrastructural organisation. European architectural styles, which also manifested in the late period of Ottoman modernisation, physically reshaped some cities of the Ottoman Empire. European architects, receiving commissions for buildings and urban planning, introduced a European architectural vocabulary to Arab and Ottoman cities, reflecting cross-cultural interrelations, but also revealing the European presence at socio-political, economic and military levels as well.  \n  \nSome of the more significant cultural shifts can be seen in the efforts to carry out institutional surveys for the preservation and restoration of Arab and Ottoman cultural heritage. Building control and registration of construction activities in cities followed European counterparts.  \n  \nIn Europe, meanwhile, the “Oriental” style was highly fashionable: it was used as the subject of paintings and drawings, Turkish Ottoman and Arab motifs appeared in the applied arts, and architects, who were frequently directly inspired by it, even adapted certain building types from the Arab and Ottoman world to fulfil different uses in Europe.  \n  \nThe main features of and changes to the architecture of the era are also seen in some constructions in semi-urban and rural sites.\n\nTerézia Bardi  \nEszterháza Centre for Culture, Research and Festivals, Fertőd, Hungary  \n  \nRim Zougheib  \nThe Lebanese University, Beirut, Lebanon  \n  \nFatima Nunes  \nUniversity of Évora (History Department), Évora, Portugal  \n  \n**Copyeditor(s)**  \n  \nMandi Gomez  \nLondon, United Kingdom","extra":{"bibliography":{"en":["Al-Asad, Mohammad, “The Mosque of Muhammad ‘Ali in Cairo” in Oleg Grabar (ed.), *Muqarnas: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture*, vol. 9, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1992: 39‒55.","Aslanapa, Oktay, *Turkish Art and Architecture*, Ankara: Ataturk Culture Center Publications, 2004.","Barillari, Diana, *Raimondo D’Aronco* (Collana: Grandi opere, serie: Gli architetti), Rome and Bari: Laterza, 1995.","Behrens, Doris et al. (eds.), *Islamic Art in the Nineteenth Century – Tradition, Innovation, Eclecticism*, Boston and Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2006.","Gibb, H. A. R. and Harold Bowen, *Islamic Society and the West: A Study of the Impact of Western Civilization on Moslem Culture in the Near East*, 2 vols, London: Oxford University Press, 1969.","Grove, A. B. and R. W. Cresswell (eds), *City Landscape: A Contribution to the Council of Europe’s European Campaign for Urban Renaissance*, Cambridge: Elsevier, 1983.","Harris, William, *Lebanon: A History, 600‒2011* (Studies in Middle Eastern History), Oxford University Press; Reprint edition, 2014.","Jayyusi, Salma K. (gen. ed.) with Renata Holod et al. (special eds), *The City in the Islamic World*, vol. 1 (2 vols). Handbook of Oriental Studies: “The Near and Middle East”, vol. 94/1, Boston and Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2008.","Necipoğlu, Bozdoğan and Gülru Necipoğlu (eds), special issue *Muqarnas: History and Ideology: Architectural Heritage of the ‘Lands of Rum’*, vol. 24, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2007: with articles of interest throughout.","Osmond, Jonathan and Ausma Cimdina, *Power and Culture: Identity, Ideology, Representation*, Pisa: Edizioni Plus, 2007.","Salmi, Hannu, *19th-Century Europe: A Cultural History*, Cambridge, UK and Malden, USA: John Wiley & Son, 2008.","Sözen, Metin, *Anatolian Cities/İstanbul: An Anatolian City*, Istanbul: Turkcell Publications, 2000.","Traboulsi, Fawwaz, *A History of Modern Lebanon*, London: Pluto Press; 2nd ed., 2012.","Volk, Lucia, *Memorials and Martyrs in Modern Lebanon* (Public Cultures of the Middle East and North Africa), Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2010.","Weber, Stefan, *Damascus: Ottoman Modernity and Urban Transformation (1808‒1918)*, Proceedings of the Danish Institute in Damascus V, 2 vols, Denmark: Aarhus University Press, 2009."]},"legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","new_status":"N","project_id":"AWE"}}},"57a868bb-d4a4-55d6-96b3-dfb3642de0ee":{"title":"*al-Nahdha* and *Tanzimat*, the 19th-century winds of change","description":"Initiated by Muhammad ‘Ali of Egypt and the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II and his son ‘Abd al-Majid I, *al-Nahda* and *Tanzimat* was a period of intellectual modernisation and reform that touched upon all aspects of life in the Arab and Ottoman worlds. This “awakening” and “restructuring”, aimed at bridging the gap between “East” and “West”, was an attempt by the reformer-rulers of Egypt, the Ottoman Empire and Tunisia to catch up with the “West”. These reforms, though sometimes successful, were frequently executed with excessive cruelty. Inspired by the West (Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt), *al-Nahda* began in Egypt and later spread to the Ottoman world and North Africa. Nevertheless it was the outcome of deep, underlying internal socio-political and economic changes in the “East”. Cairo, Istanbul, Beirut, and Tunis were the focal points of this renaissance.","quote":"Al-Nahda, the Arabic term for “the awakening” or “renaissance”, and Tanzimat the Turkish equivalent, meaning “restructuring”, was an all-encompassing movement to revive and modernise the “East”."},"57da46c4-2b9f-5966-9526-71fa810fea3d":{"title":"Diplomatic gifts","description":"Diplomatic gifts, exchanged to cement the complex political relations between the Arab and Ottoman world and Europe, had a significant symbolic role to play and so were selected very carefully. As markers of power, wealth, luxury and sophistication, gifts were intended to convey clear messages about the status, prowess and trustworthiness of the giver while at the same time subtly impressing if not intimidating the recipient. The quality and extent of the gifts given reflected closely the interactions that were sought or that the gift-giver hoped to maintain. At the same time, gifts were chosen to showcase either what the best national industries and craftsmen had to offer or to pander directly to the recipient’s tastes and predilections. Highly decorated weapons were among the most popular gifts exchanged. Other particularly favoured items included timepieces, bejewelled medals and artefacts, richly caparisoned horses, textiles, items of clothing, carpets, and even national antiquities.","quote":"Diplomatic gifts played a crucial role in the political relationship between Europe and the Arab and Ottoman world."},"58e8b9f4-8cc5-5d2f-b77e-f21b7ce01047":{"title":"Historical Profile / Lebanon","extra":{"hb_type":"country","map_descriptions":{"map_1":{"en":"Lebanon, 1815"},"map_2":{"en":"Lebanon, 1842"},"map_3":{"en":"Lebanon, 1861–1918"}}}},"5b10df78-2617-5b51-afa8-ff1047ad9ae2":{"title":"Historical Profile / Qatar","extra":{"hb_type":"country"}},"5b56a87d-e6af-521a-b925-9f93c8328d59":{"title":"The cross-Mediterranean movements of the privileged few","description":"The people who crossed the Mediterranean to live in another country included individual members of the upper classes who chose to move abroad – either temporarily or permanently – in order to follow their scholarly interests, to pursue their careers, for business, for education or for a wide range of other objectives. Meanwhile, 19th-century governments of the Ottoman Empire and of Arab countries sent serving or prospective government officials to study and broaden their skills overseas. On the whole, this flow of privileged individuals to and fro led to the creation of a Mediterranean elite that moved confidently between European and Arab and Ottoman cultures and traditions.","quote":"The cosmopolitan elite of Europe and the Arab and Ottoman world felt equally comfortable on both shores of the Mediterranean Sea."},"5c265d5f-dc71-50e5-b270-1bb03856d643":{"title":"Cairo"},"5c66c927-955f-576c-b008-4d11ad7275fe":{"title":"Urban Planning and the Instruments of Planning","description":"As city planning involves the provision of public and private spaces for the city’s inhabitants, thus changes in society and lifestyle naturally alter the texture of urban environments and methods of planning. Architects use plans to shape their ideas and constructions, while maps are created to document, represent and provide orientation.  \n  \nThe location, and the shape of public and private places in the urban texture, must necessarily therefore respond to several concerns: the local climate and environment, the materials available there, the needs of the community, the economy, and even military, and other symbolic representations of the society and its leaders. Modern urban planning was born in the 19th century and can be seen to have begun with the reshaping of Paris by Georges-Eugène Haussmann, who looked back to the architectural vocabulary of European Absolutist power in order to reflect the contemporary emerging hegemony of industry, trade, commerce and banking, and their trustees, the bourgeoisie. He created the new Paris on a grid pattern, with wide, open, axial boulevards, streets and squares, which were lined with majestic-looking public and private buildings. The new city plan, characterised by impressive public buildings and separate residential areas, reflected the constantly moving rhythm of life in the service of commerce and consumerism.  \n  \nHaussmann’s work represents a turning point in European town planning and was also extremely influential in Arab and Ottoman city planning; however, city planning in Ottoman and Arab lands was also informed by the transmission of ideas of European architects and directives that came via Ottoman mediation."},"5e1223af-571b-58f9-b500-129674d98985":{"title":"Italy from 1815 to 1860: The Italian *Risorgimento*","description":"In 1815, the Treaty of Vienna restored the pre-Napoleonic monarchies. Italy was divided into several small states, ruled by absolute monarchies. Much of northern Italy was under the Austrian Empire.  \n  \nSoon afterwards, among urban middle classes, a movement for constitutional rule and for Italian national unification started (the Risorgimento). In 1820–21 and 1831, liberals attempted constitutional coups in different states.  \n  \nIn 1848–49, new uprisings broke out in different parts of Italy and republics were proclaimed in Rome and Venice (they were rapidly crushed). The King of Sardinia granted a constitution, which in 1861 would become Italy’s constitution.  \n  \nIn 1859–60, a combination of popular insurrections and military intervention by the Kingdom of Sardinia transformed Italy into a nation state ruled by a constitutional monarchy."},"5e77e019-0190-54e4-aba4-3367a88312c5":{"title":"Trading routes by water","description":"The main maritime routes for European and Arab and Ottoman trade either went down the Danube and through the Black Sea or directly criss-crossed the Mediterranean, conveying an array of products and raw materials from European cities and ports to North African and Near Eastern entrepôts. European colonial powers, particularly the UK, also held crucial commercial ties with the Arab lands bordering the Red Sea and the Gulf areas, vital arteries for their trade with India. Europe’s trade with the Arabian Peninsula – and the Indian Ocean beyond – intensified from the late 19th century, after the construction of the Suez Canal in 1869 established a direct link between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, significantly shortening the time in which goods could be carried to and from that part of the world.","quote":"A complex network of sea routes connected the economic centres of Europe and the Arab and Ottoman world throughout the Mediterranean and beyond, extending into the Atlantic in the west, the Black Sea in the east and, via the Red Sea and the Gulf, to the Indian Ocean in the south and beyond."},"5ec1519b-da0d-5ea9-94f2-953fa0a42c81":{"title":"Postal services and telecommunications","description":"Before the 19th century, postal services were almost completely dependent on transportation. With the development of new modes of transport, communication was raised to a new, higher level. In the 19th century, national postal services were established as state enterprises whose material form was shown in elaborate buildings (post offices) designated for these services. Post offices were integrated with other new means that speeded up communication, from telegraphs to telephones. The introduction of modern postal services helped to standardise the postal infrastructure in the European, Arab and Ottoman territories, although differences in the presentation of those services, including their aesthetic presentation, persisted. The most important consequences of the development of postal services were not only the improvement of communication but also its strategic and commercial use. The development of postal services is an expression of political and administrative reforms and major transformations in the European, Arab and Ottoman territories."},"5ee31feb-a47c-5b1e-880a-f8fdf7190af6":{"title":"The Vassal state (1833–78)","description":"In 1833, Serbia gained autonomy within the Ottoman Empire, thus becoming a vassal, i.e. a tributary principality with a hereditary ruler. The first prince was Miloš Obrenović, and the capital of the Principality of Serbia was in Kragujevac. By a *Hatišerif* (Turkish edict), from 1833, Serbia gained freedom of religion and the possibility that Serbs, instead of Greeks up until then, could be elected Metropolitan or Patriarch in Belgrade. In 1835, Serbia gained its first Constitution. In 1842, Karađorđe’s son, Prince Aleksandar Karađorđević, came to power, which marked the beginning of the rule of the Karađorđević Dynasty. At that time, the capital was moved to Belgrade. In 1848, Serbs raised a revolution in the part of the Austrian Empire populated by Serbs, and proclaimed the autonomous region *Srpsko Vojvodstvo* (the Serbian Duchy). In 1859, the Obrenović Dynasty regained power. The period between 1876 and 1878 was marked by wars against Turkey."},"60a40908-c4c6-5248-b072-af9645586a40":{"title":"The shadow of India","description":"Between 1815 and 1922, the United Kingdom, consisting of England, Wales, Scotland and the whole of Ireland, is a successful industrial nation slowly shuffling towards democracy. During the century, Britain accumulates overseas territories in all continents, but authority is delegated to those countries where white settlers dominate – Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Britain’s principal Asian interest is the Indian Empire, built up by private initiative. This interest shadows attitudes toward the Arab world and the Turkish Ottoman Empire. Victorian experts in the Middle East – many of whom have knowledge of Islam and the Turkish and Arabic languages, like Richard Burton – come to these studies from India and familiarity with Persia. Strategists during this period debate whether the Ottoman Empire should or should not be upheld as a bulwark against an expanding Russia, seen also as a threat to Indian possessions. There have been long-standing commercial interests, mostly based in Constantinople (Istanbul), Smyrna (Izmir) and Aleppo. These markets channel imports from farther east. The development of steam power brings the eastern Mediterranean world closer to Britain; over the century, fuelling stations – Aden, Cyprus, Egypt – are acquired, facilitating routes to India, especially after the Suez Canal is opened in 1869."},"61060da6-f4f8-5783-8348-d63a8992aaaa":{"title":"Inspired by the past","description":"The rediscovery of ancient civilisations – Egyptian, Assyrian, Hittite and Phoenician – captured the public imagination. Visitors flocked to see the newly excavated monuments. Books describing the discoveries sold in huge quantities. Public lectures were unfailingly popular.  \n  \nEveryone wanted to show off his or her knowledge of archaeology and appreciation of the new artistic styles. “Egyptomania” took hold repeatedly: first after Napoleon’s expedition, revived when the Suez Canal was built in 1869, and again in 1920s, with the discovery of Tut-ankh-amun’s tomb.  \n  \nArchaeological discoveries combined with oriental fantasies, stories from the Bible, tales from the Greeks and translations of the *One Thousand and One Nights*, to make the Arab World, ancient and modern, an irresistible source of inspiration for art, music, theatre, decorative arts and architecture. An enthused populace funded exploration, excavation and survey work."},"6164eec8-6a4e-5117-8d8d-de5f56fb3ede":{"title":"Turkish War of Independence and the new Turkish state","description":"The Turkish War of Independence was a political and military struggle aimed at protecting the unity of the country according to Misak-ı Milli (the National Oath), declared after occupation of the country by the allied forces following World War I. The Turkish War of Independence (1919–22), which in the physical sense ended with the Mudanya Ceasefire signed on 11 October 1922, officially ended with the Lausanne Peace Treaty signed on 24 July 1923. The new independent Turkish Republic was declared on 29 October 1923, following the political and military accomplishments of M. Kemal Atatürk and the Turkish people.","extra":{"image_captions":{"mwnf3_sharing_history:sh_countries_historicalbackground_images:87":{"en":{"name":"The Second Grand National Assembly of Turkey, Ankara (1923)"}}}}},"62f123a7-095e-5241-8304-1e6339bba997":{"title":"Communication and self-representation","description":"Each International Exhibition produced its own official iconography relating to the innovative message that characterised it, both in terms of industrial and technological progress and also as propaganda to promote various political objectives. The Crystal Palace Exhibition of 1851 attracted six million visitors, representing mass communication, a forerunner to mass media, never witnessed before. Promotional activities undertaken by the press along with the issue of many dedicated handouts published in the participating countries were central to the popularity of these exhibitions, while manifestos and satire documented the excesses of self-congratulation, popular perceptions and the changing mood. On a political level, the exhibitions offered an excellent international stage for self-promotion; good examples of this are seen in the coverage of the official visits of Isma‘il Pasha of Egypt and that of the Ottoman Sultan ‘Abd al-‘Aziz (Abdülaziz) as a guest of Napoleon III to the exhibition held in Paris in 1867. Two years later there was a similar ceremony at Ismaïlia to mark the opening of the Suez Canal.","quote":"The Universal Exhibitions represent one of the first forms of mass communication."},"63474ffb-c3e0-57ee-bff5-a0a21d0dd431":{"title":"Jewish pilgrimage","description":"According to Judaism, the required thrice-yearly pilgrimage focuses on the Western Wall of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, as this is believed to be closest to the spot where the Holy of Holies of the First Temple was situated before its destruction. From the mid-19th century onwards, piety and messianic fervour spurred unprecedented numbers of Jews, from as far afield as Morocco and Russia, to visit and indeed settle in the Holy Land. A visit to Jerusalem was often combined with a tour of the wider region, taking in the Tombs of the Patriarchs – most importantly those of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob – and those of the Matriarchs Sara, Leah and Rebecca, situated in Hebron. Visits to commemorative sites had great spiritual significance for believers, for as the Talmud explains, prayers at the graveside of someone who was holy during their lifetime have a greater chance of being accepted and bring blessings on both the supplicant and the deceased.","quote":"“I was glad when they said to me ‘Let us go to the house of the Lord!’” (Psalm 122)"},"642ab2e9-47e1-5dc5-b081-ec393614e681":{"title":"International exhibitions and new urban architecture","description":"Architecture was a key component of the International Exhibitions, the grandeur of which had a significant effect on urban development. The Crystal Palace was an unprecedented innovation. Built in Hyde Park for the Great Exhibition in London in 1851, with the interior decorated by the designer-architect Owen Jones, the building was a triumph of steel-and-glass architecture that made a marked impact on the evolution of architectural style and building methods. The concept of erecting a single building was gradually abandoned: for the Paris Exhibition held in Paris in 1855 an entire complex of buildings was constructed. All host countries aspired to significant Exhibition architecture as a symbol of modernity and cosmopolitanism, and in many cases, the architecture has endured as a symbol of the city. Many of the buildings erected for Exhibitions drew inspiration from Islamic architecture; similarly, contact with the West through World’s Fairs fostered the development of a “neo-Islamic” style in the Arab and Ottoman world.","quote":"“The expositions changed the medium through which Islamic architecture was introduced to the West from drawings and descriptions to actual buildings.” (Zeynep Çelik)"},"64f60dd3-194b-56c2-b9be-509c56f6d9c4":{"title":"Balkan Wars","extra":{"hb_general_type":"topic"}},"661461d8-cd67-5317-a732-8c12ea920cff":{"title":"Trading routes","description":"As overland routes directly connecting Europe and the Arab and Ottoman territories did not exist, goods between these regions were exchanged mainly through seaborne commerce across the Mediterranean. In the 19th century, maritime trade networks expanded, as mass-produced goods from Europe were imported by the Arab and Ottoman world in exchange for important raw materials. Meanwhile, trading routes criss-crossing the interior ensured that those goods – carried by caravans sometimes numbering thousands of pack animals – could reach the ports or be transported inland from there. Both in Europe and the Middle East, river systems often helped to further interconnect the commercial routes by land and sea."},"667048de-d76b-576f-89d6-595d2cb9b805":{"title":"Royal and diplomatic visits","description":"Up until the 18th century, diplomatic relations between sovereign countries were maintained by regular diplomatic visits on the part of their respective ambassadors. At the beginning of the 19th century, the desire for more sustained diplomatic contact resulted in the establishment of permanent diplomatic missions. Gradually, all major European powers established embassies in Istanbul in order to ensure constant contact with the Ottoman court and access to its sultan. Embassies and consulates all over the Middle East and North Africa followed suit. In turn, towards the end of the century, Arab and Ottoman missions and embassies became an increasingly common sight in European capitals, aimed not only at consolidating diplomatic relations, but also at facilitating arrangements towards the systematic modernisation of their armies and administrations. The most important, permanent Ottoman embassies were situated in London, Paris, Berlin and Vienna. With the long-term presence of ambassadors in the different capitals of Europe and the Arab and Ottoman world, political links between the two became ever more comprehensive and far reaching, a fact that was also emphasised publicly with great pomp and circumstance through the staging of carefully choreographed state visits."},"694b7d75-a4f1-5204-a192-130d40cb4a96":{"title":"Every day forms of anti-colonial resistance","extra":{"hb_general_type":"topic"}},"699509e1-7d94-5350-a922-9a51cb4e4c3a":{"title":"Privateering and captivity in the Mediterranean","description":"Before the age of mass migration, privateering, a central and legitimate component of international relations between the 16th and the early 19th centuries, was a major cause of the forced migration of thousands. From the Mediterranean to the USA, and even in northern European waters, governments granted private shipowners and entrepreneurs the right to attack and loot enemy ships, take a share of the profits from booty and take prisoners for ransom or sale. All the major conventions signed between European powers and rulers in the Near East and North Africa mention privateering as a political, military and economic reality and regulate its geographical scope. Ransoms, tributes and the tragedy of slavery became commonplace as a result of privateering, which was mainly undertaken from Malta and Livorno on the European side and Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli in North Africa. In 1815, following the Congress of Vienna, peace in Europe, the advent of steamships and the official abolition of slavery in the mid-19th century put an end to privateering."},"699c408c-70f9-5720-bde4-11af4158bd06":{"title":"Captives","description":"Captives seized by privateers were generally dispersed far from their homelands. Spaniards, Italians, Portuguese, French, Dutch and English ended up in Tripoli, Algiers, Tunis or Salé. Muslim captives from the Maghreb and Ottoman Turkey were taken to Malta, Marseille, Spain and Italy. Captured prisoners could be freed for a ransom, usually monetary or in kind. The fate of others depended on certain criteria. The most competent could advance socially and even join the court of a sovereign, including some captured Christians of European descent who converted to Islam. For example, the Muradid Beys of Tunis descended from an Italian Corsican, while Hammuda Pasha, the great builder of Tunis, and the reformer Ahmad Pasha Bey I were born to a Genoese captive. Most captives, however, were not so lucky and ended up working on state-sponsored projects, in penal colonies and on galleys.","quote":"Some victims of the privateers' wars suffered an exceptional fate."},"69ea2e3f-c0e6-546c-8b85-aeae3456631f":{"title":"The life of European immigrant communities: Egypt and Tunisia","description":"Before the establishment of French and British protectorates over Tunisia and Egypt respectively, some European countries had negotiated with the local governments the right to run their own state institutions, such as schools and hospitals. Many of these institutions survived even under the protectorates. In part, thus, immigrants associated with their compatriots in the context of institutions that were extensions of their home countries.  \n  \nAt the same time, immigrants generated a variety of organisations that developed from the bottom up, such as workers’ friendly societies, trade unions or cultural associations. Moreover, immigrants also gave life to a vibrant press, enriching the cultural life of Tunisia and Egypt. Religious institutions and organisations also contributed in shaping the collective life of immigrants."},"6ac9a595-2814-56f2-9896-8745770060c1":{"title":"Historical Profile / Romania","extra":{"hb_type":"country"}},"6b8924bc-3d98-5a89-b39a-68fcf7535220":{"title":"Tourism of the early nineteenth century","description":"For centuries, the Arab and Ottoman world – particularly Palestine and the Holy Land – had drawn individual travellers from Europe including merchants, pilgrims, artists, scientists and adventurers. Up until around the middle of the 19th century these individuals had relied largely on their own ingenuity with regard to financing journeys, making their own way across often uncharted lands, and securing reliable modes of transport and lodgings. As such, few systems or networks were in place for those who ventured to the region and most had to make do with what local culture had to offer. Merchants could rely on a network of *khan*s or caravanserais. The more affluent travellers, often from well-connected families, travelled with the help of key contacts within the European communities of the Arab and Ottoman world, residing on the way to and at their destination with government or consular officials from their own countries or those allied to them. Pilgrims, meanwhile, depended on the networks and facilities of their religious communities, with monasteries and other religious foundations often serving as hostels for visitors. Itineraries were determined by the purpose of travel.","quote":"One contemporary enthused: “To me the Nile was source of never-ending interest and delight; ... the country road from which you see a chapter in the history of the humours of Egypt.” (Doublas Sladen)"},"6b99dfaa-ab1c-5153-b0c4-a5823a98f95c":{"title":"Fine and Applied Arts","description":"\"The Orient has helped to define Europe as its contrasting image, idea, personality, experience.