@museumwnf/carpets-data 1.0.13 → 1.0.14

package/translations/timeline_events.en.json

@@ -1 +1 @@
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The Czech king becomes one of seven electors privileged to elect the Roman king.","date_from_description":"1212"},"05f2113f-d487-5b04-8dac-309357a3c344":{"description":"Svenska Akademien (the Swedish Academy) is founded by King Gustavus III in order to advance the Swedish language and literature. The Academy has also awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature since 1901.","date_from_description":"1786"},"7dc58a1d-8843-5df5-a976-5067e5b3251f":{"description":"The Peace of Augsburg results in recognition of Lutherism and Roman Catholicism. 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Effectively ending the London Peace Conference, it marks a significant point in the Ottoman government's progress towards centralisation, giving de facto power to the triumvirate known as the Three Pashas.","date_from_description":"1913","date_to_description":"1913"},"28d336d1-ae64-5425-af71-3104c121f1f7":{"description":"Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (d.1111), the great philosopher, visits Palestine and takes refuge for three years in the Haram al-Sharif.","date_from_description":"1095"},"926714b9-3c86-5caf-94f9-53fc3832be91":{"description":"Bede, a priest, monk and the first English historian, publishes the Ecclesiastical History of the English People.","date_from_description":"731"},"ca23cae6-e740-535b-ba20-c9ca85b8f263":{"description":"Charles IV is the first Czech sovereign to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor. 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Fruitless negotiations with Emperor Friedrich III lead Mátyás I to occupy Vienna in 1485.","date_from_description":"1473"},"d1d28ea9-863c-574b-8177-58ec73feafc1":{"description":"Vasco da Gama leaves for India.","date_from_description":"1497"},"3840479c-7d1a-5a51-9c77-b427db7bf4ab":{"name":"Founding of Belgrade University","description":"Founding of Belgrade University.","date_from_description":"1838","date_to_description":"1838"},"f716d2e1-962f-5ff8-ba44-fea6ab9ca023":{"description":"Ibn Askar, author of the hagiographic dictionary *Dawhat al-Nachir*. is born in Chefchaouen.","date_from_description":"1529"},"54547a63-b6e6-52c9-be7a-11522e48f89e":{"description":"Start of the reign of Louis VI. Establishment and growth of the commune movement in France.","date_from_description":"1108"},"546f4c69-4e94-55e6-bba7-ca5df34c3ff0":{"description":"Siege of Constantinople by the Muslim Arabs.","date_from_description":"674–678"},"a6720a51-7bb3-57c6-b899-738da985096f":{"description":"King Otto III (983–1002) is crowned emperor in Rome by Pope Gregory V (996–9).","date_from_description":"996"},"a40a2962-a846-54e9-a366-75e11eaece36":{"description":"Almohad defeat at Navas de Tolosa, marking the beginning of their decline.","date_from_description":"1212"},"bbd980f9-cebf-5faa-aa60-598d4144ac5b":{"description":"Victory of the Kharijites at Tobna.","date_from_description":"771"},"1faaca18-8185-5001-83b0-eb570c68caa3":{"description":"England’s Parliament issues the Bill of Rights, establishing a constitutional monarchy in England and barring Roman Catholics from the throne.","date_from_description":"1689"},"bb041492-319e-5653-9660-c02e76c1dda1":{"name":"Ibrahim Pasha expedition to Hijaz","description":"Ibrahim Pasha leads Egypt’s expedition to Hijaz and crushes the Wahhabi Revolution.","date_from_description":"1816","date_to_description":"1816"},"0d316bf4-dace-54b4-b01c-4ebad06ad7a4":{"description":"First regular Ottoman ambassador in Europe (London).","date_from_description":"1793"},"658ef359-7ae8-5fe3-83de-ac691a869bf9":{"description":"As a part of the freedom fight of Prince Ferenc Rákóczi II against the Habsburgs (began in 1703) the Parliament of Ónod declares the Habsburg dynasty deposed in Hungary.","date_from_description":"1707"},"72da6f8a-03d8-51b9-8f7a-1411e201ef2f":{"description":"The Guelphs and Ghibellines, supporters of the Papacy and the Emperor respectively, clash in Florence.","date_from_description":"1280"},"1ab81572-3f54-5b35-99a1-f877dcff13eb":{"name":"Almost uninterrupted rule by Giovanni Giolitti","description":"Almost uninterrupted rule by Giovanni Giolitti, who allows more freedom of action to trade unions, introduces some social reforms and makes some openings for Socialists and Catholics.","date_from_description":"1901","date_to_description":"1914"},"6a3d1e30-1204-5b2c-b985-91771bd6d521":{"description":"The Croatian–Hungarian King Bela IV grants the Golden Bull to Gradec, as a token of appreciation for the citizens who provided him shelter during the Tatarian invasion.","date_from_description":"1242"},"0150d888-aaf3-5a0d-8e08-1bc069c2d2cb":{"name":"The Italian army captures Rome","description":"In 1870, taking advantage of French defeat at the hands of Prussia, the Italian army captures Rome, which becomes the capital of Italy. The Pope considers Italian rule on Rome to be illegitimate and bans Catholics from participating in Italian political life. In the following decades the ban is progressively lifted to counter socialist growth.","date_from_description":"1870","date_to_description":"1912"},"c0d92fc5-643e-5316-bbd3-ecb8e503fb82":{"description":"Ibrahim Pasha administers Syria on behalf of his father Muhammad Ali Pasha (in Cairo) following the process of Westernisation.","date_from_description":"1832–1840"},"ed825c92-debf-58b2-8d13-a0228b632940":{"description":"Preaching of the Second Crusade, in particular by Saint Bernard. King Louis VII returns defeated to France, and Jerusalem is taken back by the Muslims in 1187.","date_from_description":"1146"},"09a9fe71-8e43-5d8f-bcc0-689b8ac5f38e":{"description":"On 25 April, at San Remo the United Nations imposes a British mandate on Jordan, Palestine and Iraq.","date_from_description":"1920"},"29dd3711-8399-5487-8219-33352bc528eb":{"description":"Start of the islamicisation of al-Andalus. First incursions in al-Gharb.","date_from_description":"711"},"27dd0edc-9407-5509-9877-9ef53d79fbca":{"description":"Having already founded the Zagreb bishopric, King (St) László I founds the St Egid Benedictine monastery in Somogyvár (his first burial site before Várad [today: Oradea, Romania]), inviting monks from Saint Gilles.","date_from_description":"1091"},"524c3bcc-fc78-5fc9-8cf8-bd35b6f1c912":{"description":"The Ottomans, led by Sinan Pasha, oust the Spanish from Tunis and annex the town to the Ottoman empire.","date_from_description":"1574"},"ff92a3bf-559f-5450-bdfa-81e8eef6fd87":{"description":"Abolition of the death penalty.","date_from_description":"1867"},"cb033485-0266-5359-af4e-d3c570e6095b":{"description":"Aragon incorporates the Kingdom of Naples.","date_from_description":"1443"},"86e30989-9055-5bf2-8f35-bdbe3e9d818a":{"description":"In Bardo, on 12 May, Sadok Bey is forced to sign the treaty establishing the French protectorate in Tunisia. French colonial occupation begins.","date_from_description":"1881"},"f5f1cfee-6e24-5a3f-b06b-da4f762dacb5":{"description":"The Mamluk Sultan Qaytbay goes on an inspection tour of the Syrian provinces and strengthens  urban development as Syria is contested by the rising power of the Ottomans in Turkey.","date_from_description":"1477"},"0724d833-b987-53e8-a245-cc4d0169410e":{"description":"The rise of Zahir ‘Umar in northern Palestine establishes a semi-independent state. During his rule several palaces and castles are established in Galilee. Palestine begins to export cotton in commercial quantities to France.","date_from_description":"1703"},"73894d38-608c-52d0-a6b7-048282a78bb2":{"name":"Battle of Isly","description":"The Battle of Isly is fought on 14 August 1844 between the Moroccan army employing an archaic strategy against professional soldiers trained in the Napoleonic campaigns and armed with batteries of light guns. The battle ended with the defeat of the Moroccans. 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He drowned during the Third Crusade near Konya in Turkey in 1190.","date_from_description":"1155"},"0d1945ac-4fcc-5486-b818-17a76986f59d":{"name":"Rebel clans allied to Sharif Hussein attacked Jiddah","description":"Rebel clans allied to Sharif Husayn attack Jeddah (Jidda) and other seaports along the Arabian coast of the Red Sea.","date_from_description":"1916","date_to_description":"1917"},"cd59198c-6c78-50bf-a618-10e0a1bd1dc1":{"description":"Treaty of Alcanises, which fixes the Portuguese border.","date_from_description":"1297"},"37bc9459-586b-5e66-b94c-492828a4e324":{"description":"Moroccan resistance fighters win the Battle of Annual in the Rif, defeating the Spanish army.","date_from_description":"1921"},"c40011c6-a118-5cd6-852d-ecb3cffbf6bc":{"description":"Palestine in general and Jerusalem in particular celebrate the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople.","date_from_description":"1453"},"00b2b358-d30d-5ce6-a0c9-1a8a80c98be6":{"name":"Wiener Kongress","description":"The Wiener Kongress (Congress of Vienna) saw the restoration of the political state (the 1792 Ancien Régime), realignment of the borders, and creation of a loosely arranged German Bund (Federation).","date_from_description":"1814","date_to_description":"1815"},"accee007-730c-5f1a-af2a-50916530d925":{"description":"Kenneth MacAlpin, regarded as the first king of Scotland, unites the Scots of Argyll and the Picts north of the Firth of Forth under his rule.","date_from_description":"843"},"379adc29-287b-5b4e-9d83-375ab79250cb":{"description":"The Battle of Nikápoly: Sultan Bayazid I defeats the crusaders of King Sigismund of Luxemburg, sole ruler of Hungary after the death of his first wife, Queen Mary, daughter of Lajos (Louis) I in 1395.","date_from_description":"1396"},"e9fee3ff-63a7-56e1-9c33-0c0d566f8ccc":{"description":"Baldwin I (r. 1100–18) expands the Kingdom.","date_from_description":"1116"},"a7cdba2f-d59d-5f84-a190-fd4ee334011f":{"description":"Sheikh Zahir al-Omar al-Zaidani, ruler of north Jordan abstains from paying taxes to the Ottoman state; he forms an army of mercenaries to protect his land and collect taxes from the inhabitants.","date_from_description":"1769"},"565254cf-3e05-59ae-a148-c24a6942fa18":{"description":"Código de las Siete Partidas, a return to Roman law with the unification of Castilian laws.","date_from_description":"1263"},"b1ce405d-02ce-57e6-b472-f5efa37d7128":{"description":"The First Crusaders on their way to the Holy Lands arrive in Constantinople in December.","date_from_description":"1096"},"3987d218-e552-5510-8c0e-a99c8c8a201f":{"description":"Mu’awiya Ibn Abi Sufyan (r. 661–80) declares himself Caliph in Jerusalem, announcing the beginning of the Umayyad dynasty. 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Foundation of the Collège Sadiki, the first modern secondary school in Tunisia. Foundation of the Sadiki hospital.","date_from_description":"1870–1877"},"dff5d537-8122-5251-9a1f-7c0a00f69ebb":{"description":"Founding of the Ottoman governing unit in Middle Slavonia with the centre in Požega. For more than 40 years the governor was Hadži Mehmed-aga who supported Sulayman during the siege of Siget.","date_from_description":"1538"},"94efe63f-8d9d-537b-b4d9-8311051449b2":{"description":"Origination of the Moravian Margraviate as part of the Czech state, with main centres Znojmo, Brno and Olomouc.","date_from_description":"1031"},"f8996915-8dc8-59b7-9c61-2f9e5f25f5b6":{"name":"Major Sidónio Pais takes power on 5 December and is elected President on 21 April 1918","description":"Major Sidónio Pais takes power on 5 December and is elected President on 21 April 1918. Continuous unrest leads to a military coup by General Gomes da Costa in 1926 followed by a dictatorship. António de Oliveira Salazar become Finance Minister (1928–32) and then Prime Minister until 1968. The Estado Novo dictatorship lasted for 48 years.","date_from_description":"1917","date_to_description":"1968"},"1884ecf3-5742-5cdc-85e9-3961fdd618ba":{"description":"Scots under Robert Bruce (Robert I) comprehensively defeat the invading English army at the Battle of Bannockburn, re-establishing Scotland’s independence.","date_from_description":"1314"},"0671960e-152c-59b9-8ba9-e7dc3a5cb490":{"description":"Sulayman Ibn ‘Abd al-Malik, the governor of Palestine, begins to build the city of Ramla as a new administrative centre.","date_from_description":"712"},"2f53789c-449c-5aff-b105-7d621c8784c6":{"name":"Bashir II becomes the leader of Lebanon","description":"Bashir Shihab II, helped by the Ottomans and by Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar (governor of Acre), defeats his rival in the Battle of Simqanieh. Bashir Jumblatt dies in Acre at the order of al-Jazzar. Bashir II represses the Druze rebellion, particularly in and around Beirut. This makes Bashir II the only leader of Mount Lebanon.","date_from_description":"1825","date_to_description":"1825"},"ef2ebfed-06be-5790-887c-90f9f186d001":{"name":"The Tétouan war","description":"The Tétouan war of 6 February 1860: the Spanish, seeking to extend the borders of Ceuta and Melilla, exploit a raid by a neighbouring tribe against a redoubt built outside the walls of Ceuta to launch a major military action and occupy Tétouan. To end the occupation of Tétouan, the Moroccan state was obliged to pay a significant sum (20 million douros), which it was unable to do. As a result, it was forced to seek a foreign loan that it was able to pay back using customs revenues.","date_from_description":"1859","date_to_description":"1860"},"aebb39f0-0301-5f01-95fc-a5ba5020de14":{"description":"Frederick of Aragon (1302–37) is proclaimed King of Sicily.","date_from_description":"1302"},"fadb650a-3f77-5e92-8fbf-11335af1ebec":{"description":"First siege of Vienna by the Ottoman Army.","date_from_description":"1529"},"7daf34bc-4ae8-548a-8de3-f30fea7cf443":{"description":"At the Battle of Helge å the Danish King Canute, who has already conquered England, wins a victory and gains control also of Sweden. It does not last, but it is one of the first major battles in what will become seven centuries of war and peace between Denmark and Sweden.","date_from_description":"1026"},"3af083b2-afbd-5dc1-9307-ac2a302e4b79":{"description":"Bonnie Prince Charlie’s Jacobite army is routed by government troops at the Battle of Culloden; the rebellion collapses and Charles Edward Stewart escapes, dying in Italian exile in 1788.","date_from_description":"1746"},"b34d4400-42b8-5812-9665-4d46c62162cf":{"description":"The ‘Josephina’ road between Karlovac and Rijeka is constructed.  \nThe first stockmarket in Rijeka is established.","date_from_description":"1780"},"963e88b5-a317-516e-8a30-94670f4673de":{"name":"Conference of San Remo","description":"The Conference of San Remo was an international meeting convened to decide which parts of its territories the Ottoman Empire would lose, to become the mandated territory under the League of Nations. 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(r. 1512–20) visits Jerusalem.","date_from_description":"1517"},"969a9bfc-7bcf-53fd-b3a5-8951c39a7a47":{"description":"Massacre of the Janissaries by Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II.","date_from_description":"1826"},"f15b3998-59b7-5b52-a7ce-1a2847f2d9d3":{"description":"Parliament passes the Act of Supremacy declaring the monarch (Henry VIII) the supreme head of the Church of England, and outlawing any act of allegiance to the Pope.","date_from_description":"1534"},"2e3ea087-5afe-5338-957a-9a3889459efb":{"description":"Governor Camilio Gonzaga establishes the city of Split. He proposed to the Venetian Senate to build a bulwark to defend the town.  \nThe Paulist School of philosophy was established.","date_from_description":"1656"},"5dd3075d-46bb-5690-a3eb-2d410fcd6884":{"name":"Commune","description":"When the people of Paris refuse to accept defeat and take up arms the Versailles-based government resist and harshly repress the \"Commune\".","date_from_description":"1871","date_to_description":"1871"},"89a5bc65-0567-5c38-865f-1a8185e9a31e":{"description":"After writing the Summa de paenintentia Paulus Hungarus, a canon lawyer, returns from Bologna and organises the Dominican order in Hungary. French architect Villard de Honnecourt visits Hungary.","date_from_description":"1221"},"d9284d5a-fbf9-5b26-9f54-b06fcf1fb2fc":{"description":"Coronation of (St) István who affirms his authority over the Hungarian leaders (e.g. in 1003 over Gyula in Transylvania) and establishes Hungary’s legal, administrative and ecclesiastical system.","date_from_description":"1000"},"8f4f638d-7dc8-5b7a-ab9d-c40c130ab513":{"description":"Charles V stops at Algiers, bringing the town great international prestige.","date_from_description":"1541"},"d7a5e47d-dffb-5324-99c0-ea5f93794b2f":{"description":"Achir founded by Ziri ibn Manad.","date_from_description":"936"},"eb78e52c-1a04-55f3-8bfd-9c8b44dc2542":{"name":"Capture of Algiers","description":"With the capture of Algiers, France ousts the Ottoman Empire and asserts its claim to the western Mediterranean. 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The war is initially fought in Northern Italy.","date_from_description":"1859"},"951b13fd-8e49-5fd2-8d19-51539db2f274":{"description":"The Edict of Nantes ends the Wars of Religion, affording protestants considerable rights in the Kingdom of France.","date_from_description":"1598"},"4e7ceac9-496f-530a-b3a6-6da81ccd6df5":{"name":"Revolution of February","description":"Revolution of February 1848: Louis-Philippe abdicates and the Republic is proclaimed.","date_from_description":"1848","date_to_description":"1848"},"1ec47d0a-c730-5a8b-9afe-827478896737":{"description":"The first post office is founded in Irbid city during Ottoman rule under Sultan ‘Abd al Hamid II, who wanted to have telegraph offices in the empire.","date_from_description":"1883"},"629c996b-bda5-57d3-86c9-0704ac1e8c46":{"description":"The peace of Zadar seals the defeat of the Venetian Republic by Louis of Anjou, King of Hungary–Croatia, and marks the reunification of Dalmatia with the Croatian crown within a common kingdom.","date_from_description":"1358"},"f2ea8421-d374-5b7a-8b01-218f5ed21b02":{"name":"Transilvania integrated into the Hungarian kingdom","description":"The centre of present-day Transylvania is integrated into the Hungarian kingdom after the creation of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Partium and Banat had already been included in Hungary.","date_from_description":"1867","date_to_description":"1867"},"03b3d925-8697-539f-88e3-e3490f56c9f4":{"name":"Istanbul and Izmir occupied","description":"Allied forces occupy İstanbul (16 March); Greece occupies İzmir (15 May).","date_from_description":"1915","date_to_description":"1915"},"8512addf-1289-5cb2-8d0f-a4cfab760007":{"description":"Around this time a new and shorter Nordic runic alphabet with 16 runes instead of 24 is introduced. It turns out to be a great success which rapidly spreads literacy in Sweden.","date_from_description":"700"},"d63d9614-3dc4-5914-bca6-562df6c9cf5a":{"name":"Defeat of the Greek army duting the Greek -Turkish war","description":"Defeat of the Greek Army during the Greek–Turkish War.","date_from_description":"1897","date_to_description":"1897"},"18f48aaf-32b5-5177-bb0d-6bed68c2d15c":{"description":"Largest uprising of the serfs. Patents of King Leopold I include: corvée patent, legalisation of the Evangelical church (1691). The first textile manufactories.","date_from_description":"1680"},"3ead5f3b-fb93-53a2-9e44-3bc24f19c7b4":{"description":"The Sa‘dids crush the last Wattasids and enter Fez amid much ceremony.","date_from_description":"1549"},"791d1021-9e23-57b9-a880-2a791e359eed":{"description":"Founding of Olomouc bishopric. Vratislav II made first Czech King (1085). The first Czech chronicle known as the *Chronicle of Cosmas*. Premonstratensian and Cistercian monasteries founded (1140).","date_from_description":"1063"},"aee55dcb-e64d-56d6-8d37-339110aa7cff":{"description":"The Venetians install Krešimir III (1000–30) as king of Croatia; he ruled with his brother Gojislav. They attempted to restore rule over the Dalmatian cities that were under Venetian control.","date_from_description":"1000"},"481332a0-4c39-547a-aaf4-d49d9a16b02d":{"description":"The Swedish Missionary Society is founded.","date_from_description":"1835"},"4d364b05-cc1a-5137-92cc-adf2648c528e":{"description":"Construction of the Sidi Abdarrahman mausoleum to house his tomb and the necropolis that formed around it.","date_from_description":"1627"},"381bc6c0-47ec-5252-b2e8-8016ecad32e1":{"description":"Battle of Siffin between Mu’awiya, governor of Damascus, and ‘Ali, the fourth caliph and cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet, resulting in a schism in the Muslim community with Kharijites (secessionists) accepting neither.","date_from_description":"657"},"a5d988c8-1826-5709-ad6c-746fc2245dc4":{"name":"Mulay ‘Abd al ‘Aziz is deposed and replaced by his brother Mulay ‘Abd al-Hafiz","description":"Mulay ‘Abd al ‘Aziz is deposed and replaced by his brother Mulay ‘Abd al-Hafiz (1908–12), who is proclaimed ruler in Marrakesh on 6 August 1907. 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The Sultan promises not to support Hungarian anti-Habsburg revolts (such as that of Imre Thököly who had earlier lost his freedom fight).","date_from_description":"1699"},"22648a84-1ebd-59b2-86ca-54573888a8e4":{"description":"Michelangelo finishes the fresco Last Judgement in the Sistine Chapel.","date_from_description":"1541"},"546c0371-e65e-5d2e-9627-942bfe0f2dea":{"description":"The Battle of Mohács: the 75–80 000 Turkish soldiers defeat the Hungarian army of 25,000 men. King Lajos II dies. Both János I (Szapolyai) and Ferdinand I became Hungarian kings.","date_from_description":"1526"},"6f214a42-95c6-55f4-8215-4011610d81f1":{"description":"The Mamluks defeat the Crusaders in ‘Akka and the rest of the Palestine and Lebanon coastal cities, putting an end to the Crusader states in Palestine and Syria, which had lasted some two centuries.","date_from_description":"1291"},"852b9ffa-33fc-5fd8-b385-8027966f7fda":{"description":"*Pacta conventa* between Hungarian King Koloman and Croatia. Koloman Arpadović crowned as Croatian king in Biograd and the personal union established.","date_from_description":"1102"},"0122123e-63bc-54b7-b032-d30da0fb5de7":{"description":"The foundation of the Ottoman Empire.","date_from_description":"1299"},"18a3d60f-dabd-5abb-9cbc-8f4adfd349e8":{"description":"The British Army suppresses the Easter Rising, a rebellion in Dublin designed to force Ireland’s independence from Great Britain, and its leaders are executed.","date_from_description":"1916"},"79bc71d9-b5e0-5bb5-986d-74dd7c28bdaa":{"name":"Young Turk Revolution","description":"4 July: Young Turk Revolution.","date_from_description":"1908","date_to_description":"1908"},"c7156df8-c0a2-5be7-b62f-c2ea87445ef9":{"description":"Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun defeats Ghazan, King of Tartars, in the