\"  \nEdward Said, 1978\n\nThe 19th century is characterised as an era of exchanges and rediscoveries – between Europe and the Arab and Ottoman world – affected by travel, trade, military expeditions and technological advances. These factors, which had an effect on the production of both the fine and applied arts and also encouraged collecting practices, combined with an increasing scholarly interest in the past.  \n  \nOne characteristic development of the period is Orientalism, which is a cultural and historical movement that emerges, especially from the mid-19th century until the 1920s. European interests in the Near and Middle East, North Africa and southern Europe began in the 18th century with the popularisation of the Grand Tour, a time when curious, affluent travellers were driven by a search for antiquities and lost civilisations. At the turn of the century, military expeditions such as the French Army of Napoleon were brought alongside Western travellers who had begun to study a world different to their own and bring to light another culture and way of life. Europeans, often driven by trading opportunities, became more and more interested in travelling to explore new places and cultures in the Arab and Ottoman world.  \n  \nVisions of a different world were described through images of the “Orient” – either seen or imaginary – in painting, and also a revival of styles from the past in the applied arts. Interactions between both worlds inspired all fields of art: architecture, interior decoration and fashion as well as the fine and applied arts. In turn, the East was influenced by the presence of Westerners in the region, which resulted in traditional Islamic art taking on new forms and techniques and artists, architects and craftsmen following the contemporary artistic trends of Europe. Finally, an important source of inspiration for artists and designers was the use of new technologies, such as albumins and photographs.\n\nMina Moraitou  \nBenaki Museum, Athens, Greece  \n  \nMeliha Yaylali  \nMinistry for Culture and Tourism  \n(General Directorate for Cultural Heritage and Museums),  \nAnkara, Turkey  \n  \nAna Cabrera  \nNational Museum of Decorative Arts, Madrid, Spain  \n  \n**Copyeditor(s)**  \n  \nMandi Gomez  \nLondon, United Kingdom","extra":{"bibliography":{"en":["Behrens-Abouseif, Doris and Stephen Vernoit (eds.), *Islamic Art in the 19th Century: Tradition, Innovation and Eclecticism*, Leiden: Brill, 2006.","Bitar, Zeinat and Christine Riding, *The Light of the Orient: From the Orientalist Art Collection of H. H. Sheikh Dr. Sultan bin Mohamed Al Qasimi*, Sharjah: Sharjah Art Museum in collaboration with the Dr Sultan Al Qasimi Center for Gulf Studies, 2013.","Eldem, Edhem, *Nazlı’s Guestbook: Osman Hamdi Bey’s Circle*, İstanbul: Homer Press, 2014.","Komaroff, Linda (ed.), *Ars Orientalis: Exhibiting the Middle East. Collections and Perceptions of Islamic Art*, Michigan, MI: Ann Arbor, 2000: vol. 30.","Labrusse Rémi. (ed.), *Purs Decors? Arts de l’Islam regards du XIXe siècle*, Paris: Musée du Louvre, 2007.","Moraitou, Mina (ed.), *Of Coloured Glass: The Mando and Londos Oeconomides Collection* (Benaki Museum, 8th Supplement), Athens: Benaki Museum, 2013.","Özendes, Engin, *Photography in The Ottoman Empire 1839–1923*, İstanbul: Yapı Endüstri Merkezi Publications, 2013.","Rosser-Owen, Mariam, *Islamic Arts from Spain*, London: Victoria & Albert Museum, 2010.","Rosser-Owen, Mariam, *Arte Islámico de España*, Madrid: Turner Libros, 2010.","Shaw, Wendy M. K., *Ottoman Painting: Reflections of Western Art from the Ottoman Empire to the Turkish Republic*, New York: I. B. Tauris, 2011.","Sözen, Metin, *Turkish Decorative Arts*, İstanbul: Milliyet Press, 1999.","Vernoit, Stephen, *Occidentalism: Islamic Art in the 19th Century* (the Nassr D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, no. 23), New York: The Nour Foundation in association with Azimuth Editions and Oxford University Press, 1997.","Vernoit, Stephen (ed.), *Discovering Islamic Art: Scholars, Collectors and Collections*, London: I. B. Tauris, 2000."]},"legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","new_status":"N","project_id":"AWE"}}},"6c0c2728-2420-54e3-8612-9a1cba3fb044":{"title":"End of empires","description":"British control of Egypt is indirect. Absolute authority is wielded through the Consul General, theoretically a junior diplomat, whose superior is the British Ambassador in Constantinople. The latter decides on the detail of the country’s budget and British officials have unchallenged authority as advisors, although all nominal Ministers are Egyptian. Egypt becomes part of the European economic system. The Suez Canal, managed by an Anglo-French company, is a British imperial interest. Cairo becomes a feature of the western European, but mainly British, social season. Thomas Cook organises tours every winter for the middle classes to Upper Egypt and all the senior officers of the Egyptian army are British. Local discontent is crushed and nationalists are exiled to other parts of the British Empire. The Ottoman Empire is an ally of Britain’s enemy, Germany, in World War I and so Egypt is declared a British protectorate. The Ottoman Empire is unexpectedly resilient in the war. A confused and uncoordinated British Government, preoccupied principally by the war in western Europe, makes irreconcilable commitments in the Levant, promising independence with one hand but withholding it with the other, and also responding to Zionist pressure to support a Jewish national home in Palestine."},"6e5e08a0-ac17-54aa-8620-d6f04f29e697":{"title":"Political life (1815–70)","description":"France experienced a period of constitutional monarchy under the reigns of Louis XVIII (1815–25), Charles X (1825–10) and Louis-Philippe (1830–48). After Charles X abdicated, as a result of the three-day riot of the Parisian people, Louis Philippe faced a wave of public discontent. His abdication (February 1848) is followed by the brief return of the Republic, which establishes universal suffrage for men and restores people’s rights; thus, slavery is abolished.  \n  \nAt the end of 1848, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte is elected President of the Second Republic. After his coup d’Etat (1851), the Second Empire (1852–70) then comes to an end due to France’s defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. Leon Gambetta (1838–82) proclaims the Republic."},"6fdfdb62-87dc-5ca0-8ad8-99495962cd6c":{"title":"Social and political life","description":"Migrants brought with them not only their technical and professional skills, but also their political opinions, organisational talents and cultural interests. Political exiles created local branches of national political organisations in order to continue their political battles. Workers who had been exposed to the experience of trade unionism in their home countries contributed to the creation of trade unions. Migrants also associated for business purposes or to support each other in case of need.  \n  \nAt the same time, migrants strove to preserve their languages and cultures, at times with the direct support of their home governments. Schools were a key tool to preserve languages and a sense of national belonging. For this reason, some home countries financed schools abroad for migrants’ children.","quote":"European migrants carried with them their political ideas and organisational skills."},"71a777b1-0e19-5935-8345-b3cce89a57a0":{"title":"Architecture and Construction","description":"Architecture is the art of constructing individual buildings, integrating new buildings within existing architectural organisation and space, and constructing totally new urban or rural centres within the landscape as well.  \nWhen designing a building, an architect defines its volume, orientation and height, decides on the number of windows and doors, as well as deciding on appropriate materials, surfaces and decorative features. In cities, the architect must harmonise the building with the rest of the urban web in order to maintain overall visual order. Provision must include public and private spaces as well as residential, religious and municipal areas. These all need to meet the different requirements of users and respond to the local environment and climate. Symbolic expression is seen commonly in palace, military, municipal and governmental architecture. How buildings appear depends very much on the building materials used, its purpose, and who commissioned it, but modes of fashion and advances in materials and techniques also impact on their appearance.  \nIn the 19th century new aesthetic canons, construction techniques and materials were employed by architects working in Europe as well as in the Arab and Ottoman world. European influences on Arab and Ottoman architecture are notable in several ways: the change to solid, high buildings constructed along wide, long axial streets and squares, and the integration of commercial centres and new residential complexes among traditional mosques, markets and family houses."},"72747f8c-e712-5499-a088-c8054e9b4aa6":{"title":"Water: The fount of all life","description":"Although often associated with the desert, the Arab and Ottoman world had a deep cultural connection to water. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, those territories included agricultural countries, hence the importance of water for irrigation, but it was also important as a communication route and for hygiene and religious purity. Irrigation and public use of water had for centuries been organised and distributed using technologies that varied from country to country. At the beginning of the 19th century, Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha in Egypt inaugurated the construction of works to improve agricultural production and export. In the following decades, across the Ottoman Empire, dams and public hydraulic works were built using European expertise and know-how. The Arab and Ottoman world was exporting raw materials to Europe, increasing its dependence on the great powers. Reforms and public works were a result of the autonomous initiative of sultans, pashas and khedives, but the long-term consequences were controversial."},"73230be2-a288-5caf-aab3-6d6a1dc99584":{"title":"Making a career working for the sultan","description":"Since the onset of their rule in the 16th century, the Ottoman sultans had not only ruled over a multicultural empire but had regularly employed governmental officials and military officers from a wide range of ethnic backgrounds. During the 19th century, their ranks were joined by European professionals, some having fled their home countries for political reasons. Further opportunity for such individuals arose in the years 1839–76, a period known as “Tanzimat” (lit. reorganisation). Throughout those years, the Ottoman Empire underwent extensive reform, its administration and military increasingly opened up to European and non-Muslim professionals. In 1856 a government decree granted Muslims and non-Muslims equal obligations in terms of military service and equal opportunities for state employment.","quote":"Some skilled and ambitious Europeans fleeing persecution or seeking a more prosperous life found that the Ottoman Empire and North Africa provided good career opportunities."},"74050d04-8c6c-5ad0-9c80-9ac46f59d8c2":{"title":"Dance and entertainment","description":"In the Arab and Ottoman world dance and entertainment had been closely connected with religion and local traditions, but this all changed in the 19th century when expressions of Islamic mysticism through dance were reinvented as an “exotic” element in entertainment that was far removed from its original social and historical context. As a result of increased relations with Europe, the Ottoman and Arab urban landscape was reshaped to accommodate the establishment of new dance and entertainments venues, including bars, coffee shops, cafes, theatres and opera houses, regardless of the effect that the modernisation effort had on religion and tradition. In the 19th century, the diffusion of stories from the *Arabian Nights* introduced new elements to artistic expression and a new style of dance and entertainment in Europe emerged. In the early 20th century, modernism and the ongoing impact of Orientalism also found expression in dance. Modern dance developed with renewed interest in the “other” as well as in alternative styles of dance, in opposition to the rules of classical ballet. These dance forms were seen to belong in worlds that were distant in terms of space, time and culture; ancient Greece, the Arab world, Japan, the Pacific, Africa and India and Afro-American."},"766e7876-319d-5edb-809e-b36bb516537c":{"title":"Important trading hubs","description":"In the wake of rapid industrialisation and the expansion of international trade, many ports around the Mediterranean, the Middle East and Europe grew into bustling economic hubs. Due to the increasing transfer and exchange of commodities and the introduction of steamship services, the most important ones – whether for export, import or transit trade – underwent state-of-the art modernisation, generally supported by European investment and built by European firms. Ports had close strategic links with the main trading centres inland as well as across the seaways. Like the former, they were characterised by an ever-increasing multi-ethnic and multi-faith population. In many places, foreign minorities lived and worked peacefully with and alongside local residents, while at the same time preserving their own distinct culture, language and faith. Typically, specific communities specialised in specific aspects of the economy and maintained their own intra-regional or international networks."},"77e9c212-47c7-5247-ba99-903d861af98d":{"title":"North–South movements","description":"Between 1815 and 1920, hundreds of thousands of Europeans migrated to North Africa and the Middle East. By contrast, migration from the Southern Mediterranean to European countries was unusual.  \n  \nMost migrants were poor workers from Mediterranean islands (Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, Corsica, the Balearic Islands and Greece). Some middle-class people also migrated, sometimes for political reasons. Many settled in rural areas, but most European migrants settled in towns such as Izmir, Beirut, Alexandria, Cairo, Tunis, Algiers and Tangier.  \n  \nBy and large, European mass migration to Southern Mediterranean countries started before colonialism. For example, when in the early 1880s Tunisia and Egypt fell under respectively French and British control, large European communities were already living there.  \n  \nAlgeria was different: there mass European settlement was triggered by French colonisation, which started in 1830; by 1912, 800,000 Europeans had settled there. In colonial situations, Europeans were privileged over the local population, causing conflicts that at times took a racial character."},"77f3baa0-352e-5af0-9c5e-bbaa213b553e":{"title":"Men’s clothing, traditional and military","description":"Men’s clothing, which in previous centuries had been what marked the trend, became an aspect of fashion that rarely changed in the 19th century. The influence of military clothing on civilian dress was very marked. For men, the headdress (hat) or other details was used to indicate belonging to a specific ethnic group. Unlike women’s dress, which underwent significant changes at this time (particularly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries), men’s clothing in Europe and the Arab and Ottoman world did not change significantly in terms of shape, although different raw materials started to be used, with cotton becoming more common in some garments.","quote":"“[T]he fez was introduced by Mahmud II ... the effect on turban-makers ... was devastating although tassel-makers saw their profits soar, for fez tassels had to be replaced at least once a year.” (From Philippa Scott)"},"77fd6ce2-6118-5d1c-a682-046646e098fb":{"title":"Travelling","description":"“The traveller sees what he sees; the tourist sees what he has come to see.” (G. K. Chesterton)\n\nThe many interconnections between the Arab and Ottoman world and Europe have increased over the course of history. As political and economic ties between the two regions intensified, so too did the motivations for travel and the extent of the journeys undertaken. With the help of modern transportation and communications, diplomatic delegations and royal visits now became more frequent, often underlined by the exchange of symbolic luxury gifts. The number of religious travellers within regions, to the Holy Land and across the Islamic world increased, with a number of tour operators beginning to offer tailor-made itineraries. By the second half of the 19th century, the first manifestations of organised mass tourism, aimed at a middle-class clientele, led to the emergence of related service industries, ranging from translation services to Western-style transport, cuisine, accommodation, bespoke travel gear and souvenir production. Meanwhile, scientific exploration and research, particularly in the field of archaeology, also gathered pace. As a result of the intensified encounter between Europe and the Arab and Ottoman world since the 18th century, Europe’s romantic fascination with the “Orient” also expressed itself in architectural and artistic evocations back home – each physical or literary artwork a mirage of things seen or imagined while travelling.\n\nMatthias Pfaffenbichler  \nKunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria  \n  \nSahar Saad  \nQatar Museum Auhority, Doha, Qatar  \n  \nUlrike Al-Khamis  \nSharjah Museums Authority, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates  \n  \n**Copyeditor(s)**  \n  \nMandi Gomez  \nLondon, United Kingdom","extra":{"bibliography":{"en":["Behdad, Ali, and Gartlan, Luke (eds), *Photography's Orientalism: New Essays on Colonial Representation*, Los Angeles: Getty Publications, Series Issues & Debates, 2013.","Brill Online Primary Sources (advisor: M. van den Boogert), *Western Travellers in the Islamic World Online*, Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2006.","Chapman III, Rupert L. et al. Tourists, *Travellers and Hotels in 19th-Century Jerusalem*, Palestine Exploration Fund Annuals, 2013.","Daher, Rami Farouk (ed.), *Tourism in the Middle East*, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 2006.","Fortenberry, Diane (ed.), *Who Travels Sees More: Artists, Architects, and Archaeologists Discover Egypt and the Near East*, Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2007.","Fortenberry, Diane (ed.), *Souvenirs and New Ideas*, Oxford: Oxbow Books in association with ASTENE, 2013.","Fortenberry, Diane and Deborah Manley (eds.), *Saddling the Dogs: Journeys through Egypt and the Near East*, Oxford: Oxbow Books in association with ASTENE, 2009.","MacKenzie, John, *Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts*, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995.","MacLean, Gerald, *The Rise of Oriental Travel: English Visitors to the Ottoman Empire 1580–1720*, Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2004.","Salahi, Katherine (ed.), *Knowledge is Light: Travellers in the Near East*, Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2011.","Schiffer, Reinhold, *Oriental Panorama: British Travellers in 19th-century Turkey*, Amsterdam and Georgia: Editions Rodopi, 1999.","Starkey, Paul and Nadia El Kholy (eds.), *Egypt Through the Eyes of Travellers*, Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2002."]},"legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","new_status":"N","project_id":"AWE"},"disabled_bibliography":{"en":["العطار،عبد الله عبد الحميد، حسام الدين، محمد، البحناسي، صلح، عبد العزيز، محمد، تركي، طارق (إلخ)، ألفن المملوكي. عظمة وسحر السلاطين*، القاهرة: الدار المصرية اللبنانية، 2001. TEST*","Hamdi El-Attar, Abdullah Abd al-Hamid, Hossam El-Din, Mohamed, El-Bahnasi, Salah, Abd El-Aziz, Mohamed, Torky, Tarek (among others), *Mamluk Art. Splendour and Magic of the Sultans*, Cairo: Dar al-Masriya al-Lubnaniya, 2010. TEST","Hamdi El-Attar, Abdullah Abd al-Hamid, Hossam El-Din, Mohamed, El-Bahnasi, Salah, Abd El-Aziz, Mohamed, Torky, Tarek (among others), *Art Mamelouk. Splendeur et Magie des Sultans*, Cairo: Dar al-Masriya al-Lubnaniya, 2003.","Family name 1, Given name 1 (ed.), *Title and possible subtitle of the publication 1*, London, Publisher, 2013 \\[Navigation language EN\\]","Family name 2, Given name 2 (ed.), *Title and possible subtitle of the publication 2*, London, Publisher, 2013 \\[Navigation language EN\\]","Family name 3, Given name 3 (ed.), *Title and possible subtitle of the publication 3*, London, Publisher, 2013 \\[Navigation language EN\\]"],"es":["Hamdi El-Attar, Abdullah Abd al-Hamid, Hossam El-Din, Mohamed, El-Bahnasi, Salah, Abd El-Aziz, Mohamed, Torky, Tarek (entre otros), *L'Art Mamelouk. Splendeur et Magie des Sultans*, El Cairo: Al-Dar al-Masriya al-Lubnaniya, 2001.","Family name 1, Given name 1 (coord.), *Title and possible subtitle of the publication 1*, Londres, éditor, 2013 \\[Navigation language SP\\]","Family name 2, Given name 2 (coord.), *Title and possible subtitle of the publication 2*, Londres, éditor, 2013 \\[Navigation language SP\\]","Family name 3, Given name 3 (coord.), *Title and possible subtitle of the publication 3*, Londres, éditor, 2013 \\[Navigation language SP\\]"]}}},"7888f842-0c26-5030-a87a-95f171c11d78":{"title":"Encountering the West","description":"During the 19th century, Western influence is apparent in all aspects of life including the arts and architecture. Expeditions to the Middle East and the search for new markets by Europeans coincided with a period of redefinition of identity – between new and traditional patterns of behaviour – in the Islamic world. Artists, who sought to incorporate their own cultural vocabulary into their work, were now influenced by European trends. One of the more characteristic examples of this influence is the introduction of portraiture in painting. Many artists of the region travelled to Europe, where they were trained in the latest styles, which they then used to create distinctive images."},"7a761143-34b3-5d3d-94f8-4f03d07ceb20":{"title":"Sharing war: participation of Arab soldiers in colonial armies","extra":{"hb_general_type":"topic"}},"7b509309-9a8a-56fc-b67b-65eb938b39eb":{"title":"Commercial cities","description":"In the course of the 19th century, many inland towns and cities in the Middle East and Europe grew into major economic and industrial as well as political and intellectual hubs at the crossroads of trade routes connecting land and sea. Several expanded considerably due to a steady influx of economic migrants and traders. On the other hand, formerly prosperous centres could also decline because of wars, the detrimental impact of mass-produced goods on traditional local industries and crafts or the redirection of trade routes. Cities maintained rapidly expanding lines of communication with strategic ports and the surrounding countryside, both of which supplied essential food stuffs, raw materials and, increasingly foreign, consumer goods. While the international trade from Middle Eastern ports was often dominated by non-Muslims and foreigners, the trade to and throughout the interior – which continued to far outweigh the former in terms of volume – was largely overseen by Muslim merchants.","quote":"During the 19th century, many Middle Eastern and European towns turned into crucial strategic hubs due to their location at the crossroads of trade routes connecting land and sea."},"7bff97d4-e4df-5f47-99dc-d2cc3bdd19f7":{"title":"Working conditions","description":"In the 19th-century, in both Europe and the Arab and Ottoman world, working conditions were generally very trying for artisans, workers and peasants. Equipment was still often rudimentary and required significant physical effort to operate. The development of machines helped to produce more, but these machines were dangerous. Labour laws were still in their infancy, and working conditions were tough with very long days, night work, child labour and inadequate protection against accidents at work. Numerous illnesses were linked to working conditions, such as pulmonary illnesses among miners. Philanthropists, doctors, politicians and associations highlighted this state of affairs and denounced it.","quote":"“Evil work that takes tender youth in its grip,  \nThat produces wealth by creating misery,  \nThat uses a child as just another tool!” Victor Hugo"},"7d68e2e9-6d60-5c4f-938e-3972cbd0cc77":{"title":"Encountering the East","description":"Orientalism is a European cultural and historical movement that took hold in the early 19th century and continued into the early 20th century. European interest in the Near East and North Africa and in the Arabian Peninsula and Spain as well, began in the 18th century and increased in the early 19th century. The interest was inspired by economic and geopolitical factors, by the unearthing of the ancient remains of far-off civilisations and growing knowledge about different cultures and ways of life. This appreciation (the vision of the “Other”) was disseminated to Europeans thanks to engravings, paintings and photographs. The use of new technologies such as print editions and photography were important sources of inspiration for artists and designers. In the applied arts, practitioners were inspired by Islamic and Ottoman art and the decorative schemes used in architecture, interior decoration, fashion and the applied arts. Some painters travelled to Spain, the Balkans or the Arab and Ottoman world to depict or photograph what they saw in situ; others took inspiration from illustrations and photographs."},"7daf4e56-7916-55bf-b2dd-0ae9987d6a26":{"title":"The urban skyline and city plans","description":"The traditional Islamic city grew up almost organically, naturally, interspersed with pious building complexes around mosques, other large devotional edifices and market places that opened onto airy public and private courtyards from which peripheral public spaces, thronged with small lanes, could be reached. At this time the focal points of the skyline were the domes of mosques and minarets, which rose up as physical and spiritual points of orientation, the pillars of all human life.  \n  \nThe physical and visual changes that occurred in Arab and Ottoman cities were due both to the evolution of the local community’s needs and were also the result of political, economic and cultural interactions with Europe. Architectural and planning ideas from Europe greatly altered the urban texture and skyline of Islamic cities, with new public buildings arranged along axial lines and around grand squares. Now the domes and minarets that had once dominated the city’s skyline vied for attention among many other tall buildings, including clock towers, which introduced additional points of orientation and signalled the importance of the organisation of time in the industrial era.","quote":"The rhythm and harmony of street views and skylines, the balance between the green and the built-up areas, the width of streets, height of buildings and the materials and colours of a city, these are all key elements of appropriate city planning."},"7ea608e5-28ee-58f5-a1ce-2f16aeb062b6":{"title":"Telegraph","description":"The telegraph had been an established means of communication since the 1840s. The first telegraph model had been invented by Claude Chappe at the end of the 18th century. Althought its use was not limited to the military context, the telegraph was well known as an instrument for fast communication during military campaigns. Napoleon was the first to understand the military importance of telegraph, and the Crimean War was the background for its use by all the parties involved. The discovery of the electromagnetic phenomenon in 1828 resulted in major achievements in the field of electric communications. However, it was Samuel Morse’s improvements that made the telegraph system become both practical and commercially viable in 1835. Morse invented a system of dots and dashes to transmit communication electrically, which came to be known as Morse Code. This system was modified later to become the International Code. Telegraph was the predominant tool of communication until Bell, while working on improving the telegraph, invented the telephone by which not codes but speech was transmitted electrically in 1877.","quote":"For the first time in human history this device made distant communication possible."},"7f50e063-1662-580e-94f4-644217202d69":{"title":"Istanbul"},"7f5a877e-ce20-5120-82a7-768e5256f813":{"title":"Religious buildings","description":"Religious buildings or sites are sacred places where the presence of God is manifest and the boundaries between the sacred and the profane connect; they are also where the worldly and the transcendent meet in terms of the donor, who hopes that the offering will attract God’s favour.  \n  \nTraditional societies saw their fundaments in the presence and power of God in the universe, thus religious buildings were the focal point of the city both physically and symbolically. A significant number of religious buildings in Arab and Ottoman lands have left evidence that different faiths coexisted among cultures and societies. A wide range of religious buildings pertain to Christian worship, including burial sites and other types of mausoleums, churches, monasteries and other religious monuments. Mosques and minarets are the most apparent and significant sites of the Islamic faith, which remained identifying and determining elements of the Islamic urban structure even during the colonial era. Temples, mosques, churches, tombs and mausoleums all betray layers of civilisations past and present.","quote":"Among architectural types, the religious and sacred express most visibly humankind’s eternal efforts to represent, reveal and reach the transcendent and eternal."},"7f61f389-ca07-5cd7-b6f4-8ba5035ade10":{"title":"1910–1920: The Republican regime","description":"On 5 October 1910 the Republican regime was proclaimed at Lisbon Town Hall. Manuel de Arriaga was elected the first Republican president under the New Constitution of 1911. The regime tried to “turn the country upside down” in order to create a new Portugal with a clear separation between the state and the church. Different Republican governments placed great importance on the African colonial empire and tried to make various social and cultural changes in Portugal. But social movements, with a high number of strikes, and the political and social consequences of the tragic military participation in World War I in the Battle of the Lys brought the regime great unpopularity. By 1917 Major Sidónio Pais emerged as the sole candidate to be the president. He won the election, but political and social conflicts grew. He was assassinated by a Republican in December 1918 at Lisbon railway station. The Republican state then entered a period of crisis."},"80829a73-ac69-5cee-8199-362e31f6d85f":{"title":"General HB in EN","extra":{"hb_type":"general"}},"80fc476b-afc9-5dd7-8309-754508f47880":{"title":"Seafaring","description":"During the 19th century seafaring was crucial for communication. When the steam engine was applied to sea transport, steamships gradually replaced sailing ships and the ports became key hubs for commerce and travel between the European and Arab and Ottoman shores. Seafaring in general demanded scientific and technical skills and knowledge including navigating with the help of maps and compasses; steamship handling required specialised technical knowledge in the fields of communication and mechanical engineering. Political, economic and social factors marked the modernisation of seafaring. A modern port, a steamship or a modern fleet represented the competition between different powers for control of sea routes. Under colonialism seafaring was tailored to the needs of the motherland.","quote":"Further, faster and cheaper. Steamships changed the traditional seafaring routes and colonies across the high seas were made possible."},"812282d8-514d-59c8-a359-3c92317bdfc4":{"title":"Printing and photography","description":"During the 19th century, printing technology developed further and new technologies (e.g. steam-powered machinery, lithography, four-colour printing and the rotary press) facilitated the production of books and newspapers.  \n  \nThe technique of lithography crossed with the experiments of the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, who invented the first photograph in 1826, had greatly enhanced published materials. Photography techniques developed throughout the 19th century. People, monuments and events such as the Crimean War were photographed. New printing technologies provided the basis for the diffusion of political and cultural ideas and most importantly for shaping public opinion. In the Ottoman Empire, the Tanzimat (reforms issued by the Ottoman sultans from 1839) promoted newspapers in local languages and provided a legal framework for the press (Press and Journalism Regulation Code, 1864). The printing of books, periodicals and newspapers played an important role in advancing the ideas of *Nahda* (renaissance) in the Arab and Ottoman world.","quote":"Printing and photography changed the cultural and political life of society in many decisive ways."},"81a1ec61-70b1-59bd-9ce3-beb6a239541a":{"title":"Ottoman Perspective","description":"Wars, treaties, revolts, migration, natural disaster, disease and the appetite of the ruling class for radical change are all features of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century. During this period, the partition of the Ottoman Empire by the Great Powers was called “the Eastern Question”. The Ottoman administrators used “balance of power” diplomacy to protect their territorial integrity.  \n  \n**“Any port in a storm”**  \n  \nSultan Mahmud II continued the reform programme begun by Sultan Selim III under the name of *Nizam-ı Cedit* (New Order) to strengthen the central authority and establish a permanent relationship with the European Great Powers. In 1826, as a reforming measure the sultan replaced the Janissary corps with a new army.  \n  \nInfluenced by the French Revolution, the *millet* groups (self-governing non-Muslim communities organised by religious affiliation) under Ottoman sovereignty tried to establish nation states; first the Serbs (1804) and the Greeks (1821) followed by others. By the Treaty of Edirne (1829) that ended the Russo–Turkish war the sultan promised autonomy for Greece.  \n  \nMehmet Ali Pasha’s rebellion in 1832 obliged Sultan Mahmud II to ask for Russian military aid, enabling Russia to establish naval superiority in the Black Sea. As part of its balance of power policy, the Ottoman administrators gave economic privileges to the United Kingdom in 1838 (Treaty of Balta Limanı).  \n  \n**Joining the Concert of Europe**  \n  \nThe Tanzimat Edicts (1839, granting basic rights to all Ottoman citizens) and Islahat (1856, giving equality to all citizens before the law), aimed at preventing European intervention, also gave strength to the national uprisings begun in the Balkans. In 1848, Hungarian and Polish revolutionaries came to the Ottoman Empire as refugees, some playing an important role in Ottoman reform efforts.  \n  \nIn 1849, Sultan Abdülmecid I reorganised the Ottoman administration in Yemen where the United Kingdom, France and Germany wanted coaling stations for their ships. Under the Treaty of Paris (1856), which ended the Crimean War, the Ottoman Empire was admitted into the Concert of Europe.  \n  \n**The sultan’s observation of progress in Europe**  \n  \nIn 1861, the Ottoman government published the Lebanon Regulations to solve conflicts between Christians and Druzes there. Lebanon saw the rise of an Arab nationalist movement whose Christian leaders had graduated from American and European missionary schools. In 1865, the Young Ottomans began to establish opposition against the bureaucratic domination of Ali Paşa and Fuad Paşa.  \n  \nIn 1867, invited by Napoleon III to the International Exhibition in Paris, Sultan Abdülaziz travelled to European cities including Paris, London and Vienna, where he could personally observe progress in Europe.  \n  \nIn 1869, the opening of the Suez Canal accelerated competition between the Great Powers over control of the Indian dominions and trade routes via the Gulf of Aden.  \n  \n**Master of pan-Islamism**  \n  \nIn 1877, in the reign of Sultan Abdülhamid II, the first Ottoman parliament representing all Ottoman peoples was opened but was short-lived.  \n  \nAfter the Treaty of Berlin (ending the Russo–Turkish War of 1877–78) the United Kingdom’s policy of protecting Ottoman territorial integrity was abolished and Ottoman foreign policy changed in favour of Germany, whose aim was to use the power of Caliphate against the United Kingdom and Russia in the Balkans, Caucasia and India.  \n  \nThe pan-Islamist policy of Sultan Abdülhamid II could not prevent the spread of the separatist Arab nationalist movement. The Sultan sent many Ottoman pashas to Yemen to introduce reforms to prevent revolts under the leadership of the Imamate.  \n  \nAfter 1895, the Young Ottomans movement turned into the Young Turks movement aiming to re-establish the Ottoman constitutional regime. In 1908, Sultan Abdülhamid II had to declare the Second Constitution and after the 31 March Rebellion (13 April 1909) he was dethroned by the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP).  \n  \n**The sultan in the shadow of the CUP**  \n  \nSultan Mehmed Reşad II ascended to the throne but the CUP took control of the administration. At the end of the Balkan Wars, the Ottoman Balkan territories were shared by the Balkan states. Muslim and many Jewish populations migrated to İstanbul, İzmir and other Anatolian cities.  \n  \nIn 1909, the CUP established the non-governmental Navy Society (Donanma Cemiyeti), which placed orders for warships from the great European shipyards financed with the help of Muslims worldwide including from Yemen and India. In 1914, the seizure of two newly built Ottoman warships by the United Kingdom and the shelling of the Russian Black Sea ports by two German warships under the Ottoman flag were two pretexts for World War I.  \n  \nThe CUP’s policy of political Turkism as a result of the loss of Balkan territories caused new discontent among the Arab tribes, some of whom were encouraged to revolt against the Ottoman Empire after 1916.  \n  \nAfter the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, Russia made public secret treaties that had been made with the European powers about the partition of the Ottoman Empire. The White Russians who took refuge in Istanbul enlivened the economic, social and cultural life in İstanbul.  \n  \nIn 1917, the United Kingdom confirmed support for the establishment of a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine, accelerating Jewish immigration to the region.  \n  \nIn 1918, the Armistice of Mondros signed at the end of World War I resulted in the decline of the Ottoman Empire. The Turkish national movement became stronger. Some Ottoman ruling elites of Arabian origin went to Syria, Iraq and Egypt and other countries to contribute to the establishment of modern Arab states.  \n  \nBahri Ata, Ankara","extra":{"hb_general_type":"perspective"}},"838f5bd7-a96f-5e2e-87b5-0d85c22d1587":{"title":"Privateering in the Mediterranean","description":"Unlike pirates, privateers were legal operators commissioned by sovereign states to attack enemy ships and coastal villages. All privateering activities were governed and regulated by inter-governmental treaties. Among the booty taken, more than a million Christians and Muslims are assumed to have been captured in the Mediterranean between 1500 and 1800. The Ottomans meanwhile, who controlled the Levantine and Anatolian coasts as well as those of the Balkans, captured around 3 million prisoners. Captives rarely saw home again. Many were sold and enslaved. Others rose to fame, fortune and high rank, just like some of the privateers that had captured them – the 16th-century Barbarossa brothers, sons of a Sicilian convert to Islam, Turgut Reis, an Ottoman privateer of Greek origin, and Osta Moratto Genovese, an Italian who later became Bey of Tunis, among the latter.","quote":"The Mediterranean was once the theatre of memorable battles between privateers."},"89b4b696-d0b6-5376-bf86-57c154154a26":{"title":"Waterways","description":"Technical innovation was also applied to waterways, both as new constructions or through the modernisation of existing waterways. Great undertakings, such as the Suez and Corinthian canals, were commissioned by local governments and achieved through the circulation of ideas and projects and the involvement of technicians of various nationalities. Their story is, nevertheless, somewhat controversial. The 163km-long Suez Canal was built to connect the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea to facilitate maritime trade between Europe and the Far East. Its lease to a French company caused the British to intervene in order to control this route to India. This situation and the debts contracted by the Egyptian Khedive Ismail to finance his ambitious programme made Egypt bankrupt and not only caused the loss of the Egyptian shares in the company, but also gave Britain the pretext for military occupation of the country.","quote":"These great undertakings were not technically possible before the 19th century. People were technically advanced enough to change the face of the Earth."},"8a21970e-9675-51bf-b024-b65540319a74":{"title":"Key Treaties and Key Conferences","extra":{"hb_general_type":"topic"}},"8a6249fe-93fb-5ce8-90f9-5369033b0eb6":{"title":"Artists","description":"In the 19th and early 20th century, hundreds of thousands of Europeans settled in African and Asian Mediterranean countries, creating large immigrant communities with rich cultural lives. They included writers, musicians, painters and other artists born in the adopted countries of their parents. For example, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti (author of the Futurist Manifesto) and Giuseppe Ungaretti (prominent Italian poet) were both born in Alexandria (Egypt) to Italian parents. Alexandria was also the hometown of poet Constantine Cavafy (Konstantínos Pétrou Kaváfis), the son of Greek-speaking parents from Constantinople, while Nobel laureate novelist Albert Camus was born in Algiers to French parents. Moreover, some painters moved temporarily or permanently to Arab countries or Turkey because they were fascinated by what appeared to them to be an “exotic” world.","quote":"Second-generation European migrants included writers, painters and other artists."},"8b3461ae-9765-5c47-b45a-521eb6517d82":{"title":"General Subtitle1 in EN","description":"The purpose of this text is to shortly contextualise the participation in \"Sharing History\". The Historical Background will be accessible from all \"Sharing History\" web pages and should be divided into three paragraphs of approximately 600-800 characters each:  \n  \n(First paragraph) What characterises the history of the country in the period under survey? (Second paragraph) Relations with the Ottoman Empire / the Arab World / Europe; ideally there should be a correspondence with the material contribution to \"Sharing History\"; for countries that were part of the Ottoman Empire this paragraph could provide the opportunity to emphasise specific aspects introducing the country's participation in \"Sharing History\".  \n  \n(Third paragraph) Other priorities in the country's international policy in the period under survey. This paragraph should enable the reader to understand and properly interpret the country's contribution to \"Sharing History\"."},"8bebd45c-0749-50b8-ad43-dc6cb58c395b":{"title":"Economy and Trade","description":"“It is by commerce that nations, however remote from each other, become possessed of the fruits of the labor, the enterprise, the inventions, the discoveries, and the ingenuity of all the inhabitants of the globe.” Noah Webster, 1839\n\nThe 19th century saw a crucial change in the economic relationships between the Arab and Ottoman world and Europe. In the wake of industrialisation, Western European states increasingly competed in their trade connections with the region to secure both vital raw materials and markets for their products. Meanwhile, the economies of countries in south-eastern Europe – either Ottoman provinces or under Ottoman suzerainty – were legally obliged to focus on providing the empire with products, mostly raw materials. Beyond the Mediterranean, France and the UK vied for access to and control of vital trade routes to India, both in the Red Sea and the Arab-Persian Gulf.  \n  \nFrom around the middle of the 19th century, the economic and therefore political European penetration of North Africa and the Middle East intensified. As early as 1838, in the Anglo-Ottoman Convention signed at Balta Liman, all Ottoman monopolies in foreign trade had been abolished, with the result that all commodities produced in the empire could now be exported. At the same time, British merchants were now allowed to settle and trade anywhere in the empire. In time, other European states obtained similar agreements from the Ottoman sultans. Subsequently, trade relations with Western Europe were characterised increasingly by particularly British, French and, later, German involvement in the economic activities of the region. Trade with south-eastern Europe meanwhile took on new forms in the wake of Greece, Serbia and later Romania declaring their independence.  \n  \nAttempts by several local rulers in the Southern Mediterranean to meet the challenges of European economic infiltration with reform soon led to increasing financial dependency on European powers. By the end of the 19th century, this provided the latter with a pretext to seize varying degrees of indirect or direct political control, particularly in Egypt but also in Algeria and later Tunis, which became French colonies. Meanwhile, in the Arab-Persian Gulf, the British went about destroying the traditional indigenous trading networks, keeping the French at bay and increasingly imposing their commercial and political will on local rulers. In conclusion, economic relations between Europe and the Arab and Ottoman world at large throughout the 19th century and beyond were characterised by Europe’s growing commercial, financial and eventually political penetration.\n\nUlrike Al-Khamis  \nSharjah Museums Authority, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates  \n  \nNoura Ahmed Al-Naqbi  \nSharjah Museums Authority, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates  \n  \nOana Ilie  \nNational Museum of Romanian History, Bucharest, Romania  \n  \nAlexandra Marasoiu  \nNational Museum of Romanian History, Bucharest, Romania  \n  \n**Copyeditor(s)**  \n  \nMonica Allen  \nLondon, United Kingdom","extra":{"bibliography":{"en":["Birdal, Murat, *The Political Economy of Ottoman Public Debt: Insolvency and European Financial Control in the Late Nineteenth Century*, London ; New York : I.B. Tauris Academic Studies, 2010.","Inalcik, Halil, *et al.*, *An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914*, 2 vols., Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997.","Issawi, Charles, *An Economic History of the Middle East and North Africa*, New York: Columbia University Press, 1982.","Issawi, Charles, *The Economic History of Turkey 1800–1914*, Publications of the Center for Middle Eastern Studies, no. 13, Chicago; London: University of Chicago Press, 1980.","Kasaba, Resat, *The Ottoman Empire and the World Economy: The Nineteenth Century*, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1988.","Owen, Roger, *The Middle East in the World Economy 1800–1914*, London: I.B. Tauris, 1993.","Pamuk, Şevket, *The Ottoman Economy and Its Institutions*, Farnham, UK : Ashgate Variorum, 2009.","Sluglett, Peter (ed.), *The Urban Social History of the Middle East 1750–1950*, Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2008."]},"legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","new_status":"N","project_id":"AWE"}}},"8dc5f409-203b-513e-8ba6-bde3a998c835":{"title":"Visiting and “revisiting” the Orient","description":"From the early 19th century, aided by new transport technologies such as steam trains and railways, more and more European artists – and somewhat later, photographers – ventured into the Arab and Ottoman world and North Africa. They went in search of the fabled locations, exotic scenery and colourful people popularised in Europe by prominent travellers who had gone before them and who subsequently had eternalised their experiences in published diaries, spell-binding travelogues, narratives, or indeed artworks. While most of the artists and photographers spent relatively short periods in the region, during their travels, they nevertheless collected innumerable sketches, drawings and, sometimes, photographs. Back home, their fieldwork formed the basis of extensive bodies of Orientalist works, often executed over many years, and eventually only vaguely relating to the reality they had experienced on their travels. Fantasy also characterised many of the architectural projects inspired by the “Orient” – be those in the form of pavilions and palaces, mansions in garden settings, commercial complexes, or indeed lavish interiors reminiscent of those evoked in the *The Arabian Nights*."},"8f481db6-1fbe-5976-81b9-3f58af2d9ba0":{"title":"Hijaz Railway","description":"A significant strategic shift happened in the second half of the 19th century as a result of the severe competition of the colonial powers for the control of maritime trade with the Far East. By 1882 the British were in control of both maritime trade routes with the Far East (the Suez Canal and the Arab-Persian Gulf). The Ottomans, along with the Germans, came up with the idea of building a railway to connect Istanbul with Taba on the Red Sea as an alternative to the Suez Canal. Merchandise could come by ships to Aqaba and from there it could be transported to the eastern Mediterranean ports and to Istanbul itself. This is where the idea of the Hijaz Railway originated. The quest for the trade of the Red Sea brought a sharp rise in interest in this crucial area of the Middle East.","extra":{"image_captions":{"mwnf3_sharing_history:sh_countries_historicalbackground_images:19":{"en":{"date":"Hegira 920 / AD 1515–hegira 996 / AD 1585","name":"Aqaba Fortress","location":"Aqaba, Jordan"}}}}},"9101cc9c-6f9b-5377-8a20-4607de318c57":{"title":"Arab and Ottoman themes in European music","description":"The 18th-century European mania for all things “Turkish” extended to music, but only in the form of non-specific inspiration in the work of composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Joseph Haydn. Neither 18th- nor 19th-century musicians were familiar with the instruments and modes of Arab‒Ottoman music, but freely set their operas in Egypt (Verdi’s *Aïda,* 1871) or Turkey (*Folies Turques*, 1875) and produced sounds that seemed exotic and “Oriental” to European ears.  \n  \nOne of the most popular composers of the 19th century, Gioachino Rossini, based several of his operas on Arab and Ottoman themes. Widely staged in Europe, these include *L’Italiana in Algeri* (1813), *Il Turco in Italia* (1814), *Mosé in Egitto* (1819), *Maometto II* (1820), *Semiramide* (1823) and *Moïse et Pharaon* (1827).  \n  \nComposers also borrowed from folk and gypsy music for operettas such as the Folies Rambuteau. Later composers, Maurice Ravel, Camille Saint-Saëns and Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, for example, continued to work in an Orientalist vein with references to *Arabian Nights* in works such as *Sheherazade* and *Samson and Delilah*. As with the visual arts, these works express the sensuality of the “East” in an idealised, though often beautiful, way. The fact that none of these composers had visited a harem did not deter them from representing Ottoman or Arab concubines in their music.","quote":"“Aida, constantly alluding to its ambience in harmony and instrumentation, is the one Verdi opera that could not conceivably be transported to another geographical location.” (From Roger Parker)"},"930ef8a3-455e-5c6c-8efa-43c96682ec02":{"title":"Post offices","description":"Since their establishment, post offices, the customer service facility, were an important component of national postal systems and were managed by these systems as their public face. In these facilities services such as the receipt of letters and parcels and the provision of postage stamps and postcards were offered. At first, wooden stamps with ink were used as evidence of payment for services, but starting from the 1840s more convenient postage stamps were introduced. This resulted in a great increase in mailing. In the post offices the mail was sorted and then distributed from the head office or mail station to the periphery offices. In the early days horses and stage coaches were used. Post offices were a matter of national (or imperial) pride. The size of the postal buildings and their location in the most vital areas of cities is evidence of the importance in which they were held, becoming “modern” landmarks in the cities together with ports and train stations.","quote":"Post offices were not merely places where postal services were offered to people. They became a landmark of every modern city symbolising a new lifestyle."},"931e1b3e-3821-5bed-a344-afa40cc99f30":{"title":"Trading communities"},"93f7b61c-5506-545f-b7e4-9f727203c02a":{"title":"Banks and stock exchanges","description":"Europe’s pervasive economic expansion into the Middle East was soon followed by the enthusiastic promotion of regional investment by British, French and later German credit and finance companies. Specialising in “spectacular promotions that promised rapid returns”, these innovative financial institutions from the second half of the 19th century onwards increasingly lent to individual companies, European-controlled local banks and – either directly or through collaboration with the latter – governments all over the region. The powerful banks of Istanbul, Cairo, Tunis, Algiers and elsewhere were meant to finance military, administrative and economic reform, but in reality they soon focused on profiteering from debt management. As the need for governmental loans became more desperate, terms became ever more exploitative, and eventually insurmountable indebtedness or even bankruptcy forced many governments to endure direct European financial management or indeed occupation.","quote":"The single greatest threat to the independence of the Middle East and North Africa was not Europe’s armies but its banks."},"94cc084f-5153-570f-9ec2-5cce74df1fb8":{"title":"Economic, social and cultural life (1815–1920)","description":"France retains rural specificity and, thanks to its transport network system (especially the railways), develops the textile and chemical industries among others. This leads to significant urbanization and rural exodus.  \n  \nA major construction policy accompanies the growth: the urban reorganisation of Paris; the construction of works of art, among others the World Expos (Expositions universelles). The World Expos/Universal Exhibitions make it possible to disseminate public awareness about and to celebrate inventions and achievements such as the Eiffel Tower (1889).  \n  \nThe demographic transition starts with advances in hygiene and healthcare. With the Ferry Laws (1881–2) education becomes compulsory, secular and free. Other social developments are equally progressive, such as the right to strike (1864) and Trades Unions (1884).  \n  \nCultural life also undergoes some major changes: the rights of everybody to gain access to books, the birth of photography and the development of the printing press. New artistic movements such as Romanticism, Realism, Naturalism and Impressionism succeed in making Paris an international cultural capital."