Levant.","date_from_description":"1303"},"7461a583-5319-5d96-bc8b-835aeefb8505":{"description":"Emperor Wilhelm II (1888–1918) sacks Chancellor Otto von Bismark. The era is called ‘Wilhelminische Ära’ and eventually leads to the First World War.","date_from_description":"1890"},"523f9595-4283-5b18-9a26-9225bab37429":{"description":"On 4 October a torrential stream destroys the buildings, markets and mosque of Ajlun.","date_from_description":"1328"},"4a39af34-47d2-5b95-9bc0-e368cab023ca":{"name":"At the congress of Berlin in June 1878","description":"In June the signatories at the Congress of Berlin grant Austria the right to occupy and fully administer Bosnia and Herzegovina for an undetermined period.","date_from_description":"1878","date_to_description":"1878"},"15ef6e9b-2925-5093-a5e2-9edeabc2b1c4":{"description":"French military victories are marked in particular by Bonaparte’s success in Italy. Under the Directoire, he prepares an expeditionary force for Egypt, which is accompanied by a team of experts intended to bring modern techniques and institutions to the country. The French are stalled in Egypt and leave the country in 1801.","date_from_description":"1798"},"ed37556c-6a5f-54a0-a270-11ea7b5a1e44":{"description":"The first permanent army, consisting of Swedish peasants, is created.","date_from_description":"1544"},"02feb94c-ba95-584d-8f8e-8da2fdaf322a":{"description":"Construction of the El-Eubad mosque.","date_from_description":"1394"},"f966e949-77bb-5cdd-8109-8790777c61f7":{"description":"Beginning of the Reformation. Luther nails his 95 theses against the abuse of indulgences to a church door in Wittenberg. His translation of the Bible established the basis of the modern German language.","date_from_description":"1517"},"30714b85-a474-5cb0-984e-75bf4c136235":{"description":"Trpimir I issues a charter in Latin in which he names himself the ‘Duke of Croats’ (*Dux Chroatorum iuvatus munere divino*) and his realm as the ‘Realm of the Croats’ (*Regnum Chroatorum*).","date_from_description":"852"},"b408faee-eb68-5b03-92bc-1b638c1c30b8":{"description":"Al-Ghazali, la principal figura religiosa del siglo XI, reside en Damasco. Sus obras representan un renacimiento de las ciencias religiosas.","date_from_description":"1095"},"a6530bb8-72a3-535e-b0e0-fddcbbca90ca":{"description":"King Charles XII is defeated at the Battle of Poltava in Ukraine. It is the beginning of the end of Sweden as a Baltic super power.","date_from_description":"1709"},"97ced9b9-f2a0-5c4d-aa0d-9fa4accd95ef":{"description":"The Portuguese found the fortress of Santa Cruz de Aguer near to the village of Founti.","date_from_description":"1505"},"391e794a-87d2-5483-baa5-bd477e8e9f79":{"name":"Reforms of Khayr al-Din","description":"The regency of Khayr al-Din, the Grand Vizier reformer, who reorganises institutions and the economy. 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Prince Carol and his wife Elizabeth are crowned as King and Queen of Romania in May in Bucharest.","date_from_description":"1877","date_to_description":"1881"},"43dd3e00-777b-59a8-9acc-29c4ba3e6d59":{"description":"French ships bombard the town of Salé.","date_from_description":"1851"},"15505c68-ae85-5788-8b44-3a5ad2cc6bcd":{"description":"Ahmad Ibn Tulun rules independently from the Abbasid Caliphate and founds al-Qatai city, the third Islamic capital of Egypt.","date_from_description":"869"},"96e250c2-84c2-5e5b-b6e8-9bff94cc60cd":{"description":"On 13 May Karamanoğlu Mehmed Bey declares that only the Turkish language is to be used for daily and official use.","date_from_description":"1277"},"3dae562a-52d6-5555-a72f-59c79c393258":{"description":"After devastating Baghdad, the Mongols, led by Hulegu, invade Syria and put an end to the Ayyubid dynasty. 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By 1420 Venice controlled all of Dalmatia except for Dubrovnik.","date_from_description":"1409"},"03ee068c-399d-542b-a408-f4cf12aab879":{"description":"The Arab conquest of Sicily is complete with the fall of Rometta, the last Byzantine stronghold.","date_from_description":"965"},"4b44c7bc-b668-5732-b7a9-3d74e28a7366":{"description":"Croats settle in the area between the Adriatic Sea and the Sava and Drava rivers.","date_from_description":"614"},"c7f4290b-1cb7-515d-a3bb-a56997bc66da":{"description":"Gustav Vasa is elected King at Strängnäs, freeing Sweden from Danish sovereignty.","date_from_description":"1523"},"6868d06f-73a3-5df8-ab72-5906914451c4":{"description":"In the church of Our Lady of Pirates in Komiža on the island of Vis Stjepan Killarevich from Krakow builds one of three preserved 17th-century organs in Croatia.","date_from_description":"1670"},"3db76185-8b18-5ca3-add1-fdcce7e70fbf":{"description":"A severe earthquake causes great damage all over Palestine.","date_from_description":"1458"},"cd6e3fcb-a2b9-556f-9ecf-aa89e48b9b94":{"description":"A madrasa for teaching Shafi’i rites (one of four Sunni rites in Islam) is established at Karak; King Muhammad ibn Qalawun sent his sons to study at this madrasa.","date_from_description":"1311"},"bfae2d2e-6b0a-5b1c-acf0-f9c9f030a8f7":{"description":"In Varaždin the first Jewish commune is established.  \nJoseph II announces his ‘Patent on the abolishment of slavery’ for the territories of Hungary and Croatia.  \nThe first Real Gymnasium is opened in Senj.","date_from_description":"1785"},"92857bdd-10d7-55e6-b625-792029009380":{"description":"Around 30,000 Croatian soldiers, mainly cavalry, participate in the Thirty Years’ War. Croatian troops fight against Miklós Bethlen (1642–1716) in Bohemia and Hungary.","date_from_description":"1618–48"},"2830c84c-9afc-5074-8669-1ba50eb536d8":{"description":"Michelangelo Buonarroti starts work on David, a masterpiece of the Renaissance. The work, conceived as a symbol of the Florentine Republic, is completed in 1504.","date_from_description":"1501"},"5a56a81b-2205-50a5-b646-009dd4131e0f":{"description":"The First World War begins in 1914 in the Balkans before spreading throughout Europe and touching the Mediterranean with the entry of the Ottoman Empire and then Italy (1915) into the war.","date_from_description":"1914"},"da9f2411-7c61-5ded-bc8d-bbddf1185af5":{"name":"Third Republic","description":"The Third Republic had a difficult start: the Treaty of Versailles with Prussia granting Alsace and Lorraine to the German Empire, and repression of the Commune. 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Damascus is definitively occupied and the Islamic conquest of Syria begins.","date_from_description":"636"},"d0d5cca8-455e-57b4-a64e-4df10dda0bf3":{"name":"Second Serbian Uprising","description":"The Second Serbian Uprising – the Takovo Uprising – represents the second stage of the Serbian revolt against the Ottoman Empire, which breaks out soon after. The revolt leads to recognition of Serbian autonomy within the Ottoman Empire and establishment of the *Kneževina* (Principality) of Serbia, which obtained its own Assembly, Constitution and ruling dynasty.","date_from_description":"1815","date_to_description":"1815"},"b335ab24-b315-5c09-960d-0f66de12da34":{"description":"On 2 February King Otto I (r. 936–73) of the Ottonian Dynasty, later called Otto the Great, is crowned emperor in Rome.","date_from_description":"962"},"60e0abb3-d972-5461-ab87-276eac092632":{"description":"The inauguration of the Aqsa Mosque by the Umayyad Caliph al-Walid Ibn ‘Abd al-Malik (r. 705–15).","date_from_description":"709"},"57abb70e-9dc2-5504-be1e-d548144147d9":{"description":"A new national law codex is published. 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President T. G. Masaryk elected (1920) (d. 1937). Origins of the theory of art and art history institutions.","date_from_description":"1918"},"cca6a898-27a6-5c20-abde-316a4c04542f":{"description":"Renewal of the Capitulations by Louis XIV. The galleys run by each power ‘must not cause any damage’ to the other.","date_from_description":"1673"},"7e0715c0-0290-5b4e-9499-96a9b018b319":{"description":"‘Abd al-Mu’min starts the construction of the Great Mosque of the Koutoubiya in Marrakesh.","date_from_description":"1158"},"cd30deaf-8bf6-5320-b0ae-ecdc9ca88c01":{"description":"The beatification of St. John of Nepomuk, drowned in the Vltava (Prague) in 1393. The most popular saint in the Czech lands, Lower Austria and southern Germany.","date_from_description":"1729"},"75ea8147-54e7-5866-ba9e-de354887a88e":{"name":"War declared on Morocco","description":"War declared on Morocco. Battles of Castillejos (Fnidq) and Wad-Ras. A peace agreement is signed with the Moroccan Sultan leaving Tetouan under Spanish rule.","date_from_description":"1859","date_to_description":"1860"},"f81f60e8-4b8c-5d37-af44-829a47dc02fb":{"name":"First Republican Constitution enacted in April","description":"April: First Republican Constitution enacted. Manuel de Arriaga is elected as the first President. It is believed that the Republic will address the economic crisis and promote progress. Though bringing together political forces, the regime is too vague to achieve the necessary economic and social reforms and soon ends up in political fragmentation and infighting.","date_from_description":"1911","date_to_description":"1911"},"46751acf-b479-5590-9e2a-9b5a81257c3b":{"description":"King Boabdil, the last Nasrid king, takes refuge in Oran then Tlemcen.","date_from_description":"1492"},"74a13175-31ff-5506-bdad-c194b76dee86":{"name":"Asia Minor Catastrophe","description":"Following the “Asia Minor catastrophe”, almost 1.5 million Greek nationals arrive as refugees at Greece’s coastal regions, for example at Pontus, having been uprooted from their homes in Asia Minor (Anatolia).","date_from_description":"1920","date_to_description":"1922"},"592e7efc-8d9e-5819-bb5f-31a387a052cb":{"description":"Decisive victory of the Almohads over the nomads at Sétif. Widespread use of Almohad coinage as the industry and commerce of war flourishes. Political unity and religious dogmatism. The apogee of Almohad rule.","date_from_description":"1153"},"43ede450-465f-5c99-852d-554217fca08e":{"description":"The colonial powers sign the Act of Algeciras, proclaiming the independence of the Sultan of Morocco, the integrity of the empire and the economic equality of the colonial powers.","date_from_description":"1906"},"62df2c36-4d0d-5358-9eec-4a9bd4bbf5cf":{"description":"Ali Bey Al-Kabir revolts against the Ottomans. The revolt is suppressed four years later.","date_from_description":"1768"},"31096e25-e7bd-5452-bf47-b7d0b5662072":{"description":"Sisnando takes Coimbra.","date_from_description":"1064"},"7637c289-671a-55af-914e-9e5bde830847":{"name":"Spain focuses on North Africa in the framework of the colonial interests of other European powers","description":"After the loss of its last colonies, Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines, Spain focuses on North Africa in the framework of the colonial interests of other European powers such as France, the UK and Germany. After different international talks and agreements – Spanish–French Agreement (1904), Algeciras Conference (1906), Cartagena Declarations (1907) – Spain and France sign in November 1912 the Treaty establishing the French and Spanish Protectorates in Morocco.","date_from_description":"1904","date_to_description":"1912"},"1a2f1bf5-03f4-5776-b538-6c8a51882add":{"name":"Treaty of Erzurum","description":"28 July: Treaty of Erzurum, which ends the Ottoman–Iranian war and restores the previous border.","date_from_description":"1823","date_to_description":"1823"},"af92a6d2-d9c6-5177-992f-a62c4d3ddca0":{"name":"Russo-Turco Treaty of St. Stefano","description":"3 March: Russo-Turco Treaty of St Stefano defines Bulgaria, which includes present-day Bulgaria, present-day Macedonia and northern Greece.","date_from_description":"1878","date_to_description":"1878"},"f82dac15-a8ae-54bf-b092-872543fb1559":{"description":"Damascene Ibn al-Shatir, a great Muslim astronomer, craftsman and instrument designer, composes important new planetary theories that predate Copernicus by two centuries.","date_from_description":"1305–1375"},"e9e2d41f-f69c-5f10-ba54-2a75e470fc69":{"description":"Çelebi Mehmed goes to France as ambassador.","date_from_description":"1721"},"f6486cbf-833b-5a9a-b1e5-b99bdf7b38d6":{"name":"The Government of British India administers the Trucial Coast","description":"The government of British India administers the Trucial Coast.","date_from_description":"1873","date_to_description":"1947"},"34862ab6-f257-5c9d-8c63-f9c5480fc6d4":{"name":"Opening of the Suez Canal","description":"Built largely with French expertise and capital, the Suez Canal shortens the journey to India. The British government secures a major financial interest in the Canal in 1876, and its security becomes a major British interest for the following century.","date_from_description":"1869","date_to_description":"1869"},"5b01dc26-ca6d-5090-9182-1f97b10e501d":{"name":"King Wilhelm","description":"King Wilhelm I – later Kaiser (Emperor) of the Second Empire – assumes his regency.","date_from_description":"1858","date_to_description":"1858"},"9faf7da9-9539-561b-97cd-a5207bb6724f":{"description":"The Council of the Lateran reorganises the Church. The Pope makes Robert Guiscard (1059–85) Duke of Puglia and Calabria. It is the first acknowledgement of Norman domination of Southern Italy.","date_from_description":"1059"},"26cc8040-5466-5d1a-9014-b3a494b8aff8":{"description":"The physician Robert Koch (1843–1910) finds the bacillus of the Cholera disease. This is only one of the numerous findings of the pioneer of bacteriology.","date_from_description":"1884"},"f015da88-e24f-5276-a062-4dd49d86cc3e":{"description":"The Almohads take Algiers and Constantine, overcoming the last heir of the Bani Hammad, Yahia ibn ‘Abd al-Aziz (515–47/1121–52) and unifying Morocco and the Central Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1152"},"1cb440c0-2d91-5e8e-80da-66e695173cb5":{"description":"The Lombards officially convert to Catholicism, a process that began with the work of Gregory the Great.","date_from_description":"653"},"fed1cb3f-f671-5994-be2b-f4a920bd0e4a":{"description":"During the rule of the Merovingian Dynasty (c. 500–751) Germanic tribes become subjects of the Merovingian Dynasty.","date_from_description":"500"},"84d3dd3f-6827-5068-b1ee-08874ea54a76":{"name":"Inspired by Cadiz Constitution members of Parliament authored the first liberal Constitution","description":"1 October: Inspired by Cadiz Constitution members of Parliament authored the first liberal Constitution. King João VI (1767-1826) promulgated the document on 1 October 1822, in Lisbon. Royal prerogatives and  the nobles and clergy privileges were limited, though with a weak impact.","date_from_description":"1822","date_to_description":"1822"},"973c6b8b-7a18-5ba3-8988-dd148f9de463":{"description":"King James IV of Scotland is killed, along with much of the Scottish aristocracy and thousands of Highlanders and Lowlanders, by the English forces of Henry VIII at Flodden Field in Northumberland.","date_from_description":"1513"},"c05c7d66-c994-5535-bf3d-f1dbb65a6028":{"name":"War between Greece and the Ottoman Empire whereby the Greece attain their national indepence","description":"The War between Greece and the Ottoman Empire concludes with Greece attaining its independence with the help of Russia and the Western