},"95900656-c351-56de-8a5b-e8a091af6079":{"title":"The national pavilions and the “Rue des Nations”","description":"For the Paris Universal Exhibition of 1878 a long stretch of pavilions created the so-called “Rue des Nations” that was designed to showcase the different national traditions of the French Republic. The façades of the individual buildings, which reproduced the most evocative elements of national architecture, formed a bizarre, eclectic, parade of buildings that reflected French national taste at the time. Although many countries from the Near and Middle East had a presence on the Rue des Nations, many of them were allocated smaller pavilions in areas intended to represent the “East” as a whole. At the Universal Exhibition in Paris in 1900, the Rue des Nations was set up again, this time beside the Seine, between the Invalides and Alma bridges. This model enjoyed great success until the early 20th century.","quote":"The “Rue des Nations”: a world’s-worth of architecture in one short street."},"96310872-f776-5cda-bc07-4c7bf07581e4":{"title":"In the shadow of the Sphinx","description":"British naval supremacy was a thorn in the side of the French Emperor Napoleon’s subjugation of Europe. Attempting to sever Britain’s links with India, Napoleon invaded Egypt. He took with him a large team of scholars, who busied themselves exploring and documenting in meticulous detail the ruins of ancient Egypt. Military victory brought growing British influence in Egypt. French finds – including the Rosetta Stone – were handed over to Britain.  \n  \nItalian, Austrian and German teams joined British and French scholars in exploring the land of the pharaohs. An endless stream of visitors flocked to Egypt, and many brought back souvenirs. Ancient Egypt was endlessly fascinating, becoming common knowledge among European publics. In Egypt itself, the pharaonic past became a source of national pride, and tourism a major source of income.","quote":"The pyramids, Sphinx and mummies would become proud symbols of Egypt’s magnificent history."},"987faa89-91a4-534c-918d-718397681b24":{"title":"Traditional clothing: wedding costumes and jewellery","description":"Weddings are seen socially as a universal rite of passage. The rituals and traditions of weddings vary from region to region, tribe to tribe (or ethnic group to ethnic group). Some wedding ceremonies take place over several days and involve several changes of clothing, which often represent the change of social status and also of family status in the bride’s case. Wedding dresses in the Arab and Ottoman world and in Eastern European cultures were highly elaborate and regarded as a means of displaying the size of the bride’s dowry and her family’s status. The traditional bridal dress consisted of several layers, embroidered and decorated, and often trimmed with coins or jewellery.","quote":"Along with births and burials, weddings are one of the three great public occasions. Colour, style and the ceremonial importance of the gown can depend on the religion and culture of the wedding participants."},"989e757a-4a0c-54ef-b8ca-f69d68f62df7":{"title":"Return of Al-Saud and the establishment of Saudi Arabia","description":"Still in exile with his family in Kuwait in the late 1890s, the young ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman Saud nurtured his ambition to recover the patrimony of his fathers. In 1901 he made an unsuccessful bid to recapture Riyad. On 14 January 1902 ‘Abd al-‘Aziz along with a handful of men made a daring dawn assault on the Masmak Fort in Riyad, and the rule of the House of Saud was restored.  \n  \nBy 1906, having driven rival al-Rashid’s forces out of the Najd region, the Ottomans recognised ‘Abd al-‘Aziz as their client in Najd. His next major acquisition was al-Ahsa, which he took from the Ottomans in 1913, and which brought him control of the Arabian Gulf coast and what would later become Saudi Arabia’s vast oil reserves. He avoided involvement in the Arab Revolt, having acknowledged Ottoman suzerainty in 1914; instead, he continued his struggle with al-Rashid in northern Arabia. Turning his attention to the southwest in 1920, ‘Abd al-‘Aziz seized ‘Asir, the region between the Hijaz and Yemen; the following year he finally defeated al-Rashid’s forces and annexed the whole of northern Arabia.  \n  \nBy the Treaty of Jeddah, signed on 20 May 1927, the United Kingdom recognised the independence of ‘Abd al-‘Aziz’s realm (then known as the Kingdom of Hijaz and Najd), following conquest of the Hijaz.  \n  \nIn 1933, the two kingdoms of the Hijaz and Najd were united as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Boundaries with Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait were established by a series of treaties negotiated in the 1920s, with two “neutral zones” created, one with Iraq, and the other with Kuwait. The country’s southern boundary with Yemen was partially defined by the 1934 Treaty of Ta’if, which ended a brief border war between the two states."},"98ddc4fa-2052-5a39-ace8-7ed1ad05dea3":{"title":"Culture, literature and the arts in modern Egypt","description":"Egypt has witnessed many different cultural and artistic innovations. Chief among these are in the cinema and theatre industries, which have blossomed in Egypt since the 1970s.  \n  \nThe Egyptian actor, director and writer Mohammed Karim was the first star of Egyptian cinema. Mohammed Baioumy is another celebrated cinematic personality in Egypt whose film studio in Alexandria was established in 1923 in order to manage the production of his own films. On 14 March 1932 the first Egyptian film was launched: *Awlad el-zawat* (Sons of Aristocrats) directed by Mohammed Karim."},"997b02c7-b1a0-5a93-a131-0dd53ed018f3":{"title":"Lost cities and the birth of scientific archaeology","description":"Advances in geology showed the antiquity of the Earth, and of man upon it. Charles Darwin’s *Origin of the Species* (1859) helped us to understand how to deduce the chronological relationship of artefacts, and inspired a search for origins. We learnt how cultures interacted with each other, and began to appreciate non-classical achievements and aesthetics. Petra instantly took a grip on the imagination, which it would never surrender.  \n  \nWhat archaeologists found did not always agree with what they had expected from classical and/or biblical sources. What did this mean for how each was to be understood? Archaeology even brought to light cultures long forgotten: the Minoans on Crete, the Nabataeans in Jordan. Fabled Troy would be located.  \n  \nExcavators at sites in the Arab and Ottoman world found new interpretative tools. British archaeologist Flinders Petrie was one such pioneer. He established the principles by which the objects produced by a culture could be arranged chronologically by comparing the changes in styles.","quote":"We found lost cultures, and learned how to understand the past."},"997f7990-f326-5f78-bf92-546cc2cb296c":{"title":"The Arab Revolt","extra":{"hb_general_type":"topic"}},"99f4ebbc-7a8c-5550-821d-4cea91080d69":{"title":"The emerging Greek state","description":"For the first time, during the Vienna Conference in 1815, European leaders were faced the *Greek Issue*. Conte Ioannis Kapodistrias, with the approval of the Tsar, submits a question about the liberation of the Greeks from Ottoman rule. Twelve years later the same man becomes the first Governor of the newly established Greek State. In 1832, Othon (Otto), the son of King Ludwig of Bavaria becomes the King of Greece, with Athens declared the capital of the Greek State. In 1864, the Ionian Islands transfer from Great Britain to Greece. A turbulent political period ensues, one dominated by the modernising efforts of the politician Charilaos Trikoupis, but his attempts for expansion and organisation of the state are held back by the state’s bankruptcy in 1895 and by the Greek defeat during the Greek–Turkish War of 1897."},"9a241bfc-36c8-5a42-8e49-5a62aad5bb9f":{"title":"Schools and seats of scientific learning","description":"In both Europe and the Arab and Ottoman world, the poor historically had no access to education, and the few schools that taught basic reading and writing had limited facilities and materials. In the 19th century, in order to provide education to as many as possible, under the best conditions, and to highlight this objective symbolically through visible architecture, Europeans built many imposing schools, universities and libraries. These buildings were fitted out with the equipment and learning materials required by pupils and teachers. Refectories and dormitories enabled students from far away to attend.  \n  \nBy the second half of the 19th century, European-style educational theories were increasingly implemented across the Arab and Ottoman world, many initiated by reforming rulers or European church missions. In regions under French or British control the colonial authorities took over from the existing authorities the construction and overhaul of education infrastructure.","quote":"\"He who opens a school door, closes a prison.\" Victor Hugo"},"9a3a54cb-1524-5d2d-a186-eae5a572e5da":{"title":"Partitioning of Macedonia","description":"In the broader sense the Ilinden Uprising made a major contribution to forming a new democratic world in the Balkans. The Krushevo Manifesto, which announced the principles of the revolution, proclaimed in a profoundly democratic way equal rights for Macedonians, Turks, Albanians, Vlachs and all other ethnic groups living in Macedonia. But the outcome of the Balkan Wars in 1912 and 1913 had devastating consequences for Macedonian people. After victory over the Ottoman Empire by the Balkan Alliance, the ethnic territory of Macedonia was partitioned among its members Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece, a small portion having been assigned to Albania, in accordance with the Bucharest Peace Treaty of 10 August 1913. Despite all efforts to raise the issue of an autonomous Macedonian state the same division was confirmed by the Versailles Peace Treaty after World War I."},"9a84995e-edb8-5b22-81f9-7876d6e4eb0f":{"title":"Historical Profile / Serbia","extra":{"hb_type":"country"}},"9ac37738-88d4-5fe1-ab03-33d4bbfc2305":{"title":"Design influence","description":"Arab and Ottoman cities witnessed rapid change in the 19th century and foreign influences were more readily absorbed than they had been in earlier historical periods. The same is true concerning the influences of Islamic art and architecture on European styles. Several European architects, commissioned by Arab and Ottoman patrons, worked in the European tradition, introducing Western-style streets and squares and other urban constructions into the texture of traditional Arab and Ottoman cities. Throughout the Ottoman Empire, the stylistic and decorative features of buildings included details from the European past, in parallel with the various revivalist styles in Europe, as well as the contemporary modern architectural styles that were fashionable in Europe and the Ottoman Empire at the time. Thus, while the design elements, principles and policies of urban planning in Arab and Ottoman lands borrowed from foreign architectural elements, they also conformed to the identity of the community and the social, economic and cultural status its inhabitants.","quote":"When different cultures meet and inevitably influence each other is it not better to see these meetings as “dialogues”?"},"9add0320-d6b8-5e05-b88f-82769d4104fa":{"title":"Modern Egyptian society","description":"Egyptian society is connected with a number of national and international events that in many ways express the peoples’ true spirit of loyalty to the country. Generally, Egyptian society is considered patriotic, with positive interactions among its citizens benefiting the country. Several remarkable historical events express Egypt’s spirit of patriotism and loyalty.  \n  \nThe British occupation of 1882 was fiercely opposed by Colonel Ahmad ’Urabi’s supporters, whose struggles and battles against British occupation are well documented (the clashes in Alexandria on 11 July 1882; the conflict at Kafr al-Dawwar; the battles at Rashid (Rosetta) and Abu Qir in August of that year; the first battle at Qasassin and then the second at Tell el-Kebir, where Egyptian forces were defeated on 13 September, and which culminated finally with the trial of ’Urabi and his supporters).  \n  \nOther aspects of Egyptian society relate specifically to cultural concerns, particularly in the arts and sport. Egyptians enthusiastically embraced the establishment of the Egyptian Opera House (1869) and welcomed both radio in the 1920s and television in the 1960s; hence, the cinema and theatre industries have a long history in Egypt. Furthermore, the history of sport and sporting clubs in Egypt represents another significant trait in the Egyptian character."},"9c0c8080-79f4-5160-90fb-510f0e4b5abc":{"title":"Painting: Landscapes","description":"Views of ancient remains and/or the desert are some of more notable depictions in Orientalist landscapes. This genre plays an important role for artists, and one reason for this is seen in their treatment of the light, which is so different from that in Europe, and also the development of the landscape as a genre in romanticism. Some painters enlarged their images and made panoramic views; others tried to depict the effects of the light and shadow of the desert light. While the early works, mostly engravings, are city views that show a taste for detail, the later works show the importance of light and the rich and free palette of painters of the period. Some of the landscapes were inspired by engravings or photographs, while others were depicted in situ.","quote":"The subjects of landscape and desert challenged European artists to depict new spaces and colours. The open horizons, the harshness of the light and the fine degradations of the sand-coloured palette were a new world for European painters."},"9c182641-45fe-513c-af3b-4d600d88c4f9":{"title":"Sharing History - Arab-Ottoman-European relations in the 19th century."},"9e7a7cbc-75d8-5cef-9df3-ee7a19b1c8e9":{"title":"Between evocations and archaeological reconstruction","description":"Among the buildings at the International Exhibitions, and in particular the pavilions of the countries of the Arab and Ottoman worlds, the replicas of historical monuments, shown in different national contexts as testimony to their cultural heritage, are particularly noteworthy. With a view to rediscovering the past and in line with the cultural climate at the time, combined with the commercial interests that drove the organisation of these World’s Fairs, reconstruction of the most significant historical monuments, albeit temporary, helped to give the mainly European general public a better idea of the material culture of individual countries. Some of these reconstructions were reused in later years in entirely different environments, such as museum exhibits or teaching aids. The attempt to synthesise human progress at the Paris exhibition of 1889 in the unconvincing exhibit titled “History of Human Habitation” was much less successful, simply because it was seen as misleading and inauthentic.","quote":"At the World’s Fairs, significant historical monuments were often reconstructed within the areas dedicated to different countries."},"9fdb6e45-8518-5d47-b71c-191f8ea0ca0a":{"title":"General Subtitle2 in EN","description":"The purpose of this text is to shortly contextualise the participation in \"Sharing History\". The Historical Background will be accessible from all \"Sharing History\" web pages and should be divided into three paragraphs of approximately 600-800 characters each:  \n  \n(First paragraph) What characterises the history of the country in the period under survey? (Second paragraph) Relations with the Ottoman Empire / the Arab World / Europe; ideally there should be a correspondence with the material contribution to \"Sharing History\"; for countries that were part of the Ottoman Empire this paragraph could provide the opportunity to emphasise specific aspects introducing the country's participation in \"Sharing History\".  \n  \n(Third paragraph) Other priorities in the country's international policy in the period under survey. This paragraph should enable the reader to understand and properly interpret the country's contribution to \"Sharing History\"."},"a4556bc4-b0f8-59a8-9b01-23d735803fd0":{"title":"Steel industry","description":"Steel production technology took a huge step forward by using what was known as the Bessemer process, which got rid of excess carbon and other impurities in pig iron using oxidation. The Siemens-Martin open-hearth process was the second gigantic step forward, using a more efficient regenerative furnace, steel mass production started from molten pig iron. The availability of inexpensive steel made the construction of large bridges possible and enabled the construction of railways, sky scrapers and large steel ships. With high-quality steel it was also possible to take the production of handguns, guns in general, tanks and other armoured military vehicles to an unprecedented level. The products of the steel industry changed the technical and social landscape, military structure and even warfare. The Ottoman and Arab world was at the receiving end of this equation.","quote":"Steel was the backbone of heavy industry in both civic and military realms."},"a4a60346-a377-566f-9023-36d9f6c16f5b":{"title":"Sheikh Jassim bin Mohammed Al-Thani and the Ottomans in Qatar","description":"Sheikh Muhammad ibn Thani was the first official ruler of Qatar. After his retirement, his son Sheikh Jassim bin Muhammad Al-Thani, became the ruler of the State of Qatar on 18 December 1878. Sheikh Jassim truly united and founded the nation of Qatar. He deftly managed the complex political situation, allowing the Ottomans to station themselves in Doha in return for recognising his authority in Qatar. Tensions with the Ottomans were ever-present, and came to a head in 1892–93 when an Ottoman force entered Qatar over taxes and the non-implementation of Ottoman reforms. Sheikh Jassim, whose charisma and strong leadership had won over the people of Qatar, rallied the Qatari people and won a decisive victory at the Battle of Al-Wajba in 1893. This was a key moment in Sheikh Jassim’s rule and the nation’s history."},"a64d0674-78bf-5ac3-97ad-7d66056c91e2":{"title":"Reforms and Social Changes","description":"\"Progress is the life-style of man. The general life of the human race is called Progress, and so is its collective march.\" Victor Hugo\n\nThe reforms and social changes experienced by the Arab and Ottoman world in the 19th century are closely related to the effects of colonisation. However, even before that, the Arab and Ottoman world, and in particular Muhammad ’Ali’s Egypt, Ahmad Pasha Bey’s Tunisia, and Lebanon, had already begun a process of state and social reform. Modern teaching practices were in place in these areas well before colonisation, represented by the establishment of military schools and the progressive Sadiki College established in Tunis in 1875.  \n  \nAt the heart of European rivalries, the Arab and Ottoman world was dominated economically and then politically, undergoing profound changes as a result. There had been exchanges between East and West since Antiquity, but the technological revolution of the 19th century and migration, which provided a new way for ideas to be passed on, had a profound effect on society and were instrumental in certain key changes.  \n  \nAll governments at the time regarded education as important and education was key to the emancipation of women. Women’s access to public spaces raised impassioned debate in both Europe and the Arab and Ottoman world.  \n  \nThe consequences of technological revolution were particularly evident in Europe where workers began to organise, to protest through strikes and to gain improvements in working conditions. In the Arab and Ottoman world reform came more slowly. From the mid-19th century, the presence of colonial power in North Africa further hindered progress in local labour reform and rights.  \n  \nThe century also brought discoveries of fundamental importance to humanity. Cholera and typhus epidemics and illnesses such as tuberculosis and syphilis spurred a new generation in scientific research. Advances in hygiene helped to bring disease and child mortality into decline. There was considerable interaction between Europe and the Arab and Ottoman world in this area.\n\nAgnès Sandras  \nNational Library of France, Paris, France  \n  \nSaloua Zangar  \nTunis, Tunisia  \n  \nMaria Francesca Carvelli  \nRome, Italy (Contributor)  \n  \n**Translator(s)**  \n  \nLaurence Nunny  \nUnited Kingdom  \n  \n**Copyeditor(s)**  \n  \nMonica Allen  \nLondon, United Kingdom","extra":{"bibliography":{"en":["Abbas, Raouf, and El-Dessouky, Assem, *The Large Landowning Class and the Peasantry in Egypt, 1837–1952*, tr. by Amer Mohsen with Mona Zikri, ed. by Peter Gran, Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2011.","el Azhary Sonbol, Amira, *The Creation of a Medical Profession in Egypt, 1800–1922*. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1991.","Bakalti, Souad, *La femme tunisienne au temps de la colonisation, 1881–1956*, Paris: L’Harmattan, 1996.","Cole, Juan R. I., *Colonialism and Revolution in the Middle East: Social and Cultural Origins of Egypt’s 'Urabi Movement*, Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1999.","Dağlar, Oya, *War, Epidemics, and Medicine in the late Ottoman Empire (1912–1918)*, Haarlem, The Netherlands: Sota, 2008.","Georgeon, François, *Sous le signe des réformes : état et société, de l'Empire ottoman à la Turquie kémaliste (1789–1939)*, Istanbul: Isis, 2009.","Köksal, Duygu, and Falierou, Anastasia (eds), *A Social History of Late Ottoman Women: New Perspectives*, Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2013.","Gallois, Williams, *The Administration of Sickness: Medicine and Ethics in Nineteenth-century Algeria*, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.","Larguèche, Dalenda (ed.), *Histoire des femmes au Maghreb: culture matérielle et vie quotidienne*, Tunis: Centre de Publications Universitaires, 2000.","Lockman, Zachary (ed.), *Workers and Working Classes in the Middle East: Struggles, Histories, Historiographies*, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1994.","Mestiri, Saïd, *Le médecin dans la cité: origines et évolution de la médecine arabo-islamique*, Tunis: Sud Editions, 2006.","Quataert, Donald, and Zürcher Erik J. (eds), *Workers and the Working Class in the Ottoman Empire and Turkish Republic, 1839–1950*, London; New York: I. B. Tauris; Amsterdam: International Institute of Social History, 1995.","Rivet, Daniel, *Le Maghreb à l'épreuve de la colonisation*, Paris: A. Fayard, 2010.","Rogan, Eugene, “Aşiret Mektebi: Abdülhamid II’s School for Tribes (1892–1907)”, *International Journal of Middle East Studies*, 28.1 (February 1996): 83–107.","Sedra, Paul, *From Mission to Modernity: Evangelicals, Reformers and Education in Nineteenth Century Egypt*, London: I. B. Tauris, 2011.","Somel, Selçuk Akşin, *The Modernization of Public Education in the Ottoman Empire, 1839–1908: Islamization, Autocracy and Discipline*, Leiden: Brill, 2001.","Temimi, Abdeljelil, *La vie économique des provinces arabes et leurs sources documentaires à l'époque ottomane (études réunies et présentées par Abdeljelil Temimi)*, Zaghouan, Tunisie: CERPAO, 1986.","Tlili, Béchir, *Crises et mutations dans le monde islamo-méditerranéen contemporain (1907–1918)*, Tunis: Université de Tunis, 1978.","Tlili, Béchir, *Les Rapports culturels et idéologiques entre l'Orient et l'Occident enTunisie au XIXe siècle (1830–1880)*, Tunis: Université de Tunis, 1974."]},"legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","new_status":"N","project_id":"AWE"}}},"a7ef0e10-5982-566f-b1fd-82b91276cdd3":{"title":"Composers and musicians of the Arab and Ottoman world","description":"Because musical notation was generally not used by the traditional musicians of North Africa and the Near East, conservatories developed late in these regions. A pioneer in music education was Wadih Sabra, the composer of the Ottoman and, later, the Lebanese national anthems, who founded the Institute of Music in Beirut in 1910 and, in the 1930s, the Lebanese National Higher Conservatory of Music where the emphasis was on European symphonic music. Photographs of anonymous musicians from the late 19th and early 20th centuries attest to the popularity of ensembles with musicians playing the violin, introduced from Europe, the tambourine, the lute and drums or flute. Some images depict women ‒ playing the *daff*, a frame drum, or the *tanbur*, a variety of lute ‒ but shown as types, not as known performers. Likewise, a “Turk” playing a kettle drum, which was introduced to European music from the Ottoman Empire, would have been a source of interest as a type rather than as a member of a military or imperial band.","quote":"Sayed Darwich’s (1892–1923) “songs speak vibrantly of hawkers, craftsmen, water carriers, waiters, boatmen of the Nile .... It is hardly surprising therefore that he has come to be seen as a musician of the people.” (From Gabriel Saadé)"},"a85a9bff-2d08-5a0b-8004-3e02d254ddd4":{"title":"Italian colonial ambitions in the Mediterranean and the Italo-Turkish war over Libya (1911–12)","description":"After national unification, Italy was striving to achieve great-power status. Colonial expansion was part of this policy.  \n  \nIn 1881, the establishment of a French protectorate over Tunisia (where many Italian migrants lived) was considered a major political defeat by many Italian politicians. In 1882, Italy joined Germany and Austria-Hungary in the Triple Alliance and started colonial expansion in the Horn of Africa.  \n  \nIn 1911, Italy waged war on Turkey for the conquest of Libya. The Socialists and some liberals opposed colonial expansion, but most of the press supported it, claiming that Libya could become an outlet for Italian migration and that the Arabs would welcome Italian rule; they were wrong.  \n  \nThe war officially ended in 1912, but Libyan anti-colonial resistance lasted much longer. It would only be crushed 20 years later, by Fascist brutal repression."},"a976d2d5-cf1b-543a-87b9-93e9b82a1570":{"title":"Scientific expeditions","description":"The fascinating new facts relayed back to Europe by French scholars in the wake of Napoleon’s conquest of Egypt and Syria in 1798–99, led to an intensified European interest in the Middle East in general. In the decades that followed, and aided by increasing European penetration of the region, many scientists, scholars and explorers followed the French example of travelling within the Arab and Ottoman world to gain knowledge in a wide variety of fields. A lot of investigation was undertaken well before and – at least on the face of it – unrelated to the gradually unfolding imperialist ambitions of European powers in key areas of the Middle East and North Africa in the second half of the 19th century. Archaeology, for example, made some of its most important and pioneering strides during this period. Nevertheless, other aspects of scholarly and scientific investigation did help either directly or indirectly to facilitate the steady progress of imperialism by providing crucial strategic and logistic information about the region and its resources.","quote":"From the 19th century onwards, the Arab and Ottoman world attracted an increasing number of scientists, scholars, explorers … and spies!"