nations.","date_from_description":"1822","date_to_description":"1829"},"f578c08f-29f1-55c0-8c87-480553f9ab97":{"description":"Scotland’s National Covenant is signed; a protestant manifesto, it rejects King Charles I’s attempts to impose an Anglican prayer book as well as other constitutional changes on Scotland.","date_from_description":"1638"},"50ac747b-311e-5615-8daf-488a530d5ee7":{"description":"Turks occupy a large part of north Croatia.","date_from_description":"1433"},"e7db9b2c-691b-5da5-b210-f7ebed29dc84":{"description":"Tanzimat (reformation) period: local Syrian governors are removed from their positions as the Ottoman Empire enforces tighter administration in its efforts towards Westernization.","date_from_description":"1839–1908"},"7a646070-4f51-53ee-a347-81ab80dd7b70":{"name":"Dawud Pasha","description":"Dawud Pasha (the *mutasarrif* \\[governor\\] of Lebanon, appointed by the Ottomans) restores to Lebanon a part of its lost territory, establishes for the Druze a school in Abayh that still bears his name and struggles against the feudal lords in the south and the clerical party in the north.","date_from_description":"1864","date_to_description":"1864"},"4c9f1e73-78be-543a-ada9-45f90963999e":{"description":"Count Ferenc Széchenyi donates his library and collections to the Hungarian nation. This is the nucleus of the National Museum of Hungary and of the National Széchenyi Library.","date_from_description":"1802"},"cf7629ca-daa6-5361-abca-22273c761e10":{"name":"British declare the independence of Egypt","description":"Britain declares Egyptian independence, but retains control of Egyptian foreign policy and the basic administration of the country. On 15 March of this year, Fuad I issues a decree changing his title from Sultan of Egypt to King of Egypt.","date_from_description":"1922","date_to_description":"1922"},"8912b1e8-696f-5773-90f9-c9937abd4248":{"description":"The Hungarian King Ladislas establishes the Zagreb Diocese.","date_from_description":"1094"},"64b759a0-0c63-51d3-8f8d-c0ed61c040d0":{"description":"Jesuits build their church in Varaždin dedicated to the Assumption of Virgin. The church is considered to follow the style of the Roman church Il Gesù.","date_from_description":"1642"},"0ef544c2-60c5-52ba-856a-222b4ea68b58":{"description":"Birth in Mecca of Prophet Muhammad from the tribe of Quraysh.","date_from_description":"571"},"2b96c252-e950-5517-a8db-89da1a889f25":{"description":"Development of commercial relations with Italian towns.","date_from_description":"1394–1434"},"41779435-72d2-5d45-8768-1dceddd75d06":{"description":"The Second Crusades arrive in Anatolia on the way to the Holy Lands.","date_from_description":"1147"},"e59d2a50-6c31-57a5-9d6d-2c1277d26e98":{"description":"Treaty of Almizra by means of which Castile and Aragon divided al-Andalus.","date_from_description":"1244"},"388aea07-bde6-5036-8e0e-f684f0ad4ac6":{"name":"Serbo-Turkish War in Bosnia and Herzegovina","description":"During the 1875 Bosnia-Herzegovina rebellion against Ottoman authority, the principalities of Serbia and Montenegro provide the insurgents with moral, material and military support, which leads to the first Serbo-Turkish War in 1876. Having been a long time in preparation, the rebellion is widespread and raises questions not only about Serbia but also about the East, thus becoming an event of European importance. Its outcome is the convocation of the Berlin Congress (1878), at which both Serbia and Montenegro gain independence, and Austria-Hungary takes over Bosnia-Herzegovina.","date_from_description":"1875","date_to_description":"1878"},"ca9db0f2-bfab-57f5-9bb0-418ad0d229da":{"description":"Amedeo, Duke of Aosta, is elected King of Spain by the Spanish Parliament; he rules with the name of Amadeo I.","date_from_description":"1871"},"d0682c4b-7e25-541d-9c53-2d7c70c06280":{"description":"Plague attacks cities and villages, taking many lives.","date_from_description":"1603"},"34352b64-976c-536f-b35f-5a07f4cceca3":{"name":"First Restoration","description":"First Restoration: the return of the monarchy, referred to as the Bourbon Restoration. Louis XVIII (brother of Louis XVI) facilitated this by accepting a return to the monarchy by means of the Charter of 1814. This Charter combined the more moderate ideas of the Revolution with certain monarchist traditions.","date_from_description":"1814","date_to_description":"1815"},"d8bb351d-decf-56fc-824c-191e0f0f9636":{"name":"By the end of July 1916 the ports of Jiddah, Yanbu and Rabegh were in Arab hands","description":"By the end of July 1916, the seaports of Jeddah, Yanbu and Rabigh are in Arab hands. This allows the British to increase their supply of arms and equipment to the Arab forces fighting in the Hijaz.","date_from_description":"1916","date_to_description":"1916"},"7c1ad6bd-1974-576b-9bd8-7735354ba9b3":{"description":"English barons force King John to agree to a statement of their rights and sign the Magna Carta, which limits his power and paves the way towards a constitutional monarchy in England.","date_from_description":"1215"},"03fd0a03-9cc4-529c-98c3-2d1af35bd794":{"description":"Kılıç Arslan moves the capital of the Anatolian Seljuqs to Konya after being defeated by the Crusaders.","date_from_description":"1100"},"8b321ee6-41d9-5afe-ac80-5a5d90a4c313":{"description":"Sack of Rome: the imperial forces of Charles V (1520–56) made up of mercenaries (lanzichenecchi) sack Rome. This event is considered to mark the end of the Renaissance.","date_from_description":"1527"},"b7a35988-6bae-5f8a-83fe-4a762ab7b7fd":{"description":"Reorganisation of the Byzantine Empire and institution of the Exarchate of Carthage, consolidating the pre-eminence of the military.","date_from_description":"582–602"},"407082c9-f7f9-5726-8678-89804c243ef5":{"description":"Defeat of the Klis, the last southern fortress. Ottomans constitute the Sanđak of Klis.","date_from_description":"1537"},"37fa2522-6029-5df2-b76a-817b3740c7e1":{"description":"The Lombards enter Italy. The lands occupied in the Centre and the South become the Duchies of Spoleto and Benevento respectively.","date_from_description":"568"},"d5ee18bf-fa6d-5978-a139-5ebdd84668d9":{"name":"In consequence of the Prussian-Danish war","description":"As a consequence of the Prussian–Danish war, Denmark retracts its demand for Schleswig and Holstein.","date_from_description":"1864","date_to_description":"1864"},"0d4c6b81-0ba3-581a-ba40-c51acba9672b":{"description":"The Danube’s great flood destroys a huge part of Pest. Contract signed to build the first permanent bridge (today: Széchenyi Lánchíd) between Buda and Pest initiated by Count István Széchenyi.","date_from_description":"1838"},"dd25461e-de8f-5476-85c3-6c77ed048053":{"description":"The Almohads lose the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in Andalusia.","date_from_description":"1212"},"5dd015f4-0c93-5038-b65a-4c7dcebf0963":{"description":"Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent commissions the huge takiyya in Damascus, a pious and imperial act meant to accommodate and impress pilgrims, under the supervision of famous court architect Sinan.","date_from_description":"1554–1566"},"4081d6fa-5d80-56a2-9ef3-1bb154005ea3":{"description":"Compromise with the House of Habsburg (activated by Ferenc Deák on the Hungarian side). Emperor Franz Joseph I crowned King of Hungary in Buda. Birth of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy.","date_from_description":"1867"},"9b04f760-70ba-559c-9c4c-f93f7ee2e7af":{"name":"Congress of Berlin","description":"Uprisings in the Balkan Ottoman territories lead to disproportionate reprisals. Popular protests in Britain oppose support for the Ottoman Empire. In contrast to the Crimean