},"ab625705-aa84-5fba-ad9a-e8c0532f2e25":{"title":"Trading routes by land","description":"Before the construction of railways and modern roads in the late 19th century, overland trade in the Middle East, North Africa and Europe was largely conducted by means of merchant caravans travelling on long-established routes. Complex networks of trade routes existed within each region and interregionally, with some designed specifically to feed into ports around the Mediterranean. In the Asian part of the Ottoman Empire, the main caravan route went from Istanbul to Baghdad via Bursa, Konya, Adana and Aleppo – each in turn entrepôts for other destinations. From Baghdad goods also continued to Basra and even further, across the Arab-Persian Gulf. In North Africa the ports on the Mediterranean coast connected the northern ends of trans-Saharan trade routes with trading hubs all over Europe including the south-east. From here, several trade routes continued to Ottoman Istanbul’s European part, passing through trading hubs such as Vienna, Buda, Belgrade, Dubrovnik, Bucharest, Sofia and Salonika.","quote":"Crucial to the trade between Europe and the Arab and Ottoman world in the 19th century was the onward transport of imported or exported goods within each region. In the Middle East, North Africa and Europe this was mainly done by land."},"adfa7c1a-aa2b-5419-b358-93663ac12de2":{"title":"Raw materials","description":"In the Middle East, as elsewhere, geographical and climatic conditions have always determined the production of specific raw materials in specific regions. In the 19th century, increasing European demand led Egypt and Palestine to intensify their cotton production, while Mount Lebanon specialised in the cultivation and spinning of silk, particularly for the French market. Tobacco, meanwhile, popular throughout the region as well as in Europe, was grown in greater Syria. From further afield, pearls and corals were among the luxury commodities sought after in Europe. Only a few raw materials were imported into the Arab and Ottoman world in turn, most importantly sugar and coffee. At the time, both were brought by European traders from the colonies of the West Indies. Of course, raw materials and livestock were also traded within and across the region.","quote":"In the 19th century, the Arab and Ottoman world became large-scale exporters of the raw materials wanted by industrialised European countries."},"aebdec82-8da4-5fed-a3ef-3fdb6ee1fd28":{"title":"Historical Background"},"afe63b9b-0c82-5f28-af1d-16d25d067762":{"title":"Furnishing and the promotion of trade","description":"Orientalism had an important influence on furnishings. The publication of the magnificent plates accompanying *L’Art Arabe d’après les monuments du Kaire*, by Achille-Constant Prisse d’Avennes (1869), offered its connoisseur-reader unforgettable images of the interiors of Egyptian homes. The World’s Fairs allowed the general public to enjoy “real-life” interior room-sets within the pavilions of the participating countries, which were grouped together into categories under Arab countries and the Ottoman Empire. Extravagant and lavish, the “Moorish Kiosk” with rooms that evoked tales from the *Arabian Nights*, was purchased and then reconstructed by Ludwig II of Bavaria in Linderhof Palace Park. On the other hand it was the middle classes that were the intended audience for items made by producers such as the cabinet-maker Joseph Parvis. Having moved to live in Egypt, Parvis adapted European forms and types of furniture and incorporated decorative details from Islamic art to appeal to the tastes of the growing middle class in Cairo where his furniture was highly fashionable. “Orientalist fever” was at the root of the highly clichéd representations of Egypt as well, which although often clearly erroneous was used for commercial purposes at various World’s Fairs.","quote":"The fashion for Orientalism inspired the production of furnishings intended for the Bourgeoisie."},"b0251dc7-09a2-542d-b1f9-eafd4155cb0e":{"title":"Alliances and cultural exchanges","description":"Britain’s main interest is not territorial control but commercial influence and security of the routes to India. The Indian Empire, which grows through treaties with ruling potentates, makes Ottoman strategists fearful of a creeping British (and French) colonialism. The Indian pattern is replicated in the Gulf, with treaties made with local rulers leaving local matters to them, but demanding a monopoly on external relations and defence. British and Ottoman interests converge in the 1850s when Britain (and France) become the Ottoman Empire’s ally in the Crimean War, in the latter’s latest war against an expansive Russia. The increase in travel to the Ottoman capital, Constantinople, fuels a brief enthusiasm for all things Turkish – fashion, art, bathing and tobacco. Ottoman fears of encroachment are confirmed by the British take-over of Egypt in 1882 as well as France’s expansion in Algeria and Tunisia. When the Ottoman Empire declares it is bankrupt in the 1870s, Britain stands as guarantor for the debt, only adding to Ottoman fears. British visitors stimulate a growing enthusiasm for travel literature, and fuel an interest in the classical sites of Asia Minor. Christians promote biblical archaeology, and missionary work expands in the Levant."},"b0bad80c-0c28-5834-9e36-03d8ce3a9cd1":{"title":"Orientalist applied arts","description":"During the 19th century, the value of decorative and applied arts was reassessed. This movement relates to the search for new decoration and manufacturing techniques to revitalise and enrich objects produced in Europe from the early 19th century to the 1930s.  \n  \nThe reasons behind this revitalisation are related to the development of European industry and the World Fairs. The search for new aesthetic criteria led designers and manufacturers to seek inspiration in the art of antiquity and the Middle Ages, in particular Egyptian and Islamic art, resulting in trends such as so-called Egyptomania and the Moorish style.  \n  \nOne particularly noteworthy aspect was research into antique manufacturing techniques and the use of new materials and techniques to reproduce objects inspired by Islamic art.","quote":"Islamic art, and the art of Islamic Spain, was an inspiration for European artists and manufacturers."},"b0d38f34-48b7-5628-a886-16c09eb2af78":{"title":"Struggle for women's rights","description":"In 19th-century Europe, a long struggle was fought, primarily by women, to make men and women equal before the law. \"Feminist\" demands primarily concerned education, the right to vote and the right to ownership, so that women could live independently of a male guardian and have the same rights as men. Winning the right to access certain professions and to vote was difficult and took time. For example, women in France could become doctors from 1875, and vote from 1944. At the dawn of the 20th century, women in the Arab and Ottoman world, previously largely excluded from public life, began to attend modern schools and to participate in politics. Some women began to make a name for themselves, especially in Egypt, notably Zaynab Fawaz (1846–1914), Malek Hifni Nassif (1886–1918) and Afifa Karam (1883–1924). The struggle for women's rights took on a new dimension with the fight against European colonialism in the Arab and Ottoman world, for example in Lebanon and throughout North Africa.","quote":"“Women’s suffrage is the correlate of the economic emancipation of women from the household and of their economic independence from family owing to their professional work.” Resolution of the International Socialist Women's Conference, Germany, 1907"},"b0d4b915-a127-53f6-b634-9f2a7efbf5bc":{"title":"The Bazaar on display","description":"During the 18th century, writers and artists wrote enthusiastically in travel journals about the “bazaar”, a place through which the exotic ‒ in the variety, quality and combination of objects, material artefacts, spices and fabrics ‒ was evoked. Its charm, evocative of countless images and stories, as well as naturally fitting the entirely 19th-century taste for a plurality of styles and their free combination, sprang from the richness and seeming “disorder” of the merchandise that was being presented. From the beginning, therefore, the idea of the bazaar was a familiar model with immediate appeal among the audiences the exhibitions were aimed at. The succession of different types of goods, coupled with the alternation of different geographic locations, suggested a journey through distant lands, giving rise to a genuine virtual journey: from the atmosphere of a “Tunisian Bazaar” to a “Garden in Algiers” or to a “Cairo Street”. The commercial event therefore became a genuine spectacle, and the exhibition route through the various pavilions became a journey that traversed increasingly expansive “Eastern” scenes, as well as colonial territories and trading routes.","quote":"“An emporium of beauty and wealth to feast your eyes upon, lose your mind and empty your wallet.” (Edmondo De Amicis)"},"b1c89367-fbdc-533f-84b2-01e1056a36ba":{"title":"Revisiting the Orient in Europe – Orientalist architecture","description":"Europe’s encounter with “the Orient” – whether directly through the many travellers to the region who brought back stories, depictions, photos and “exotic” souvenirs, or indirectly, through journeys of the imagination triggered by them all – manifested itself in many different aspects of European culture, but most visibly and monumentally in architecture. Since the later 18th century and until the early 20th century, palaces and stately homes, pavilions, learned institutions, public baths, commercial buildings and numerous interiors were transformed into markers of Europe’s Orientalist obsession. Up to the later 19th century, projects of this sort seem to have been the result of somewhat isolated, personal initiatives – reflecting the aesthetic and intellectual tastes or preoccupations of their respective patrons – largely yielding from the political and social elite. Later, a number of magnates, public bodies and commercial companies commissioned structures that were variously influenced by the aesthetics of the East. Orientalist buildings in Europe represent a truly eclectic range of stylistic influences from ancient Egypt and the Islamic world, but also from India and even China. “Moorish”, “Mughal” and pan-Islamic styles came to the fore particularly in the later 19th century, with European countries concentrating mainly on styles immediately evocative of their intellectual or direct interaction with specific countries and cultures in the East.","quote":"Europe’s encounter with “the Orient” manifested itself most visibly and monumentally in architecture …"},"b2026cd9-9966-52af-87ef-64b9cc42b6d9":{"title":"Arab Perspective","description":"**Arab subjects under the Sultanate**  \n  \nThe approach of the Ottoman Empire to the Arab lands should be understood within the context of the empire’s preoccupation with its European frontiers. Throughout its existence, much of the resources and energy of the Ottoman Empire was dedicated to the expansion and defence of its boundaries in Central and Eastern Europe. Arab lands with their smaller population and revenue were always secondary to the European lands of the empire. Nevertheless, Arab lands possessed one thing that was of extreme importance to the empire. To legitimise their sovereignty in the Muslim world the Ottomans soon realised the significance of linking themselves to the holy places of Islam in Arabia and Palestine. That was done through patronage of Islamic pilgrimage to the holy places in Mecca and Medina and to Jerusalem. This “public act” of pilgrimage from two main centres, Damascus and Cairo, became an annual assertion of this Ottoman sovereignty. As the custodians, defenders and servants of the two sacred sanctuaries Ottoman sultans claimed supremacy in the Muslim world.  \n  \nBy 1552 all the Arab lands were under Ottoman rule except for Morocco, where the Sharifian Arab dynasties retained power from 1549 until 1912 when Morocco, after being caught up in two international crises in 1906 and 1912 between Germany and other European powers, became a joint French–Spanish protectorate.  \n  \nThe Ottoman Empire was one of the largest political structures since the great Islamic dynasties. It was centrally governed with a single administrative system achieved through the sultan’s appointing governors from Ottoman families or groups. With time, the grip of the central power was reduced and the local governments, although still faithful to the sultans, started to practise more autonomy, as happened in Egypt, Algeria and Tunisia.  \n  \nPlaces in the Levant and west Arabia that were remote from Istanbul were largely neglected for at least 300 years. The only exception was the very thin strip of land along the pilgrimage route, which came to the foreground briefly once a year. For an annual payment, protection of the route was entrusted to the pastoral tribes along its length. As for other lands, it was enough for the Ottomans to give recognition to local families of lords, provided they collected and, most importantly, transmitted revenue from their territories. In the same way, chiefs of pastoral tribes of the Syrian Desert, Mesopotamia and west Arabia were given formal recognition. A policy of manipulation, setting tribe against tribe or families of the same tribe against one another, was usually sufficient to preserve the balance. Arab lands reappeared on the Ottoman radar from the second half of the 19th century when almost all the European provinces of the empire were lost and the danger of losing the Arab provinces became imminent, but it was too late to do anything.  \n  \n**Winds of change and shattered dreams**  \n  \nAt the beginning of the 19th century, the first encounter with Europe (Napoleon’s campaign to Egypt and Syria) after a long interruption and fascination with its advanced technology and culture, especially with the ideals of the French Revolution, gave a resounding demonstration of European supremacy and provided a glimpse of a different, and perhaps better, way of life and thought. Arab intellectuals, not fully aware of potential threats from the Western powers, welcomed any developments and contacts with Europe that could help to lift Arabs from the depths into which their culture had sunk. The trajectory of Arab awakening went from Ottoman patriotism to Arab nationalism. It was only in the first two decades of the 20th century that the idea of nationalism became clear among Turks, Syrians, Egyptians and Tunisians. A number of national movements developed in answer to diverse challenges. Turkish nationalism led to the rise of Arab nationalism. Both were a reaction to the crumbling of the empire and the breakdown of the ideal of Ottoman patriotism. Encouraged by the United Kingdom and supported by Arab nationalist groups, in 1916 Husayn, the Sharif of Mecca, declared a revolt against the Ottoman sultan relying on promises from the United Kingdom to establish an Arab kingdom under Husayn’s leadership. Unfortunately, the Western powers did not keep the promises given to Sharif Husayn, and, through a series of secret agreements to divide the Arab lands among the Western powers including the Sykes–Picot Agreement of 1916, by 1921 the only parts of the Arab lands that remained free from European control were the inland areas of the Arabian Peninsula.  \n  \nMohammad Najjar, Amman","extra":{"hb_general_type":"perspective"}},"b2c9f0f6-220d-5bb9-9485-2573ce987e04":{"title":"Exploring the “East”","description":"A race for influence and trade brought Europeans to the Middle East in unprecedented numbers. Consulates appeared, merchants connected to local networks and intrepid tourists explored the lands of the Bible. They fed a voracious appetite for knowledge about people, places, plants and animals.  \n  \nThe early explorers were knowledgeable in many areas, and had wide interests. In addition to their political or military skills, they were linguists, historians, ethnographers, geographers, surveyors and artists. British Consul Claudius Rich knew several local languages; he did valuable geographical and ethnographic work and collected many important manuscripts, coins and other antiquities.  \n  \nBritain and France played out their rivalry in new arenas. Such national rivalries were tempered by strong professional and personal relationships between individuals. Information was shared, and scholarship advanced.","quote":"Individuals, who roamed the Arab and Ottoman world in search of knowledge and both natural and man-made objects, lay the foundations for national interactions."},"b3e7e8fe-2b55-50c0-b838-0314a78ef8b4":{"title":"The interconnection of design elements","description":"Elements of architectural design include all the modules and motifs that together compose the form of a building or urban structure. From a different perspective, the interconnected elements of design and decorative motifs represent the cultural encounters and dialogues between the Arab and Ottoman world and Europe in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The many characteristic features that define local Islamic architectural traditions include: the minaret, dome and the form of arches; *muqarna* or stalactite corbels and glazed tiles and tile work with specific decorative elements; earthenware, marble, stucco and stonework decorated with geometric designs; stylised inscriptions and calligraphy; private, semi-private and public inner courtyards; as well as the use and organisation of space and many other factors. Elements of “Eastern” design were translated into European designs for architecture and arts and crafts. Taking an urbanistic approach, new methods of Arab and Ottoman urban planning and design as well as the growth of small settlements can be traced to the large cities.","quote":"Ornamental and structural elements are essential parts of an architectural language available to and characteristic of a certain era. There is always a canon for the use of these elements, which largely ensures that buildings and urban structures are harmonious and well proportioned."},"b466b9cf-28ae-54a5-bd73-6656380b0b4f":{"title":"Ottoman and Arab diplomatic visits","description":"In the wake of the increasing European economic and, later, political interests unfolding in the region from the first half of the 19th century onwards, Arab and Ottoman rulers recognised the urgent need to engage more directly with their European counterparts. The implicit aim was not only to attain a level of “modern” development on a par with European achievements, but also, and perhaps even more urgently, to effectively stem Europe’s creeping penetration of their countries. Where aloofness and a traditional sense of superiority had previously characterised the diplomatic relationships Arab and Ottoman rulers maintained with Europe, now it became crucial to maintain regular and sustained contact. The first Ottoman permanent embassy in Europe opened in London in 1798, but it took until 1867 for the first Ottoman Sultan ‘Abd al-‘Aziz (Abdülaziz) to visit the continent. Other rulers from the region followed suit, often timing their visits to coincide with World Trade Fairs. Lower key diplomatic missions, meanwhile, were generally dispatched in reaction to increasingly complex European power games in the region, in order to seek out an alliance, or gain support against one or the other imperialist foe on the doorstep.","quote":"In the second half of the 19th century, Middle Eastern and North African states started to establish embassies in Europe and undertake regular diplomatic and state visits to further consolidate relationships."},"b647d8d2-0a0f-5951-af75-816364a08456":{"title":"Transportation","description":"In Europe, the main impetus to the development of transport had been given by the Industrial Revolution to bring together two physically separated components: the industrial centres and the natural resources. The changes in transport affected relations between Europe and the Arab and Ottoman world. In general, innovations in transportation were celebrated with a deep trust in the triumph of progress. Contacts, travelling and trade became easier. However, both local policy and the international context also affected transport. Concessions were a way for European powers to enter Arab and Ottoman regions; the concessions’ controversial presence was either accepted, as a way to speed up modernisation, or refused, as an obstacle to independence. Transport improved communication but at the same time it was a means to control and penetrate entire regions. The introduction of steamships and railways and the building of a network of roads vastly accelerated communication both outside and within the region."},"b6645a49-f90d-50bf-af90-99b576c242d3":{"title":"Modern roads","description":"Modern roads originated in response to the requirements of the rapidly expanding automobile industry. Attempts to build road vehicles, including cars, carriages and trams, with steam-powered and internal combustion engines started as early as the beginning of the 19th century, laying the foundations for the invention of the modern car. Developments in the techniques and materials of road building were at hand to meet the increasing demand for faster and safe roads. In the Arab and Ottoman world, new roads were built at the initiative of the Ottoman sultans or of the local reformers, or by the colonial powers. The new roads affected entire regions, reshaping traditional communication routes according to the commercial needs of a globalised world. Later in the early 20th century, more roads were built in the Arab states.","quote":"Faster, cheaper and safer. Networks of modern roads were built to meet the ever-increasing demand of land transport."},"b6714601-188e-5798-a970-d8e7d25cc3fc":{"title":"The development of photography","description":"Photography was among the most important discoveries of the 19th century. The camera obscura (meaning a dark chamber) discovered in earlier centuries, in the years ahead would form the basis for a new invention; an apparatus able to “capture the moment”. In the early phase it was almost impossible to photograph moving images due to extended exposure time. But with the continued progress in technology, travelling photographers entered everyday life, especially since the numbers of travellers increased in response to the improved possibilities of journeying by sea on cruise liners and by rail with the Orient Express. One of the most celebrated photographers in England was Francis Frith James Robertson who travelled to Egypt, and James Robertson, another English photographer, who photographed the monuments and people of Istanbul.","quote":"“Dear sirs, through the light, nature was passed onto a surface.” (François Arago, French Academy of Sciences, 1839)"},"b83bffbf-bed5-5e53-a1cb-b290b1df25d5":{"title":"The Congress of Berlin and Austrian predominance in the Western Balkans","description":"At the Congress of Berlin in June 1878 a considerably territorially reduced Bulgaria is confined to its northern territories principally tributary to Turkey. The great powers: Germany, Russia, France, Great Britain, Austria and Turkey grant Austria the right to occupy and administer Bosnia and Herzegovina and concede the military occupation of the Sanjak of Novibazar.  \n  \nThe Austrian army occupying Bosnia Herzegovina goes into battle against the Bosnian insurgents, which turns out to be a costly military campaign. In 1881 the last parts of the Croatian Military Frontier is merged with Hungary, with substantial Serb communities in all of these territories. The Austrian Government subordinates most of the Serb national rights to the Magyar-Croatian Administration. This, and the occupation of Bosnia Herzegovina, puts a strain on relations with both Turkey and Serbia."},"ba9c7efb-89b3-51f0-8017-90345c33f679":{"title":"Trading communities","description":"Trading hubs around the Mediterranean, the Red Sea and the Arabian Peninsula had long been shaped by the dynamic coexistence of indigenous and migrant communities from diverse ethnic, linguistic and religious backgrounds. In the 19th century, Europe, and particularly the UK, also increasingly saw representatives of these communities settle in its economic centres. Within the urban fabric – both shared and used distinctively according to affiliation – each community managed specific aspects of trade conducted along tight communal networks spanning the whole region and Europe. Both communal and intercommunal life in the cities was regulated by a complex web of laws and regulations set by the state, foreign embassies and the communities themselves, the latter shaped by religion and cultural traditions. Trading elites often assumed citizenship and contributed to a city’s political, cultural and educational life. At the other end of the spectrum, large numbers of impoverished migrants poured into cities from across the region and the Mediterranean. These drastically changed urban demographics and often triggered social turmoil and intercommunal strife.","quote":"Trading ports and cities were shaped by the dynamic coexistence of ethnically and religiously diverse communities."},"ba9fe4e4-acfe-52e3-94a5-3ec9746ecc9e":{"title":"Military slaves or Mamluks","description":"Slaves obtained in raids along the Mediterranean coasts of Europe and put to military service in the Islamic world were referred to as Western Christian Mamluks. Those bought for the same purpose at Ottoman markets in the eastern Mediterranean, especially in Constantinople, came mostly from Central Asia or Eastern Europe. These slaves – Circassians, Georgians and Greeks among them – became known as Eastern Mamluks. Military slaves were trained at the courts of their overlords for whom they provided protection. Although separated from their roots and homeland, they could rise through the ranks and even strengthen their bonds with the ruling family through adoption or marriage. The Mamluk system continued in Islamic countries such as Egypt and Tunisia until the mid-19th century. After that, armies recruited the sons of the local population.","quote":"Victims of the privateering war, military slaves or Mamluks often formed elite military units in their new homeland."},"bb251210-47fa-5aa3-b296-b39c2652963f":{"title":"Historical Profile / Egypt","extra":{"hb_type":"country"}},"bb2620a9-f87c-5da2-9ee9-25d3d53ac2d9":{"title":"Collecting","description":"One endeavour of the 19th century was the study of the past. The scope of interest extended to all aspects of civilization, and included art and architecture. Within the wider spectrum of the history of art, Islamic art tended to be placed somewhere between late antiquity and the medieval period, or often it was studied using an ethnographic approach.  \n  \nColonialism and the presence of Europeans in the Middle East encouraged studies in Islamic art and, as the scholarly discipline evolved, it prompted both an interest in the private collecting of works of art and the enrichment of public and private collections. These were opened up to visitors in the latter part of the century.  \n  \nOrientalism, exoticism, and a penchant for the variety seen in ornamental designs on works of art, were determining factors in the early stages of the historiography of Islamic art and collecting."},"bb43a467-c03a-5ca0-84c0-d86ee64556dc":{"title":"Historical Profile / Italy","extra":{"hb_type":"country","map_descriptions":{"map_1":{"en":"Italy, 1815"},"map_2":{"en":"Italy, 1861"},"map_3":{"en":"Italy, 1919"}}}},"bb43c823-296e-503d-889f-4c3d57c81231":{"title":"Second Saudi State – Saudi fortunes revive","description":"Out of the chaos that followed the razing of Dir‘iyya, the deportation, torture and mutilation of many Saud family members and sons of Sheikh Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, and the in-fighting of claimants to the rule, Imam Turki ibn Abdullah al- Saud finally emerged as leader. Imam Turki expelled Ottoman occupying forces. In 1824, choosing Riyad as the capital, he went on to revive the spirit of the Reform Movement, unifying Najd and al-Ahsa once again.  \n  \nBetween 1820 and 1824, Riyad emerged as the chief garrison town. When in 1823 Imam Turki ibn Abdullah emerged from hiding, he benefited from the long-standing Saud roots in the area and the people’s loyalty to the Saud family, which was supportive of the Reform Movement and establishing security, stability and unity of the people. By 1824 Imam Turki ibn Abdullah was able to force out the Ottoman forces, first from southern Najd, and then from the al-Qassim region. Because of the devastation in Dir‘iyya, the well-maintained garrison town of Riyad made the obvious choice as the capital of the Second Saudi State.  \n  \nIn 1889, Prince ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Faisal, became the legitimate Imam of the Saudi State after the death of his brother, Imam Abdallah. With the tide turning against him, in 1891, Imam ‘Abd al-Rahman decided to retreat into temporary exile and take his family, including his young son, the future King ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, with him."},"bb70d13e-d0f7-5c48-b76b-b206232bd24f":{"title":"Historical Profile / Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)","extra":{"hb_type":"country"}},"bc7d1b1e-05ac-533b-8ba0-54760a7d31ad":{"title":"“The Moresque Town” and the “Cairo Street”","description":"The “Moresque” or “Moorish Town” created for the Paris Exhibitions of 1867 at the Champs de Mars and again in 1878 at the Trocadéro, hosted the pavilions for Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco and Egypt. At later exhibitions other facets of daily life and trade in the Arab World were suggested by the combination of these different pavilions. In keeping with the idea of the “Moorish Town”, but with a view to achieving greater historical authenticity, Delort de Gleon and M. Gillet created the first “Cairo Street” for the Paris exhibition of 1889 by reconstructing architectural features largely salvaged from demolished buildings. Mosques and minarets and houses with screened *mashrabiyya* windows were reproduced accurately down to the tiniest decorative details. Apart from some inevitable issues with proportions, the “realer than real” “Cairo Street” was a huge success with the public. Although it existed within the abstract dimension of a set design, this did not prevent the street from becoming a must-see attraction and a spectacle for visitors at successive International Exhibitions.","quote":"“The entire Orient is before you: don’t look for machines here, or for the practical inventions of the human mind: you are in the domain of contemplative life: the agreeable precedes the utilitarian, and poetry is intricately mixed into the smallest detail of existence.” (Hippolyte Gautier)"},"bc854b74-f097-5496-b2a4-f430daafc4b6":{"title":"Classical archaeology","description":"The Grand Tours of the 18th century saw a parade of (mostly) European gentlemen visit ancient sites in Italy. Greece was little explored even at the turn of the 19th century, although by the turn of the 20th, it would be a focal point for archaeology. The Middle East was so little explored that effectively it was a blank on the map.  \n  \nThe 19th century brought to light a wealth of spectacular Greek and Roman remains in North Africa and the Middle East: Carthage and Dougga in Tunisia, Ephesus and Pergamon in Turkey. In the early years of the 20th century, aerial surveys in Tunisia illustrated Roman land-use practices that had been sought for in vain in Europe.  \n  \nFeelings of empathy with the soldiers of ancient empires fostered an interest in life on the frontiers in antiquity among North African colonists. Under Napoleon, France identified with the might of ancient Rome. In Germany, high culture and political fragmentation led to feelings of greater affinity with ancient Greece.","quote":"Europeans saw their cultural roots in Greece and Rome. Many of the more informative sites were in the Arab and Ottoman world."},"bc9a3b42-b2dc-5efb-9f94-52134bb1076a":{"title":"Tunisia at the heart of the Mediterranean between Orient and Occident","description":"Situated at the confluence of the seas of the Mediterranean, since ancient times Tunisia has been a land of encounters and exchange between the eastern and western Mediterranean, Sub-Saharan Africa and Europe. Under the reign of Hammuda Pasha Bey (1782–1814), the Regency of Tunis was treated as an equal trading partner by European powers. By the end of Napoleonic Wars, however, a radical change occurred in these relationships, largely due to growing technological superiority on the north shore of the Mediterranean. Thus, in May 1881, Tunisia became a French Protectorate. The early 20th century saw Tunisia, especially its social structures and traditional economy, in a deep crisis. The Protectorate generated new debates within Tunisian society.","extra":{"remark":"Tunisia at the heart of the Mediterranean between Orient and Occident"}},"bc9a97f5-9edf-5d9c-bf8f-4cca75184e96":{"title":"Historical Profile / Greece","extra":{"hb_type":"country","map_descriptions":{"map_1":{"en":"Greece, 1832"},"map_2":{"en":"Greece, 1913, Balkan wars"},"map_3":{"en":"Greece, 1920"}}}},"bd677873-ce69-5041-be5e-82bf4abfea44":{"title":"Temporary structures and presentation of national contexts","description":"The 1867 exhibition held in Paris marked a change in the structure of the International Exhibitions. The number of nations that now participated made it necessary to change the way the spaces were organised, not just to vary how the products were presented, but primarily to allow each country to represent their own cultural context as authentically and freely as possible. Distributed according to planned layouts and, significantly, according to the specific political and colonial situation at the time, various national pavilions were placed in strategic positions in relation to the emerging architecture of the host nation. While host countries tended to construct buildings and other structures, which were designed to remain after the exhibition and intended to project the cutting edge of technology, the “Eastern district” ‒ which included the pavilions of Egypt and the Ottoman Empire as well as Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia along with all the other countries considered at the time to belong to the “Arab world” ‒ formed the most picturesque and popular area at all the International Exhibitions."},"bf266bd8-1fcd-5149-9bc6-cd75d44f6660":{"title":"Decorative arts","description":"During the first half of the 18th century, and especially during the period of Sultan Ahmad III (1703–30), architecture and decoration at the Ottoman court was influenced by European art. The rococo style, combined with baroque elements, matched Ottoman aesthetics in a unique way and this prevailed for many decades. The 19th century witnessed an increasing interest in the European style in all media and in architecture. Within the expanse of the Ottoman Empire this fashion filtered out to the regions that later formed independent states. In addition, direct contact with Europeans in Arab lands, through expeditions and trade as well as among travellers, had an effect on craftsmanship. Artists, looking to the West for inspiration, did not necessarily faithfully copy what they learned, but fused Western influence with local styles.","quote":"A multitude of exchanges between East and West shaped the decorative arts of the 19th century."},"c2e16914-946b-5478-87fd-b1e9a340af75":{"title":"Historical revocations","description":"During the romantic period, many artists attributed the qualities of civil liberties and a commitment to civil society to remote historical figures, often as the result of political submission. The subjects chosen frequently represented a glorious past, interwoven with heroic acts, and imbued with a symbolism that reminded viewers of their national identity. Besides “official” history paintings, other works, which were very well received by progressive groups in Europe, could also be found at International Exhibitions. Amidst a period when Orientalism in painting continued to establish itself by depicting both religious subjects and what might be termed “historical costume dramas”, and in the wake of an Orientalism that was finally split between realism and historical documentation—characteristic of the work of many artists who were attracted to learn through travel to the East—the large painting of Stephen Ussi appeared. The Ussi represents an interesting example of an important commission, awarded by the Viceroy of Egypt to a Western artist in 1869, on the occasion of the opening of the Suez Canal. It was exhibited at the Vienna Exhibition of 1873.","quote":"Orientalism influenced paintings of historic and religious subjects."},"c2efb6f7-3f07-5bb7-8c77-c8265c769dbc":{"title":"Italy from 1861 to 1922","description":"In 1861, when Italy became a nation state under King Victor Emanuel II, most Italians were poor, illiterate, disenfranchised peasants. In the following 60 years, the country experienced a late but intense industrialisation, mass migration, the development of a vibrant trade union movement and the beginning of social legislation; primary education became compulsory. Life expectancy rose from 29 in 1861 to 49 in 1921.  \n  \nThe era of mass politics began: in 1892 the Socialist Party was founded, in 1919 the Catholic Popular Party and in 1921 the Fascist Party. In the 1910s, male franchise became universal.  \n  \nWars enabled Italy to annex Venice (1866), Rome (1870), Trento and Trieste (1918).  \n  \nThe traumatic experience of World War I caused social and political upheavals and paved the way for the Fascist rise to power in 1922."},"c3a68819-dcf2-5be4-8f9b-dcc45c8848e4":{"title":"International Exhibitions","description":"The great stage of the International Exhibitions drew popular attention to the fact that “while the Western world exported  its industrial revolution to the rest of globe, it also began to import information about other cultures”. (Zeynep Çelik)\n\nThe International Exhibitions developed between the mid-19th and early 20th centuries as an expression of 19th-century positivist and romantic thought. They were promoted by the industrialised Western nations, initially to celebrate progress in industry and science, with numerous different sectors interested in fostering talent in the arts and disseminating knowledge nationally and internationally. Naturally these exhibitions were based on the growth in world trade, but this was fuelled by a period of rapid expansion in European colonialism and contact with African and Asian cultures.  \n  \nWhile national fairs, which were held frequently from the beginning of the 19th century, focused mainly on industrial products, the international commercial element grew significantly and can be considered “universal” at the time of the Great Exhibition in London in 1851. From that moment onwards, the major European capitals, followed by cities further afield, began competing with each other to host the best exhibition: France organized five Expositions Universelles in Paris (between 1855 and 1900), alternating with Austria (1873), and there were International Exhibitions or World’s Fairs in Britain (1862, 1871‒74) and the USA (New York 1853, Philadelphia 1876 and Chicago 1893). The success of these exhibitions extended to the Ottoman Empire (Ottoman General Exposition, 1863) and Egypt, on the occasion of the opening of the Suez Canal (1869).  \n  \nFrom the outset, the enthusiasm for these exhibitions was met in some quarters by ironic, negative criticisms of the masses, who poured into colossal structures built to accommodate huge trade bazaars, real festivals of the picturesque. The exhibitions were a celebration, at times rhetorical, of the meeting between East and West. Beyond their manifestos, however, they reveal not only political tensions but also the creative, industrial and commercial orientations of the time, showing clearly the trends and changes taking place in the “Western” and “Arab” worlds.\n\nMarina Minozzi  \nBorghese Gallery, Rome, Italy  \n  \n**Translator(s)**  \n  \nLaurence Nunny  \nUnited Kingdom  \n  \n**Copyeditor(s)**  \n  \nMandi Gomez  \nLondon, United Kingdom","extra":{"bibliography":{"en":["Aimone, Linda and Carlo Olmo, *Le esposizioni universali 1851‒1900. Il progresso il scena*, Torino: Allemandi, 1990.","Alcouffe, Daniel and Marc Bascou (eds), *1851‒1900: Le arti decorative alle grandi esposizioni universali*, Milan: Idealibri, 1988.","Çelik, Zeynep, *Displaying the Orient: Architecture of Islam at Nineteenth-century World’s Fairs* (Comparative studies on Muslim societies, 12), Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1992.","Colombo, Paolo, *Le esposizioni universali: I mestieri d’arte sulla scena del mondo (1851‒2010)*, Venice: Marsilio, 2012.","Giusti, Maria Adriana and Ezio Godoli (eds), *L’Orientalismo nell’architettura italiana tra Ottocento e Novecento* (proceedings of the International Symposium, Viareggio 23‒5 October 1997), Siena: Maschietto & Musolino, 1999."]},"legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","new_status":"N","project_id":"AWE"}}},"c3e312e4-25fe-5db0-ab07-8bfe37da24c5":{"title":"The East in the works of women writers of the 19th century","description":"A brief look at the works of women fiction writers clearly demonstrates that not only were they concerned with self-expression but also issues concerning the place of women in society in the local context of each country. They also concerned themselves with the broader issues of social stratification, cultural dialogue and the relationship between “East” and “West”, and the liberation of women. These literary pioneers saw themselves and their literary characters as active agents in a period of reform and change and also played a decisive role in the revival of classical Arabic prose and poetry. These authors include novelists and poets such as Zaynab Fawwaz, Labiba Hashem, Afifa Karam and Warda al-Yaziji of Lebanon, Aisha Taymur of Egypt, Maryana Marrash, Mary ‘Ajami and Nazik Bayham of Syria, and many others. In 1892 the first women’s magazine, *Al-Fatah* appeared in Alexandria, published by the Syrian journalist Hind Nawfal.","quote":"Women’s participation in public affairs was an indicator of social change in the Arab and Ottoman worlds. By the end of the 19th century only in Egypt were there three magazines edited by and for women in circulation."},"c54c6d85-2d8b-52a2-8573-fee6e62813b4":{"title":"Ancient voices","description":"Before the 19th century what was known about the great civilisations of Babylon, Assyria and Egypt came from classical and biblical sources. Now the discovery of texts written by those cultures themselves became known in large numbers. In 1822, French scholar Jean-François Champollion cracked the Egyptian hieroglyphic code thanks to the Rosetta Stone. While in 1857, the official decipherment of Assyrian was recognised.  \n  \nThe ancient world was no less cosmopolitan than today’s. The sound of many languages filled the streets of big cities. Some are related to languages still spoken today: Akkadian and Aramaic are sister languages to Arabic, for example. This closeness helped scholars to decipher and read the ancient texts.  \n  \nGreat efforts were made to correlate the newly discovered monuments and texts with classical and biblical sources. Would they confirm or refute their testimony?","quote":"Discovery and decipherment of inscriptions allowed the ancient cultures to speak to us directly."},"c7ef292a-f889-5772-947c-2a24c693609d":{"title":"Scenes from life","description":"Throughout Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the transfer of knowledge and the master–disciple relationship were fundamental both in Europe and in the Islamic world. In 19th-century Europe, the desire to democratise education and to disseminate knowledge relating to geography, civic education and other relevant subjects resulted in teachers having to teach numerous pupils and to find ways of keeping them focused, disciplined and calm. Class photographs soon became an important ritual of ordered class life, marking the journey through childhood to adulthood. Meanwhile, in the Arab and Ottoman world at the time, modern trends in European teaching methods soon joined those that had existed in the region for centuries. Europeans who came into contact with traditional Qur’anic schools were fascinated, and many recorded what they saw in art and photography.","quote":"“Free the child’s potential and you will transform him into the world.” Maria Montessori"},"c822dd09-0cd5-5672-afd5-3d0b3be08cfa":{"title":"Decorative arts and new schools of applied art","description":"The success of the World’s Fairs from the mid-19th century grew in line with an increasing number of industrial art schools and schools of applied art. The debate between art and industry fitted perfectly within the context of the new technologies highlighted by the Universal Exhibitions and involved numerous different aspects: knowledge of the decorative arts and schools of design, new models and the need to adapt the creative process to mass production, new raw materials and cost, and the training of a specialised workforce. Ornamental manuals and repertoires, imitating the popular book by Owen Jones *The Grammar of Ornament*, instructed readers on how to produce decorative elements in the Islamic style. At the same time as the first schools were founded in France and Britain, new industrial art museums began to appear in Europe starting with the Museum of Manufactures in South Kensington, London (later the Victoria and Albert Museum), in 1852. These museums were founded to collect original artefacts that were then copied or reworked into new, original creations using modern technological processes.","quote":"The search for new technologies within the applied arts increased the number of objects that were collected to be used as models."},"c91c0790-6793-5786-9e22-3837f4561d42":{"title":"The road to World War I","description":"In June 1903, the young pro-Austrian King of Serbia Alexander Obrenović is brutally murdered in an officers’ conspiracy. With replacement of the pro-Austrian Serbian Dynasty by the pro-Russian Dynasty under Peter I the balance of power between Austria and Russia in the Balkans changes. In July 1908, the “Young Turk” nationalist revolution transforms the Ottoman Empire into a constitutional monarchy. The revolution rapidly disintegrates the European territories of the Ottoman Empire. The Austrian annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina on 6 October 1908 causes a major crisis in Europe, adding to hostilities between Austria-Hungary and Serbia. To the Austrian-Serbian rivalry was added the Austro-Russian rivalry for influence in the Balkan Peninsula. On 28 June 1914 the successor to the throne, Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria was shot in Sarajevo by a Bosnian youth of Serb origin. His assassination triggers the outbreak of World War I. Austria declares war on Serbia on 28 July 1914."},"c9335788-c5e2-5748-8aca-0d5e79500ab0":{"title":"Music, Literature, Dance and Fashion","description":"The Arab and Ottoman recognition of the need for sweeping social, political and economic reform led to significant developments in music, literature, dance and fashion.\n\nIn addition to the sweeping cultural changes in Arab and Ottoman lands, Western European culture was increasingly exposed to ideas, styles and commodities from the Ottoman and Arab world that resulted in the incorporation of new motifs and a romanticised view of the “East”. The 19th-century reform movement, called *al-Nahda* (the Awakening), was born of the encounter with Europeans who developed commercial, then colonial interests in North Africa and the Levant. Many Europeans settled in Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt, Lebanon and Ottoman Turkey, bringing their cultural preferences with them. While the local populations did not adopt European tastes wholesale, they did embraced certain institutions – theatres, and technology such as the printing press for example, plus styles of dress and new musical instruments and harmonic systems.  \n  \nThe adoption of European-style military uniforms was probably based on practical considerations, but the taste for the men’s frock-coat and fez was a form of emulation of European styles. Women’s dress in the Ottoman world owed less to foreign models. Rather, European designers such as Mariano Fortuny designed women’s clothes in the shapes of Arab robes or with patterns based on Ottoman textiles. New literary forms in the Arab lands included newspapers, periodicals and novels, but an interest in traditional Arabic literature was also rekindled. European composers in a range of genres evoked Ancient Egypt and the Ottoman court although their music was not based on Eastern harmonic systems. Likewise, stories from traditional Arab literature inspired the great impresarios of dance in Paris, but their interpretations were the product of imagination and unrelated to actual dances of the Ottoman or Arab lands.\n\nSheila Canby  \nNew Your, United States of America  \n*Music*  \n  \nMohammad Najjar  \nAmman, Jordan  \n*Literature*  \n  \nMeliha Yaylali  \nMinistry for Culture and Tourism  \n(General Directorate for Cultural Heritage and Museums),  \nAnkara, Turkey  \n*Dance*  \n  \nAna Cabrera  \nNational Museum of Decorative Arts, Madrid, Spain  \n*Fashion*  \n  \n**Copyeditor(s)**  \n  \nMandi Gomez  \nLondon, United Kingdom","extra":{"bibliography":{"en":["Adra, Najwa, “Middle East”, in Cohen, Selma Jeanne (ed.), *The International Encyclopedia of Dance: A Project of Dance Perspectives Foundation, Inc.*, vol. 4 (6 vols), New York: Oxford University Press, 2004: 402‒17 and passim.","And, Metin, *40 Days 40 Nights: Ottoman Weddings, Festivities, Processions*, Istanbul: Toprakbank Publications, 2000.","And, Metin, *A History of Theatre and Popular Entertainment in Turkey*, Ankara: Forum Press, 1963.","And, Metin, “The Turkish Folk Theatre”, *Asian Folklore Studies*, 38, 2 (1979): 155–76.","Ashour, Radwa et al. (eds), *Arab Women Writers: A Critical Reference Guide, 1873‒1999*, Cairo and New York: The American University in Cairo Press, 2008.","Black, Cyril and Carl Brown, *Modernization in the Middle East: The Ottoman Empire and its Afro-Asian Successors*, Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 1992.","Cachia, Pierre, “A 19th-century Arab’s Observations on European Music”, *Ethnomusicology*, 17, 1 (January 1973): 41‒51.","Cachia, Pierre, *Arabic Literature: An Overview*, New York: Routledge Curzon, 2002.","Curl, James Stephen, *Egyptomania: The Egyptian Revival: A Recurring Theme in the History of Taste*, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1994.","Faroqhi, Suraiya, *Subjects of the Sultan: Culture and Daily Life in the Ottoman Empire*, tr. Martin Bott, London: I. B. Tauris, 2000.","Geczy, Adam, *Fashion and Orientalism: Dress, Textiles and Culture from the 17th to the 21st Century*, London and New York: Bloomsbury, 2013.","Halman, Talat Sait, *A Millennium of Turkish Literature*, Ankara: Ministry of Culture and Tourism Publications, 2008.","Hourani, Albert, *A History of the Arab Peoples*, London: Faber, 1991.","Kabbani, Rana, *Imperial Fictions: Europe’s Myths of Orient*, London: Pandora Press, 1994.","Martin, Richard and Harold Koda, *Orientalism: Visions of the East in Western Dress*, New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art.","Marwan, Muasher, *The Second Arab Awakening and the Battle for Pluralism*, London and New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014.","Rosenberg, Ruth E., *Music, Travel, and Imperial Encounter in 19th-century France: Musical Apprehensions*, Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2015: 43‒66.","Said, Edward W., *Orientalism*, London: Vintage, 1978.","Tezcan, Hülya, *Children of the Ottoman Seraglio: Customs and Costumes of the Princes and Princesses*, Istanbul: Aygaz Press, 2006.","Feldman, Walter Zev, “Ottoman Music”, in *Oxford Music Online*, available at: http://0-www.oxfordmusiconline.com.library.metmuseum.org/subscriber/article/grove/music/52169?q=Ottoman+music&search=quick&pos=1&\\_start=1#firsthit \\[last accessed 16 March 2015\\].  \n  \nWright, Owen et al., “Arab Music”, *Oxford Music Online*, available at: http://0-www.oxfordmusiconline.com.library.metmuseum.org/subscriber/article/grove/music/01139?q=Arab+Music&search=quick&pos=1&\\_start=1#firsthit \\[last accessed 16 March 2015\\]."]},"legacy_exhibition":{"show":"y","new_status":"N","project_id":"AWE"}}},"c9699750-2707-5d05-9191-85b53449ff3b":{"title":"Travelling equipment","description":"Travellers undertaking journeys into what was often unfamiliar territory tended to carry with them a few equipment essentials, which, for example, might provide basic protection or help deepen their insights along the way. Some travelled light so as not to feel encumbered, but most preferred to be surrounded with a significant array of what they considered essential items or, indeed, comforts. Scientists and scholars for example, might carry maps as well as scientific instruments, equipment, and containers to store archaeological finds, specimens and samples. Items that most travellers saw as essential regardless of the purpose of their journey included maps, travel and guide books – which they hoped would prepare them for what to expect at each stage of their journey – as well as cameras and medicines, money, weapons, passports and permissions to pass and, perhaps most important of all, water containers. In addition, travellers to and across the Middle East and North Africa relied on local staff to ease their progress. These included translators, Bedouin guides and even cooks, the latter carefully trained to be mindful of the kinds of cuisine a foreign stomach, unfamiliar with local dishes and foodstuffs, was able to digest.","quote":"“I travel not to go anywhere, but to go. I travel for travel’s sake. The great affair is to move.” (Robert Louis Stevenson, c.1870)"},"ca3022e9-8ad3-59e2-93f3-d903bb50282e":{"title":"Inspired by the “East”: Egyptomania and Mariano Fortuny","description":"The influence of Orientalism was evident in European fashion throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. The first changes were seen in the motifs used in jewellery before they became evident in clothing as the century progressed. The straight tunics worn in the Arab and Ottoman world influenced women’s clothing, the straight cut, and natural waists representing a change to the shape of Western women’s dress which had previously featured corsets and crinolines. This new, more natural shape was developed by a number of different designers and dressmakers. One such designer was Mariano Fortuny, whose Orientalism-inspired textile designs and garments, such as tunics or capes and coats similar to Bedouin cloaks, had a major impact on European fashion in the early 20th century.","quote":"It is not enough to copy forms of Arab and Ottoman artworks ‒ artists must “re-create” them in the cauldron of their sensibility and in the context of their times.(Paraphrasing Jean-Marcel Humbert)"},"cba57586-ea39-5788-8676-2445c0822645":{"title":"1851–1910: The era of progress and development","description":"The Regeneration military coup of 1851, led by Marshall Saldanha, put an end to liberal military insurrections. The new government, under Queen Maria II, had a material development policy led by Minister Fontes Pereira de Melo. During this period Portugal followed European progress with new roads, railways, iron bridges, urban renewal, pubic gardens and military and scientific missions into Africa colonies – Angola and Mozambique. Portugal participated enthusiastically in the international and universal exhibitions of the late 19th century. But it is also in these last decades when Republican ideals emerged and the first Republican deputies were elected. Meanwhile, the British Ultimatum (1891) put a stop to Portugal’s colonial aims to link Angola by land to Mozambique. The monarchy became very unpopular and in 1908 the King was murdered when he was arriving in Lisbon."},"cc7f9613-da97-5d3a-ae9a-041673daebf0":{"title":"Folk tales and story-telling in Arab and Ottoman lands","description":"The folk literary genre found its clearest expression in two forms: religious performances to celebrate the birthday of holy men and story-telling in coffee houses. Sufi groups executed these performances at religious festivals in the form of religious songs. At religious festivals, secular and religious activities took place side by side and were the main outlet for folk artists; but story-tellers recited extracts from the *Arabian Nights* and *Taghribat Bani Hilal* and many other popular tales, including stories from Antara ibn Shaddad (Antara bin Abs), in coffee houses and occasionally in folk theatres as well. The translator of *Arabian Nights*, Edward W. Lane, in his book *Manners and Customs of Modern Egyptians* (1833‒5), describes in detail how poetic citations were inserted to reinforce the context during performances and how tales were accompanied by music. The oral tradition was never static and new tales continued to be added up until the 19th century.","quote":"In societies where illiteracy was high, folk literature was invoked to cater for the needs of the many by bringing the creations of folk artists and elite writers to non-readers."},"cca90db2-7646-5d20-9c79-51ec0bc82143":{"title":"Pedagogy and knowledge","description":"In the 19th century, pedagogy advanced significantly in Europe as a result of the democratisation of certain subjects such as geography and the visual arts and the multiplication of resources supporting education (for example, cheaper schoolbooks, wall maps, equipment for experiments). The training received by teachers became increasingly more suited to their future teaching tasks in specialist teacher training establishments, such as the French *écoles normales*. Different pedagogic methods found success; one example was Montessori teaching, introduced in Italy in the 1900s, which is based on sensory awareness.","quote":"“Stand for the teacher and honour his rank ...  \n... for a teacher is almost as a prophet”  \nAhmad Shawqi"},"ccd55ae1-a0f4-5328-b3f2-152a50b8ee79":{"title":"The “Moorish” and Spanish Neo-Mudéjar styles","description":"The study of art, which developed in the Iberian peninsular and North Africa between the 12th and the 15th centuries, inspired development of the so-called “Moorish” style in Europe and America. While a trend that resulted from this was a fascination for the Nasrid Palace of the Alhambra, in Spain meanwhile a style known as the Neo-Mudéjar was developing. The Alhambra’s influence is due in part to the publication of Owen Jones’ *Plans, Elevations, Sections and Details of the Alhambra* (1836–45). The book, richly illustrated in colour, was a significant inspiration, but so too were the exhibition of pieces at World Fairs, the emergence of museums of decorative arts and private collecting. The influence of the development of the Moorish style alongside the Neo-Mudéjar in Spain is seen in architecture and interior decoration; for example, in so-called smoking rooms. Both styles brought models and techniques from the mediaeval period, such as lusterware or damascening in metalwork back into fashion, by re-creating them. In Spain, the lusterware tradition gave ceramics workshops in Valencia new impetus.","quote":"“The Alhambra was at the very summit of perfection of Moorish art, as the Parthenon of Greek art.” (Owen Jones)"},"ce477b96-95a2-59e4-a4ed-3fffe7f18059":{"title":"Traditional folk dances","description":"Folk dances and musical forms, performed traditionally during important social or religious celebrations, were an integral part of the cultural and regional traditions of North Africa and the Middle East. Influenced by increased interaction with European culture, new rhythms and harmonies were integrated with traditional styles of dance and music. This is seen, for example, in Flamenco music and dance, whose Arab, Berber, Romany gypsy, Jewish and local Spanish influences can all be felt. The tarantella, from Italy, reveals a similar synthesis, of rhythm, sound and instrumental composition, with Arabic musical forms. In the majority of the Balkan countries, the Trakia region and western Anatolia, a similar cultural synthesis of rhythm and sound, instruments and dance forms reveal a common cultural heritage formed historically through a combination of Slavic, Greek, Byzantine and Ottoman influences.","quote":"All forms of folk dance reflect the social and cultural wealth of communities, and knowledge of and interaction with other cultural communities helps to transmit them from one generation to another."},"cf217d66-47a0-5a15-a853-9e1af74cdc81":{"title":"Music","description":"From 1815 to 1920 Arab music underwent significant changes in part thanks to the patronage of Isma‘il Pasha and the formation of the Khedivial School, or style, of music in Cairo. Theatres and cafes with performance spaces hosted concerts, often performed by female singers and male instrumentalists. However, direct European influence is difficult to pinpoint because the leaders of the *al-Nahda* movement in music wrote no theoretical treatises about their work. In contrast, 19th-century European composers named works after characters in Arab literature such as the character made famous as the central story-teller in the *Arabian Nights*, Sheherezade (Maurice Ravel). Isma‘il Pasha commissioned Giuseppe Verdi to write an opera for the opening of the Khedivial Opera House in Cairo, and *Aïda* was the result, though its debut in Cairo was delayed until 1871. Such events would certainly have had an impact on the musicians of the Khedivial School."},"d108e5de-1eca-5810-963d-50b09a88891e":{"title":"Nomadic tribes","description":"In the Ottoman Empire, Arab, Kurdish and Turkoman nomads lived a life of regular migration. Kurds and Turkomans lived mainly in Anatolia and the villages between Aleppo and the Euphrates; Bedouin Arabs across Iraq, Syria, the Levant and the Arabian Peninsula. Nomadic groups affected the history of the Arab and Ottoman world by supporting, opposing or eluding the objectives of the authorities. Traditionally bound to migratory patterns and lifestyles linked to seasonal pastoralism or agriculture, they also interacted with settled communities as casual labourers, traders or guards protecting land and borders. Cooperation between authorities and tribal leaders benefited both sides well into the 19th century, when changing social, economic and political conditions made the Ottomans move towards settling nomads and curtailing their migratory freedom.","quote":"Not all migrations within the Ottoman Empire were for political or economic reasons – the migration patterns of pastoral and nomadic peoples had existed for centuries."},"d208441b-ea1b-5eaf-ade6-07c380192a88":{"title":"Modern dance and entertainment","description":"Among the cultural innovations of the Arab and Ottoman world in the 19th century were the European-style *vaudeville* theatres that staged a variety of performances including dance and operetta. Local cultural life was able to absorb some European genres according to the specific style and theatrical traditions of the region, such as *ortaoyunu* (Turkish folk theatre) and *tuluat* (improvisational theatre). European-style musical instruments and singing, in addition to French and Italian operetta, became part of the Arab and Ottoman cultural landscape. As well as the new theatre venues, the ballroom became fashionable among the elite as a place to practise dancing the waltz, quadrille, polka and foxtrot. In late 19th- and early 20th-century Europe, as a result of the meeting between the “Eastern” and “Western” cultural traditions, the Orientalist art scene provided modern dance performances and entertainments that gave symbolic expression to an era; eccentric and mystic shows that made extensive use of the bare feet and bent knees seen extensively in dances of the “East”. New entertainment venues that appeared in the Near and Middle East during this century include music and cabaret halls, opera and theatre houses, and bars.","quote":"“I wanted to create a new form of art, an art completely irrelevant to the usual theories, an art giving to the soul and the senses at the same time complete delight, where reality and dream, light and sound, movement and rhythm form an exciting unity.” (Loie Fuller)"},"d21eb5d2-cdce-5f72-a917-0fcf9ad47608":{"title":"Museums in Europe","description":"The major European powers needed cultural institutions befitting their political status: the British Museum in London, the Louvre in Paris, the Hermitage in St Petersburg, the Imperial Museums in Vienna. The growth of national identity in the early 19th century caused museums to spring up across Europe. They educated and entertained a public who increasingly lived in cities. They also cultivated the sense of taste and design, and an appreciation of technical achievement.  \n  \nThe great International or World's Fairs stimulated the development of such museums, providing the founding collections of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, for example. The rate of museum foundation increased as the 19th century advanced, with mass education becoming normal, forging citizens of modern nations striving towards “progress”.","quote":"The history of the Arab and Ottoman world was new and exciting for the European public."},"d493a197-bef1-5be0-a973-b31b4e9acdfe":{"title":"How did art evolve during the Ottoman era?","description":"During the Ottoman Era, architecture truly evolved, and Sursock Palace is a perfect example of this evolution. Buildings were influenced by the Islamic character of the ruler with the addition of *mashrabiyya* (screens) and horseshoe arc ornamentation. Later, Western architecture started to slowly infiltrate Lebanese architecture with Italian Florentine design style added to hotels in Sidon, Tripoli and Beirut.  \n  \nEurope also had a great impact on fine art, with Beirut drawing on European concepts of design to become the centre of culture in the Middle East. Migration was the first reason for this artistic movement, with Lebanese artists studying at schools in Rome, Paris, London, Brussels and Spain. These artists included Gibran Khalil Gibran, Khalil Salib and the sculptor Joseph el-Hoyek, who was influenced by the French sculptor Rodin.  \n  \nLebanese art also had an impact on European arts, with Oriental clothing depicted in the works of artists from the European Renaissance and Baroque eras such as Bellini and Rembrandt."},"d6a47ad5-d458-5f1c-863e-dcbe4f36d36d":{"title":"Striking a delicate balance – local sovereignty and British penetration","description":"The 1820 Peace Treaty forced the Qawasim and other sheikhdoms along the Gulf to mark their pearling and fishing ships with red-and-white flags and carry documentation for inspection by the British. Regular subsequent treaties between rulers on the shores of the Gulf and the British ensured peace at sea during the economically crucial and highly profitable pearling season. In 1853 a Treaty of Maritime Peace in Perpetuity made these annual agreements permanent, with British India as mediator and enforcer. Participating sheikhdoms (emirates or states) now were termed “Trucial States”, their lands the “Trucial Coast”. This is a crucial step in British attempts to separate, and later segregate, the region from other political entities. Meanwhile, peace at sea brought stability and prosperity to the Gulf and increased the region’s contact with the outside world, with Sharjah – its rebuilt fort a symbol of continuing Qawasim status – quickly developing into a key economic hub in the region."},"d875547c-0cfb-5ed0-af97-78f6dd284eb2":{"title":"Development of Islamic art as a discipline","description":"Both European scholars and designers were instrumental in shaping the beginning of the study of Islamic art from the mid-19th century. Gradually, as more information became available and more excavations were undertaken, Islamic art took its place among the other disciplines of art history. An important and highly influential figure of this period was the architect and designer Owen Jones.","quote":"“Every principle which we can derive from the study of the ornamental arts of any other people is not only ever present here, but was by the Moors more universally and truly obeyed.” (Owen Jones)"},"da01c5dc-4c76-5ab6-89ed-41379edc8f1d":{"title":"Wallachia and Moldavia between the Ottoman Empire and the Great European Powers","description":"Wallachia and Moldavia were tributary states of the Ottoman Empire from the 16th century until the 19th century, which meant that they paid an annual tribute, had to align their external politics with the Ottoman one and to direct most of their exports to the Porte, especially cereals, cattle and sheep. However, they maintained their internal organisation, as well as their political and religious institutions.  \n  \nIn the 19th century, the political changes that occurred in Europe to the disadvantage of the Ottoman Empire resulted in its having to share the control over Moldavia and Wallachia first with Russia, and then also with other European powers, such as the UK, France, Piedmont and Prussia, until eventually losing its sovereignty over the two Romanian countries."},"dac41958-3b02-59cb-994e-8a8536f49c91":{"title":"Historical Profile / Portugal","extra":{"hb_type":"country","map_descriptions":{"map_1":{"en":"Portugal, 1815–1920"}}}},"db0ba428-6648-515a-ba7b-ecad03218257":{"title":"The precursors of the Romanian state","description":"At the beginning of the 19th century, a state comprising all the Romanian population inhabiting the territory of present-day Romania did not yet exist: Wallachia (in the south) and Moldavia (in the east) were under Ottoman sovereignty; Dobruja (in the southeast) was a province of the Ottoman Empire; Transylvania (in the centre), Banat (in the southwest), Partium (in the northwest) and Bukovina (in the northwest of Moldavia) belonged to the Habsburg Empire; and Bessarabia (the eastern part of Moldavia) was annexed by Russia in 1812. The basis of the Romanian state was laid in 1859 through the union of Moldavia and Wallachia, which was possible as a consequence of the Ottoman Empire’s decline that had started at the end of the 17th century after the defeat in the Great Turkish War (1683–99) against the Holy League."},"db508216-3572-57ae-86f3-6eb6e89e9482":{"title":"Tourism of the second half of the nineteenth century","description":"The introduction of steamers, railways, modern roads and telegraphs revolutionised travel to the East. The journey became an increasingly more comfortable and reliable exercise, which could be scheduled fairly precisely, and without the fears of strife and conflict that had marred journeys to many areas of the Mediterranean previously. By the 1840s, regular shipping lines plied the Mediterranean between Europe, Greece, the Ottoman Empire and Egypt. By the late 19th century, intricate railway networks connected Eastern Europe with Constantinople and other key areas in the Arab and Ottoman and North African regions. In the cities themselves, tramways proliferated, joined by automobiles in the early 1920s. Western-style hotels and lodgings appeared in Constantinople, Bilad al-Sham, the Holy Land and Egypt. From the 1840s, travel agencies sprung up, offering organised group holidays at all-inclusive prices. The pioneer of the “holiday package” was British entrepreneur Thomas Cook (b. 1808–d. 1892), whose introduction of “mass” tourism to the Levant and Egypt from the late 1860s was based on visits to ancient, classical and religious sites. Cook’s Tours included accommodation in suitable hotels, dragomans (translators), military escorts and imported provisions. Early modern tourism had an invigorating effect on local industries, but also posed many social and cultural challenges.","quote":"“Travel is fatal to prejudice, bigotry, and narrow-mindedness, and many of our people need it sorely on these accounts.” (Mark Twain)"},"db572bae-9f2f-5ccf-990b-01976695a7f8":{"title":"Commodities","description":"In the 19th century, the Arab and Ottoman world increasingly supplied Western Europe with raw materials – particularly cotton, silk, pearls, tobacco and cereals – while the latter targeted Arab and Ottoman markets with an ever-growing supply of manufactured products and colonial commodities such as sugar and coffee. In the process, traditional economic patterns throughout the Middle East started to change. Several regions now intensified their production of those commodities most desired in Europe, while traditional industries started to decline as their products could no longer compete with the machine-made and mass-produced European imports. While cross-Mediterranean trade accelerated ever more rapidly, the great majority of trading activity still continued to take place across different parts of the Ottoman Empire, Arab lands and beyond."},"db6eaf25-c390-5ef8-84ac-c2dbda580b7d":{"title":"Defining borders","description":"At the beginning of the 20th century, Greece managed through the victorious Balkan Wars of 1912–13, to double its territory and unite Greeks that remained under Ottoman rule. The Treaty of Sèrves, signed after the end of the World War I, fulfilled the wish of the Greek Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos for a country spread over two continents. However, in 1922, the “Asia Minor catastrophe” ended his vision for the creation of a “Great Greece”: around 1.5 million Greeks, uprooted from their homes in Asia Minor (Anatolia), became refugees after the signing of the Lausanne Treaty. The Greek State had little choice but to request help from abroad and, with great effort, did its best to incorporate the tens of thousands of people that had arrived from the other side of the Aegean Sea."},"dc3c4257-0909-5b5f-8f27-8f300e5495a1":{"title":"Important ports","description":"In the course of the 19th century, port cities around the Mediterranean, along the Red Sea and in the Arab-Persian Gulf expanded in size, some considerably. This was due not only to their strategic importance for international trade, but also to the increase in steamship traffic and the influx of economic migrants into their already diverse multi-ethnic and multi-faith urban fabric. Cosmopolitan, pragmatic and pluralist, port cities acted not only as maritime trading hubs but also as nerve centres for entrepreneurial expertise, finance, cultural exchange, intra-regional communication and emigration or immigration. Most residents of port cities focused on professional activities, skills and services closely linked to a port’s economic and strategic function. Non-Muslims traditionally oversaw many aspects of international trade, while Muslims tended to dominate trade with the interior and intra-regionally. The industrial expansion of ports at the time was generally initiated by regional governments and commissioned from European firms.","quote":"In the course of the 19th century, port cities expanded due to their strategic importance for international trade, steamship traffic and the influx of economic migrants."},"dcaead3d-67f1-5bee-9a56-1b05bf6678d2":{"title":"Historical Profile / Jordan","extra":{"hb_type":"country","map_descriptions":{"map_1":{"en":"The changes in density of settlements between 1596–1880"},"map_2":{"en":"The changes in density of settlements between 1596–1880"},"map_3":{"en":"Bilad al-Sham, Ottoman administrative division in 1914"},"map_4":{"en":"The Hijaz Railway in 1914"},"map_5":{"en":"The Hijaz Railway in 1914 (detail)"}}}},"e0afcadf-3c57-5057-8586-4ace8d45bbe3":{"title":"Scenes from life","description":"Artists and photographers endeavoured to immortalise the new reality in hospitals and to make a record not only of doctors who made essential discoveries but also of more modest doctors and nurses whose day-to-day work nonetheless saved lives. Numerous surviving images show the rearrangement of hospital wards and the daily life of patients, the technical actions of medical and care teams, and vaccination campaigns. Surgical operations on wounded men were also photographed and drawn during the many wars in the 19th century and during World War I.","quote":"“Medicine is the art whereby health is conserved and the art whereby it is restored after being lost.” Avicenna (Ibn Sina)"},"e5da444f-e56f-5dd3-9d95-62f9f6ceb9f8":{"title":"The formation of museums","description":"The 18th-century Age of Enlightenment had gifted the world an invaluable new way of thinking: reasoned argument based on the critical examination of evidence, particularly of objects, but of texts as well. It also gave the world a new type of institution – the museum. Here was an encyclopaedia of objects where expert and non-expert alike could examine the workings of the natural and man-made world for themselves.  \n  \nIn the 19th century, museum collections grew in size and scope. We learned more about each of the world’s cultures, past and present. Now, as the modern world grew smaller, we were able to discern the similarities and differences between cultures. What was it that made us human? The European model for museums spread around the world. In Turkey, museums displayed ancient cultures to promote an Ottoman imperial identity, then a Turkish national one."},"e6f51375-4ee8-5a15-835c-75917d208176":{"title":"Political life (the start of the Third Republic)","description":"The government relocates from Paris to Versailles in March 1871, whereas the Parisian people refuse to surrender the city to the Prussians. Due to the Treaty of Frankfurt (May 1871) France abandons Alsace and Lorraine to the German Empire.  \n  \nThe Third Republic (1870–1940) establishes numerous reforms. The democratic republic is now created.  \n  \nThe Dreyfus Affair (1894–8) and the law establishing the separation between the Church and the State (1905) revealed the divisions within the French population. The new colonies (Algeria and parts of Africa and Asia) are strengthening France’s economic power."},"e7e12dc8-b469-51c5-b4eb-f433acff1a24":{"title":"Hospitals","description":"Progress in modern medicine and increased knowledge about the importance of hygiene resulted in the overhauling of hospitals and the construction of new, larger, more suitable buildings that were better laid out. It was now known that contamination between patients should be avoided by placing beds at a good distance from one another, cleaning surgical instruments, etc. Employees were given specific training as nurses and laboratory assistants and for other relevant roles. The British social reformer Florence Nightingale remains a symbol of innovation in nursing. Hospitals in large cities and dispensaries in less urbanised areas helped to reduce mortality, in particular infant mortality. Contact between European medicine, which was based on the major scientific discoveries of the 19th century, and Arab medicine, with its rich traditional know-how, was particularly fruitful.","quote":"“The very first requirement of a hospital [is] that it should do the sick no harm.” Florence Nightingale"},"e8c0fbed-cdd4-56e9-a5b6-2eb47f92245e":{"title":"Al-Zubarah, an important trading port","description":"Qatar has always been considered to be one of the main fishing, pearling and trading ports in the Arabian Gulf. During the 18th century, Al-Zubarah emerged as a prominent trading district in Qatar due to its immense number of pearl beds. The resources of the sea were used by the people of Al-Zubarah, with pearling, fishing and maritime trade playing a vital role in the founding and flourishing of this town. Al-Zubarah had the added advantage of being tax-free, which resulted in the success of its trading port. The successes of pearling and trading created an economic surplus that permitted the rapid development of Al-Zubarah. It is thought that the population reached its peak during the 18th century."},"e8ea0097-f8c9-53bd-a82a-f6e18283e4ec":{"title":"Exhibitions","description":"Initially, Islamic art was displayed at the universal exhibitions until a number of specialised international exhibitions took place during the second half of the century. These exhibitions, which showed a blend of connoisseurship and scholarship, promoted trade and exploited a growing interest in the formation of collections. The first was in Paris in 1855, followed by those in London, Vienna, Rome, and then Munich in 1910. While museums’ interest in exhibiting works of art from around the world developed, representatives from them travelled in search of objects. A growing awareness among the Islamic countries that they had a responsibility to preserve their antiquities, led to the creation of organisations such as the Comité de Conservation des Monuments de l’Art Arabe in 1881 by the Khedive of Egypt Muhammad ‘Ali Tawfiq and, thereafter, to the Museum of Islamic Art in Egypt.","quote":"Oriental carpets, ceramics and other lavish works of art were often exhibited to evoke the atmosphere of the One Thousand and One Nights."},"e976f929-f7e9-5891-bd85-f40d4e0e84f9":{"title":"Musical instruments of the Arab and Ottoman world","description":"The rich musical traditions of North Africa and the Middle East reflect historical interactions with Africa and Europe and distinct preferences for rhythm and melody over harmony. The range of instruments, many of which were adopted by Europeans from those produced by Spanish Muslims, includes several forms of lute (*‘ud*), flute or reed pipe, drums, and other stringed instruments suitable for small groups of musicians rather than orchestras. In the mid-19th century European instruments such as the violin were introduced, and somewhat later an organ was produced in Tunis with an international audience in mind. The Ottomans brought their own brand of military music to the Empire including kettle drums, cymbals and trumpets, but in 1826 when the Janissary corps was disbanded, military bands fell out of favour.","quote":"It’s said there are two schools of music in the Arab and Ottoman world: Ottoman is ornamented “by delicate glissandos of the fingers and slight vibratos”; Egyptian is amplified “by firm strokes of the plectrum, which makes the strings resonate”. (From Christian Poché)"},"eb2bab76-a020-5089-b53b-cc279339f778":{"title":"Painting","description":"In the 19th century, throughout the Ottoman and Arab lands, a Western influence emerged in art as it did in many other fields. Up until this time, Eastern artists had painted mostly landscapes and architecture but now they began to depict the human figure, especially the female form. Artists from the Ottoman Empire, who were sent to Europe to study art, brought back the influences of a different lifestyle, in fashion as much as in art. The artists of the Ottoman Empire applied the techniques of European artists, largely leaving behind the traditional techniques of Ottoman and Arab art. Having been trained in the workshops of the Orientalist and Impressionist artists, thus they imposed and merged the styles and techniques of both East and West to create an approach and expression of their own, although the European influences are still visible sometimes.","quote":"Eastern artists combined influences and technical features of the West in their works, both in order to create images of their own culture and portray the cultural and artistic values of the East."},"ed199dbb-996c-572e-9595-8793ae8c2d87":{"title":"Reforms and modernisation","description":"Dramatic losses experienced by the Ottoman Empire during the 19th century caused the rise of reform and modernisation movements, which aimed to stop the disintegration process, stabilise the economy, increase military power and restore national and international security. The Tanzimat Edict, which was issued during the reign of Abdülmecid on 3 November 1839, and the Islahat (Reformation) Edict, issued on 18 February 1856 after the Paris Treaty of 1856, following the Crimean War with Russia, represent some of the achievements of these movements. Thus, the non-Muslim population of the Ottoman Empire gained equal rights with the Muslim population, and the equality of all citizens before the law was declared.  \n  \nThe Young Turks, consisting of army officers and well-educated individuals, began loudly to defend ideas of freedom, justice and liberty as a cure for the disintegration process experienced by the Ottoman Empire. Namık Kemal, Ziya Paşa and Mithat Paşa, all of whom were the leading figures of these ideas, forced Sultan Abdülhamid II’s hand and, in 1876, a constitutional monarchy was declared. The First Constitutional Law of the Ottoman Empire was prepared and an assembly was formed that allowed the participation of the people in the administration."