War, Britain provides no military aid to the Ottomans in their war with Russia. Diplomatic support is rewarded however, with Britain’s occupation of Cyprus confirmed at the Congress of Berlin.","date_from_description":"1878","date_to_description":"1878"},"884b6c52-4854-57c3-9a84-362a8b9c7571":{"description":"Salah al-Din Ayyub (Saladin) takes control of Egypt.","date_from_description":"1169"},"618bca1f-047f-5237-854b-54d69d795327":{"description":"Idris ibn ‘Abdallah (Idris I) takes up residence at Walili, then in the Andalusian Quarter (Adwat al-Andalousiyyin) in Fez, which he founded on the right bank of the Wadi Fez.","date_from_description":"788"},"32bb5381-b440-58d3-b4c0-e94e9f40869d":{"description":"After the Plombières meeting between Napoleon III and Cavour, an alliance is signed between France and Piemont. War with Austria results in the Armistice of Villafranca, the first step towards Italian unity (Rome remains under papal control for the time being). Savoy and Nice become part of France following a referendum.","date_from_description":"1859"},"95007fc3-33aa-5012-b4ec-50e62f916c01":{"description":"Movement of nations – invasions of nomadic tribes, arrival of western Slavs from the Danube and Vistula basins. Agrarian-pastoral culture, cremation burials. The empire of Samo – the first tribal union of the Slavs.","date_from_description":"Around 400"},"e205bea0-1c2b-5928-8567-a7336452f9c5":{"description":"Birth of Saint Fructuosus of Braga.","date_from_description":"c. 610"},"9fcefd8c-cca1-5f03-adc7-dd277fbc1360":{"description":"In Dubrovnik the Jesuit church of St Ignatius is built according to the plans of Andrea Pozzo.","date_from_description":"1700"},"2e841549-695a-56ea-97fc-8cd7ad6c5b2a":{"description":"The Almoravids take the town of Sijilmassa.","date_from_description":"1055"},"3ba4b872-d15e-5f19-9276-3532d502974b":{"description":"The Lancastrian Henry Tudor defeats the Yorkist monarch Richard III at Bosworth Field and claims the throne as Henry VII, marking the end of the Plantagenet dynasty and the ascendancy of the Tudors.","date_from_description":"1485"},"5678f5be-3e06-5d07-abad-a8670a5be0f1":{"description":"The German Templars establish their first settlement in Haifa, followed in 1873 in Sarona (near Jaffa) and Jerusalem.","date_from_description":"1869"},"ed94200b-ec0d-532a-bae6-046ab22f6779":{"description":"Dante Alighieri begins his masterpiece of universal literature, the Divine Comedy, completed in 1313.","date_from_description":"1307"},"13c15681-862c-52cb-b9a5-7003467a77ae":{"description":"The powers of the Almohads declines.","date_from_description":"1184–1209"},"7542ab53-207e-5790-ad12-9d6767a20507":{"description":"Saint Francis of Assisi writes his Rule, inspired by the principles of poverty, errant preaching and Christian charity. Frederick II (1211–50), already King of Sicily, is crowned emperor.","date_from_description":"1210"},"bb458b74-6213-5c57-bc33-ed788f6bcd7c":{"description":"Hassan Pasha builds the Ketchaoua mosque.","date_from_description":"1794"},"3ff42eed-9116-5398-8f28-e68deb78aea6":{"description":"Great Seljuk Empire is founded by Tughril Beg.","date_from_description":"1037"},"08d3b28a-cbe0-5448-a40c-0fc8b05d11d9":{"description":"The Swedish general Königsmarck sacks the city of Prague and carries off a substantial booty to Sweden. In the same year the Peace of Westphalia finally puts an end to the Thirty Years War.","date_from_description":"1648"},"ca28c751-c4e6-57ae-9c23-329e3402cafe":{"description":"‘Alawid Sharif Mulay Ali al-Sharif is proclaimed Sultan of Morocco.","date_from_description":"1631"},"21c23f70-444b-57fe-b454-dcb0dce6dd69":{"description":"Establishment of the Egyptian Federation of Industries.Britain grants Egypt autonomous rule. Sultan Fouad takes the title of King.","date_from_description":"1922"},"b63c3d95-074d-5fb5-a748-3ee3b8172e4f":{"description":"King Matyas II approves the new Statute of the Zagreb Gradec.","date_from_description":"1609"},"08c5f629-81da-5c98-a249-ee3df8c2508e":{"name":"Cabralismo - an authoritarian regime ruled by conservative Bernardo Costa Cabral who rehabilitated the 1826 Constitutional Chart.","description":"The period of Cabralismo, an authoritarian regime ruled by conservative Bernardo Costa Cabral who rehabilitates the 1826 Constitutional Charter but promoting the public infrastructures and fiscal code revision. Upper middle class and aristocracy regain state control and former privileges. Popular rebellions lead to the fall of his government.","date_from_description":"1842","date_to_description":"1851"},"92f9c3ca-d9e4-5e70-8dcc-3e2214584a58":{"description":"Start of the Catastro de Ensenada, an attempt to organise state taxation.","date_from_description":"1749"},"1ffa7658-10ce-552e-9a0b-b2ba7645c278":{"description":"Revolution against British occupation led by Saad Zaghloul in which all classes of society join.","date_from_description":"1919"},"4e2bb256-d175-543c-9a34-3932839a8a99":{"description":"King of Portugal attacks the Algarve region.","date_from_description":"1189"},"6a19443b-3afd-5ccb-88d6-3432a6f11e0e":{"description":"Defeat of the Moroccan army by the occupying French forces in Algeria at the Battle of Isly.","date_from_description":"1844"},"990fa704-5564-53e4-9cd8-586641a9d33a":{"description":"Death of John II and ascension of Manuel I.","date_from_description":"1495"},"ed3b30cd-5cda-50bc-887f-5bf8435c4119":{"description":"Preaching of the Third Crusade, which is joined by the King of France Philip Augustus and Richard the Lionheart. Having returned to France Philip Augustus defeats the troops of Emperor Otto at Bouvines and greatly extends his kingdom.","date_from_description":"1187"},"9b2b1358-8caf-5edd-9920-05860f764130":{"name":"Alexandru Ioan Cuza","description":"14 May: coup d’état of Alexandru Ioan Cuza, who dissolves parliament and proposes a new constitutional project, which is voted the same month and ratified by the Ottoman Empire and the guaranteeing Powers in June 1864. The *Statute Expanding the Paris Convention* assigned greater power to the prince and the government.","date_from_description":"1864","date_to_description":"1864"},"553de630-835e-58f5-9cb8-cf2c1f333d0b":{"name":"Setembrismo - Lower middle classes rebellion and fight against corruption and higher middle class privileges","description":"Period of Setembrismo: lower-middle-class rebellion against corruption and upper-middle-class privileges. An industrialisation process takes off to counteract foreign dominance. To overcome the loss of Brazilian revenues the colonisation of African possessions is boosted. The slave trade is prohibited in 1836 by abolitionist Marquis of Sá da Bandeira.","date_from_description":"1836","date_to_description":"1842"},"7a79996f-5777-5cb7-ac04-407bc2249a9e":{"description":"Austria-Hungary reincorporates the military border into Croatia, increasing the number of ethnic Serbs in Croatia to about 25 per cent.","date_from_description":"1881"},"637a86d3-8ea7-5969-af92-f14ecb20fde8":{"description":"Friedrich II (1215–50), Emperor of the Hohenstaufen Dynasty and King of Sicily, becomes King of Jerusalem during the Fifth Crusade. He was influenced by Islamic traditions.","date_from_description":"1229"},"1db05db3-c34d-56cf-9db2-7bea8b690a56":{"description":"Publication of *Ratio Educationis*, Maria Theresia’s school reform. The Nagyszombat University (Tyrnau; today: Trnava, Slovakia), founded by Bishop Péter Pázmány in 1635, moves to Buda.","date_from_description":"1777"},"5f718587-3a77-5868-a61f-c951c2db29c1":{"description":"Deposing of the House of Habsburg. Lajos Kossuth appointed as governor of Hungary. The freedom fight is lost; Hungarian general Görgey capitulates at Világos to