},"ed9f89ae-f83d-56eb-87dc-8663cfd7ea9c":{"title":"Literature","description":"Literature, besides being a vehicle of change was also the sphere in which the 19th-century spirit of change manifested itself. In the “West”, as a result of encounters with specific genres of “Oriental” folk literature, and as a reaction to 18th-century rationalism, romanticism became the dominant style in literature and in art. Romantic and scholarly Orientalism was a product of this interplay. In Arab and Ottoman lands, neoclassicism in literature of all genres as well as the relative proliferation of women writers was an outcome of this interaction. Regardless of their literary affiliation, whether to neoclassicism or romanticism, Arab and Ottoman authors, influenced by Europe, shifted their focus to new themes such as social justice, the rights of women, civil rights and nationalism."},"ee888065-f56f-5d4b-a952-59421fff9627":{"title":"Museums in the Arab and Ottoman world","description":"In France’s new North African colonies, learned societies mirroring those of the motherland were set up. In Algeria, Louis-Adrien Berbrugger worked to preserve ancient sites, prevent the export of antiquities, and found the Algerian Museum.  \n  \nIn Egypt the *khedivè* (viceroy) of Egypt made Auguste Mariette the first Conservator of Egyptian Monuments (1858), tasked with preventing plundering, and regulating official excavations. In 1861, he became director of the new Egyptian Museum.  \n  \nThe Ottoman Imperial Museum was founded in 1868. In 1881, the directorship moved from Europeans to the Turkish scholar Osman Hamdi Bey. The stricter 1884 Antiquities Law limited the export of finds from the Ottoman Empire. An active programme of Turkish excavations was begun, to fill the new museums.  \n  \nIn French Mandate Syria, the National Museum of Damascus was founded in 1919. In British Mandate Iraq, Gertrude Bell strove to establish the Iraq Museum in Baghdad (1926).","quote":"Museums arose across the Arab and Ottoman world to preserve and display antiquities from past cultures locally."},"ef1839a2-039f-5f2c-aee6-a8f6df410618":{"title":"Painting: Scenes of everyday life","description":"Orientalism became a survey of the ethnography, topography and history of the Arab and Ottoman world including Spain. In the cities, artists traced the idiosyncrasies of the architecture, the markets, street life, as well as the trades and professions of city dwellers. These paintings brought to the European people different images of life. In addition, these artists were responsible for some of the stereotypes that still persist in the West, in particular, the link between Orientalism and exoticism, the role of men, and the social status of women. European artists sought to develop imagery that would capture what they believed to be characteristic of the cities and the people of the regions they visited. The desired effect is that of “transporting” the viewer into another culture. This exhibition has some very good examples of this type of subject matter and shows how, for artists, these sources of inspiration extended from the Balkans to North Africa and Arabia.","quote":"Painters were taken in by the rich colours, of the people at the markets, the fabrics of house interiors, and the bright light of the Arab and Ottoman world."},"ef43996d-b7a1-5a51-8b18-67d14626dfc3":{"title":"Historical Profile / Austria","extra":{"hb_type":"country","bibliography":{"en":["Hourani, Albert, *A History of the Arab Peoples*, London: Faber, 1991.","Jayyusi, Salma K. (gen. ed.) with Renata Holod et al. (special eds), *The City in the Islamic World*, vol. 1 (2 vols). Handbook of Oriental Studies: “The Near and Middle East”, vol. 94/1, Boston and Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2008."]},"map_descriptions":{"map_1":{"en":"1815"},"map_2":{"en":"1878"},"map_3":{"en":"1918"}}}},"ef851dc9-3174-5196-a248-6b8d970cab89":{"title":"Health","description":"There have been continuous exchanges between Arab and European medicine since antiquity. In the 19th century, countries in the Arab and Ottoman world called on Western doctors to open modern, Western-style hospitals and dispensaries and to train the local elite. Colonial powers attempted to transpose modern methods that were beginning to bear fruit in Europe to the Arab and Ottoman world: improved hygiene, hospital construction and training of medical staff. Severe epidemics, endemic diseases and infant mortality all needed to be tackled. These efforts were particularly visible in large towns."},"f03bc4be-aa51-54ad-9e65-1c967f1a4a9d":{"title":"Religious life in Tunisia","description":"One consequence of mass migration was the growth of different religious communities, especially Jews and Roman Catholics. An indigenous Jewish population (the Touensa) had lived in Tunisia since pre-Christian times. In the 17th century there had been a migration of Jews from Livorno (the Grana). A new wave of European Jews migrated to Tunisia in the 19th century. Unlike Tunisian Jews, the newcomers shared the legal status of the Europeans.  \n  \nThe presence of a small group of Christian residents in Tunisia predated mass migration. The tolerant attitude of the local ruler (the Bey) to Christianity is epitomised by the presence, in the Bey’s Bardo complex, of a chapel for the few Catholics working in his service. Under the French protectorate especially, the number of Catholics and Catholic churches multiplied, and Catholic religious orders opened schools in different towns. The Greek Orthodox Christian community also grew.","quote":"In the adopted countries of European migrants, on the whole different religious communities coexisted peacefully alongside indigenous religious groups."},"f178ae75-fcd3-5d5e-8479-e07596b2511f":{"title":"Steam and internal combustion engines","description":"Steam and internal combustion engines were the result of the application of scientific discoveries made during and after the first and second industrial revolutions. Using these engines not only in factories and industrial complexes but also in all modes of transport by air, land and sea revolutionised society. The introduction of steamships reinforced the maritime supremacy of the British Empire. British steamships spread across the Mediterranean and across the British possessions on the route to India after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. Countries and empires built steamships or acquired them to keep up to date with the new, fast means of communication and trade.","quote":"Of all the inventions of the 19th century, engines powered by steam or by oil were by far the most important."},"f2c86d9d-aeb9-5ab2-9706-edf298e0f3c0":{"title":"European Perspective","description":"The Concert of Europe was established after the Congress of Vienna (1814–15) and lasted until the outbreak of World War I. It represented the system of governance of international politics in Europe during the 19th century, with the aim of preserving peace and security on that continent through constant negotiations among the Great Powers: Austria, the United Kingdom, France, Prussia and Russia.  \n  \nThe system of the Concert of Europe can be divided into four main phases:  \n  \n**From the Congress of Vienna to the Crimean War (1815–56)**  \n  \nDuring this phase, the Quadruple Alliance (United Kingdom, Austria, Prussia and Russia) and the Holy Alliance (Austria, Russia and Prussia) were the two main pillars of the system. In particular the United Kingdom and Austria played a crucial role in maintaining stability on the continent and on the seas. The repression of the liberal (1820) and liberal–national revolution (1830–31, 1848) in Spain, the Austrian Empire and the German Confederation confirmed the solidity of the system.  \n  \nBut two causes of disagreement among the Great Powers emerged during this period. On the one hand, the independence of Latin-American countries from Spain and Portugal led to conflict between the United Kingdom, France and Russia. On the other hand, the crisis of the Ottoman Empire (called at the time “the sick man of Europe”) and the Eastern Question emphasised British–Russian rivalry in the Balkans and the eastern Mediterranean.  \n  \n**National unification in Italy and Germany (1857–70)**  \n  \nThe two processes of national unification, despite their differences, marked the main changes to the territorial borders established during the Congress of Vienna. In both cases, the struggles for national unification sharply divided the Great Powers of the Concert of Europe. Moreover, they left diplomatic and territorial legacies that had a great impact on the further development of the system, namely the conflict between France and Germany, the “new orientation” of Austro-Hungarian foreign and security policy towards the Balkans (the region of south-east Europe facing the Adriatic Sea, the eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea) and the question of Italian irredentism.  \n  \n**Bismarck’s “diplomacy of peace” (1871–90)**  \n  \nOtto von Bismarck was the first chancellor of the German Empire. After achieving unification through the “diplomacy of war”, which led to the defeat of Austria and France, the aim of the “diplomacy of peace” was to consolidate German unification. The main aim of his diplomacy was the isolation of France on the continent and the prevention of a clash between Russia and Austria in the Balkans.  \n  \nThe “diplomacy of peace” was implemented through a series of pacts and alliances between Germany, Austria and Russia and Italy. It was a diplomatic system centred on Germany. The United Kingdom was the second pillar of the system, as it had the task of maintaining security on the seas.This period also witnessed the colonial expansion of the main European countries in Asia, Africa and in the Mediterranean region (Egypt, Tunisia and Cyprus).  \n  \nUnder Bismarck’s strategy, imperialism was considered an instrument to divert tensions and conflicts away from Europe.  \n  \n**William II’s *Weltpolitik*, the crisis of the Concert and new alliances in Europe (1891–1914)**  \n  \nEmperor William II ruled the German Empire from 1888 to 1918. The main aspiration of his *Weltpolitik* (lit. “world policy”) was to affirm Germany as a global power, particularly in the commercial, colonial and naval fields. In the two Moroccon crises of 1905 and 1911, Germany openly challenged the French position in North Africa.  \n  \nAs a consequence, the other European powers aligned to challenge the hegemonic ambitions of Germany. In 1891, France and Russia signed a bilateral alliance against the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria and Italy. In 1904, France and the United Kingdom, following the resolution of their colonial disputes in Africa, concluded the Entente Cordiale. Finally, in 1907 Russia and the United Kingdom reached an agreement on Persia and central Asia, leading to the formation of the Triple Entente  \n  \nDuring this period the Italian occupation of Libya in 1911 and the Balkans War of 1912–13 marked the final step in the Ottoman Empire’s loss of territories in the Mediterranean and in south-east Europe.  \n  \nOn the eve of the eruption of World War I, the new balance of power in Europe was based on the two competing blocs of the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente.  \n  \nPaolo Wulzer, Rome","extra":{"hb_general_type":"perspective"}},"f31c4cb0-afc2-5ece-9b16-ec1afa4d98d2":{"title":"Traditional entertainment","description":"The traditional entertainment culture of the Arab and Ottoman world emerged from a combination of religious rules and local customs and traditions. Seen as an inseparable part of social life, entertainment accompanied most important events (i.e. weddings or the circumcision of a sultan’s son, hunting ceremonies and celebrations held at the *hammam*, perhaps after a woman had given birth) and usually comprised musicians and *çengi* (female belly dancers) and *rakkases* and *köçeks* (male dancers), shadow puppeteers, acrobats and wrestlers and *ortaoyunu* (folk theatre) performances. A similar entertainment culture existed in European countries, too, around social rituals and ceremonies: those held at Christmas and Easter and other religious festivals; at weddings or to celebrate the harvest or a victory; during courtly and public entertainments, sporting events such as jousts for instance; and at travelling fairs and circus shows, folk music and dance performances. While court entertainment was often on a nightly basis, as different performances were combined with feasts, jousts and banquets, the general population enjoyed regular entertainment as well, from strolling players and dancers (mummers), animal trainers and jugglers and performances of mystery plays.","quote":"Every nation has a traditional entertainment culture, a blend of local cultures and histories that brings the public together, strengthens social cohesion, and secures the continuation of traditions and beliefs."},"f338faed-767b-545b-870f-31a9db666136":{"title":"Ottoman schools","description":"In the 19th century, debate about education coincided with growing political awareness of country as nation state. In the highly diverse Arab and Ottoman world, education evolved in various ways, based on governments’ desire to reform their societies and initiatives by leading contemporaries. Government, private and missionary schools and universities with modern curricula joined traditional institutions. The aim was not passive acquisition of European ideas but strategies to implement what was useful in the context of the region’s complex realities. Ottoman schools provide a case in point. Since the 18th century, the Ottomans had sought to reform their education system, initially aiming to train a military able to stem the growing menace of the European powers. In the 19th century, the reform debate addressed curricula, structure, teachers and education’s role in modernising the civil service. Underlying was a broader concern to foster social cohesion and an Ottoman identity.","quote":"“The nation (umma) that perfects its education (tarbiya) of its sons and daughters, and prepares them to benefit their nation (watan), is a nation (umma) that is happy.” Rifa‘a al-Tahtawi"},"f3abf576-c362-5529-acfc-76ca5ea34f35":{"title":"The pearling industry in Qatar","description":"Qatar first appeared on the international stage as a result of overseas interest in the pearling industry during the second half of the 19th century. At this time, the demand for pearls was rapidly increasing in Europe, North America and India with increased wealth from industrial (Europe and North America) and social (India) revolutions. Travellers from Europe also came to the region during this period, seeking trade fortunes and adventure. Many remarked on the rich pearl beds and the importance of the industry to the local area. The natural abundance of high-quality pearls, and the industriousness of the people of Qatar in gathering them, placed the peninsula on the global map. This increased Qatar’s economic and political presence in the region, and drew the attention of local and international powers."},"f3ef049d-33db-5f49-8824-dd9f9890e99c":{"title":"The Suez Canal","description":"The Suez Canal was constructed in order to connect the Mediterranean with the Red Sea. Construction of the canal began in the reign of Sa‘id Pasha, who negotiated the land deal with the French diplomat and administrator Ferdinand De Lesseps. De Lesseps began to implement the project on 18 November 1862; works continued until finally the Mediterranean ran through the canal to al-Timsah Lake (Crocodile Lake). Sa‘id Pasha died two months after work had started on 18 January 1863.  \n  \nThe Suez Canal was inaugurated in 1869, with Egypt owning 44 per cent of the shares. The Canal led to important strategic changes in Egypt, especially concerning her relationship with Britain whose route to colonial interests in India had been directly improved by the canal’s construction. Then, as Egypt’s debts began to accumulate, in 1875, Khedive Isma‘il sold off Egypt’s shares in the Canal."},"f4140086-8379-5c42-a4bb-db79725076cb":{"title":"From rationalism to European romanticism, the first half of the 19th century","description":"Romanticism in literature was an intellectual movement that has been seen as a response to the negative side of the Industrial Revolution and to rationalism in the arts. Romanticism manifested itself variously in different countries, so while it is closely associated with nationalism in Central Europe it was associated with the revolutionary ideals of the French Revolution in Western Europe. The Romantics searched for aesthetic experience in emotions, and held up folk art, whether European or “Oriental”, as exemplary. Translation of the *Arabian Nights* and the foundation of a new literary genre the “Oriental Tale” had a powerful influence on its development. Among the most renowned Romantic writers are H. de Balzac and A. Dumas (France); E. A. Poe (USA); Sir W. Scott, T. Chatterton and Lord Byron (UK); J. W. von Goethe (Germany); and A. Pushkin (Russia). Prominent motifs of Romanticism are nature, the supernatural, folk art, mythology and travel. Romanticism was followed by Naturalism towards the end of the 19th century.","quote":"Industrialisation and advances in science and technology did not bring relief to the masses, and as the creative minds of Europe tried to find an alternative inner source for aesthetic experience the “mysterious East” became crucial."},"f49e621d-f706-5af7-8f10-b58acc65c7d9":{"title":"National awareness and enlightenment","description":"After four centuries of existence within the Ottoman Empire, the early 19th century in Macedonia was marked by the awakening of national awareness. Efforts to raise the national spirit through education brought about the publishing of books in the Macedonian language, the first ones dealing with religious themes. In the 1830s the first secular municipal schools were opened in towns such as Skopje, Veles and Prilep. In 1838 Macedonian language and literature was given a boost by the opening in Thessalonica of the first printing house to use Church Slavonic script by Hadzi Teodosij Sinaitski from Dojran. The emergence of prominent intellectuals had a profound impact on the struggle to introduce services in the Slavonic language in churches, which resulted in the appointment of the first archpriests to perform services for Macedonians in their native language in the 1860s. The *Dictionary of Three Languages* (Macedonian, Albanian and Turkish) by Gjorgji Pulevski was published in Belgrade in 1875."},"f5a5e2a9-8b0f-54f8-936a-212e35f37300":{"title":"Fashion","description":"Although European styles influenced certain aspects of dress in the southern and eastern Mediterranean regions, rural fashions remained traditional and resistant to change. In Europe, sitters posed for portraits in “Eastern”-style dress and eventually designers such as Mariano Fortuny looked to North Africa and Ottoman lands for inspiration. Dress is a marker of identity in all cultures, and much of the 19th-century costume and jewellery that survives can be connected to particular religious or ethnic groups. With men’s clothing, the style of European military uniforms was adopted, but otherwise traditional forms of dress were maintained."},"f608c65c-3708-5cab-8105-ce2df9a74b83":{"title":"Representation of the “other”","description":"The new disciplines of anthropology and ethnography were major contributors at the World’s Fairs. While Western organisers were keen to emphasise the modern, technologically superior West, the “non-Western” world they tended to present focused on subjective and physiognomic differences, habits and customs, and the quality of “native crafts”. These characteristics of peoples of other nations were sometimes admired and frequently trivialised in the press, but to disseminate such views was entirely acceptable at the time and betrayed popularly held beliefs and preconceptions. In pursuit of an alleged “authenticity”, distant lands were re-created in microcosm, as a blend of the picturesque and the “strange”, with the intention of “educating” and delighting with pure spectacle. At its most degrading, these World’s Fairs exhibited human beings in enclosures, while didactic and scientific arguments were employed to spread colonial propaganda proclaiming that the expansion of civilisation and the Western economy were inevitable and historically necessary.","quote":"The new disciplines of ethnography and anthropology emerge at the international exhibitions where human diversity is centre stage."},"f6192e35-f004-5858-9c0d-3a9dd4c93edb":{"title":"Powerbrokers","description":"Most migrants in the Ottoman Empire built only modest new lives away from home. Some, however, became rich and powerful in their adopted country. Many high-ranking officials in the Ottoman hierarchy came from the ethnically and religiously diverse communities of the Balkans, Anatolia, the Caucasus, the Levant and North Africa. Most remained faithful servants of the system that made them, but others – particularly in North Africa – ended up breaking away and ruling practically unchallenged. Known as pashas, deys, beylerbeyi and beys, these personalities, aided by their military and intellectual elite, did much to advance their countries by introducing reform and improving the local infrastructure while consolidating their power by adopting the customs of and intermarrying with the local population.","quote":"The Ottoman State’s complex and diverse ethnic, cultural and religious fabric included many migrants who succeeded in becoming wealthy and powerful."},"fc5d37e1-5895-55ac-9937-d04ec69892d3":{"title":"Struggle for national liberation and autonomy","description":"A crucial event in the political history of Macedonia was the establishment of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organisation (also known as the Secret Macedonia and Adrianopole Region Revolutionary Organisation). Its foundations were laid in Thessalonica on 23 October 1893 for the purpose of organising a resistance movement for liberation and the establishment of an autonomous state of Macedonia. The idea was to establish a new organisation with members who had been born or were living in Macedonia, so that its activities would not be taken advantage of by some other nation. After several unsuccessful rebellions at the close of the 19th century, the Ilinden Uprising organised by the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organisation began on 2 August 1903. Fighting in the areas of Krushevo, Neveska and Klisura resulted in the establishment of the Krushevo Republic. Although the republic lasted only ten days it had a government and other bodies and was the first republic in the Balkans."},"fd43afd8-f2d6-5070-97cc-13904ef0eb5a":{"title":"Religious tourism and pilgrimage","description":"Pilgrimage and religious tourism had long been a preoccupation for societies around the Mediterranean. Believers regularly visited holy sites in their locality or regionally, or, indeed, farther afield. Many also set out to visit holy places in Palestine – in particular Jerusalem – and throughout the Middle East. The annual Hajj pilgrimage, meanwhile, saw Muslims from all over the world converge on the Holy Places of Mecca (Makkah) and Medina (Madinah). In the 19th century, increasing numbers of Europeans were able to embark on voyages to visit the Holy Land. Among the visitors were members of the royal families of Europe or even heads of state such as Vittorio Emanuele III of Italy and the German Emperor Wilhelm II. According to protocol, royal visits started in Istanbul, where the monarchs were first received with great ceremony by the Ottoman sultan in Istanbul. Subsequently, the royal visitors were conveyed to the Holy Land and its most significant sites. Sometimes, symbolic and spiritually significant gifts would be exchanged during such occasions in order to emphasise mutual friendship, respect, and religious tolerance. Thus, in 1898, Emperor Wilhelm II placed a golden wreath on the tomb of Salah al-Din (Saladin) during his pilgrimage to Damascus."},"fd5d1998-57d4-50a4-84fa-6694298266a3":{"title":"Religious festivals, theatre and drama in Arab and Ottoman lands","description":"Sufi and Shi’ite groups put on performances during religious festivities that involved religious dances accompanied by songs and music, and folk theatre (shadow and puppet theatre) side-shows provided entertainment for younger participants of the festivities. When drama and opera theatres began to appear in Arab and Ottoman lands in the second half of the 19th century, they were built by the elite for the elite. The first attempts to stage classical European dramas were commenced by Jurji Abyad (Lebanon) and his troupe. His theatre opened in 1912 with *Oedipus* and *Othello*, translated into Arabic by Lebanese colleagues Farah Antun and Khalil Mutran respectively. Palatial theatres in the Ottoman context were inaugurated in Yıldız (1859) and Dolmabahçe (1889). The Azbakiyya Theatre was founded in 1867, followed shortly after by the Cairo Opera House in 1868.","quote":"Although formal European-style theatre was unknown to Arab and Ottoman audiences before the 19th century, folk performances were not."},"fe298de1-4fd4-57cb-84b6-9d54ffa552ca":{"title":"Land and economy","description":"In 1825 Spain lost most of its overseas possessions except for Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines (lost in 1898). In 1833 provincial division was established to facilitate government administration. But Spain lacked good roads or an extensive rail network to facilitate the movement of goods or people, a major hindrance to the development of a national economy.  \n  \nMost people were peasants. Some earned their living as labourers, a few owned the land they worked on and very few, the nobility and the Church, owned large tracts of land. Lack of water was the main resource that limited increases in the production of crops. The government sold not only Church lands but also mining rights, and many foreign companies came to exploit this throughout the country. Catalonia developed a textile industry to export to the colonies and foundries were established in the Basque country. Anarchists preached first to peasants and then to miners and industrial workers. Socialists followed and both began to mobilise against patrons and the government.","extra":{"image_captions":{"mwnf3_sharing_history:sh_countries_historicalbackground_images:155":{"en":{"date":"1845","name":"Map of Spain, with provinces","museum":"National Museum of Romanticism","location":"Madrid, Spain"}}}}},"fec34b6f-d50c-5405-87a3-dcbe8efeef29":{"title":"Exploration and research","description":"The extensive scientific enquiries undertaken in the wake of Napoleon’s campaign in Egypt and Syria in 1798–99 triggered an unprecedented European fascination with the Arab and Ottoman world. Its multifaceted causes and objectives often combined the scientific curiosity of the Enlightenment with European governments’ need – in the face of accelerating industrialisation and rapidly growing populations – to access and control raw materials, crucial trade routes, new markets and – in some cases – new land for European settlers. Notwithstanding the ideological, economic and political undercurrents of the time, scientific exploration and research made enormous strides in the 19th century as countless expeditions – archaeological, ethnographic, geographical or those devoted to the natural sciences – made available for expert study an unprecedented amount of artefacts, data and specimens."},"fed6ec75-ac3d-5562-81b6-caeb7446eea2":{"title":"The Austrian predominance in Northern Italy 1815–66","description":"On 17 October 1797 at the Peace of Campo Formio the Austrian Netherlands, the Rhineland and Lombardy are added to the territories directly under French administration. As compensation, Austria gains Venice and parts of the territories of the Venetian Republic. By occupying Venice, the Austrian Empire inherits Venice’s trade relations with the eastern Mediterranean.  \n  \nFrom 18 September 1814 to 4 March 1815, the European powers discuss the territorial settlement of Europe at the Great Peace Congress of Vienna. Austria regains Lombardy and takes the territories of the Venetian Republic as compensation for the loss of the Austrian Netherlands."}}