the Habsburg’s Russian allies..","date_from_description":"1849"},"b20a151f-3e49-5055-a747-5fb897245e37":{"name":"The Regicide in 1908 was fomented","description":"1 February: The assassination of King Carlos I and his heir-apparent Prince Royal Luis Filipe in Terreiro do Paço in central Lisbon, fomented by, among other things, the King’s appointment of João Franco as head of government in 1906; with the King’s consent he set up a dictatorship one year later. Queen Amelia and Prince Manuel escape and the prince is enthroned as King Manuel II.","date_from_description":"1908","date_to_description":"1908"},"e8d8e9c8-0b8c-505f-9f0e-9f8cd8dbab43":{"name":"Treaty of Kutahya","description":"8 April: Treaty of Kütahya with Egypt. The Ottomans recognise Syria, Palestine and Lebanon as within the sphere of the Egyptian control.","date_from_description":"1833","date_to_description":"1833"},"f308d5db-d4d9-5f21-bcf6-ac477b078299":{"description":"The architectural features of a new capital founded in Samarra have a strong impact on the decorative repertoire all across the Islamic empire and particularly in Egypt and Syria, as seen in Kharab al-Sayyar and al-Raqqa.","date_from_description":"836"},"ffe284d1-ac86-5274-8902-0f9ec6a435f3":{"description":"After the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Emperor Franz Joseph I leads the Austro-Hungarian monarchy into World War I on the sides of the Central Powers. Beginning of Hungarian aircraft industry.","date_from_description":"1914"},"a142599a-d9ce-5b76-a491-1a81036d9d90":{"description":"Caliph al-Mansur builds a garrison city on the Euphrates next to al-Raqqa, called al-Rafiqa, comissioning his son, al-Mahdi, with its construction. The shape of the city is inspired by the circular plan of Baghdad.","date_from_description":"772"},"ed170053-eb91-5c65-ac00-3c8cea2efc9c":{"description":"Birth of Nikolaus von Kues (1401–64). His De docta ignorantia is notable for his mystical beliefs. He suggested the earth was a nearly spherical shape that revolved around the Sun.","date_from_description":"1401"},"b5a7407b-9961-5d8b-a7e0-332975b142d3":{"description":"Revolution ends the July Monarchy and the Second Republic is proclaimed. Slavery is abolished. Social movements lead to the June Insurrection, which is brutally put down. Algeria becomes a destination for deportees.","date_from_description":"1848"},"024386ec-a697-54b8-a7b3-67bdec18a6ca":{"description":"The Marinid Sultan Abu Yusuf takes Algeciras, Tarifa and Ronda and founds the town of Fez al-Jdid, al-Madina al-Bayda, in Fez.","date_from_description":"1276"},"382e923b-1910-5e0f-ba53-3972d96b8af6":{"name":"Bashir II and Bashir Jumblatt","description":"Bashir Shihab II, who was elected as amir in 1788 under Ottoman suzerainty, is overthrown when he backs Acre, and flees to Egypt, later to return and form an army. Bashir Jumblatt, the Druze leader, gathers the Druze factions and declares a rebellion that leads to massacres and battles with the Maronites who support Bashir Shihab.","date_from_description":"1821","date_to_description":"1825"},"7775ae73-0164-5411-84ca-fb0a6ada7c1f":{"name":"Introduction of universal male suffrage and of an electoral system of proportional representation","description":"Introduction of universal male suffrage and of an electoral system of proportional representation. The Popular Party (antecedent to the Christian Democrats) is founded. Mussolini creates the first Fascio di combattimento (embryo of the Fascist Party).","date_from_description":"1919","date_to_description":"1919"},"31898899-b4ad-5a03-99d9-ef2ffcabf419":{"description":"The Fatimids enter Fustat with little resistance. Jawhar Al-Siqili founds al-Qahira (Cairo) to the north of al-Fustat in anticipation of the arrival of the Fatimid Caliph al-Mu’izz from North Africa to make Cairo his seat of rule.","date_from_description":"969"},"9d2cc5fc-65e4-5c8d-af9d-46ffb111b571":{"description":"Prussian–Austrian War. Establishment of workers’ associations. J. G. Mendel pioneers genetics. The foundation stone of the National Theatre, Prague laid (1868).","date_from_description":"1866"},"1fbf7f36-ff20-50d7-9aa7-e8cb6774fb4a":{"description":"V. M. Kramerius publishes the first Czech revival newspaper, the first mass reading material in the Czech language in 170 years.","date_from_description":"1789"},"98c09fd6-7c7b-560e-aa74-dda1e43a65d6":{"description":"The poet, historian and philosopher Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805) finishes his drama Die Räuber, a great success in the Sturm und Drang Period.","date_from_description":"1782"},"7bf6d490-d456-59ff-90b6-cbd66afa2bf1":{"name":"Treaty of the Protectorate","description":"At the metropolitan palace, Muhammad Sadiq Bey signs the treaty imposed by the French Protectorate known as the Treaty of Bardo (or Treaty of Kasser al-Sa‘id). This is followed by the Convention of Marsa in 1883. The Regency of Tunis passes from Ottoman suzerainty to French domination.","date_from_description":"1881","date_to_description":"1883"},"a34bd331-c80a-5b2d-aa88-167430ae6461":{"description":"Millenium celebrations. Opening of the continent’s first underground railway in Budapest. Alfréd Hajós is the first Olympic swimming champion. István Bugarszky invents the endothermic galvanic cell.","date_from_description":"1896"},"55695aa1-b0a9-5f4e-97b5-dea801f7d659":{"description":"Muhammad al-Ikhshid (r. 935–46) conquers Palestine and annexes it to Egypt.","date_from_description":"940"},"e68564b0-bee0-50d6-9a4d-a76ce24c91d1":{"name":"Kingdom of Sardinia, backed by France, wages war against Austrian Empire and annexes Milan","description":"The Kingdom of Sardinia, backed by France, wages war against the Austrian Empire and annexes Milan. Pro-unification insurrections in central Italy; Garibaldi leads an  expedition of 1,000 volunteers in Southern Italy. 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The union between Louis XIV and Marie-Thérèse lays the foundation for a solid alliance, despite the King of France renouncing his and his successors’ right to the Spanish throne.","date_from_description":"1659"},"ca4dab82-c037-5e7d-9cc9-f142bc8064f3":{"description":"Galileo Galilei finishes his telescope and publishes Starry Messenger, prompting scientific reflection that plunges the Church’s thinking on the universe into crisis for the first time.","date_from_description":"1610"},"a7d7da5f-d9ca-552b-8ee8-2a0514822156":{"description":"Victory of the Great Seljuqs over the Byzantine army at Manzikert.","date_from_description":"1071"},"6c90399e-fd36-52e6-b726-fc34a75f04ca":{"name":"First Napoleonic invasion","description":"First Napoleonic invasion. Prince Regent João (1767–1826, crowned in 1816) transfers the court and the seat of political power to Brazil, avoiding being deposed and replaced by a Napoleonic nominee as in other European kingdoms. 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The Balfour Declaration (named after the Foreign Minister of England) promises the Zionist movement a homeland in Palestine.","date_from_description":"1917"},"58f04dcc-14c3-570e-91a1-26058adc783d":{"description":"The reign of Henry II (1002–24) sees the establishment of a feudal system, particularly in Northern Italy, which will leave a lasting mark on Italy’s social and economic make-up.","date_from_description":"1002"},"6556f937-3643-57de-a5ff-8c093240ecaf":{"description":"Ahmad Ibn Tulun, the Abbasid-appointed governor of Egypt, grows more independent and takes over Syria.","date_from_description":"878"},"6e35aa8a-5ab0-5618-93fc-9b29f41ba4d2":{"description":"The German polymath Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) is born. He became one of the leading figures of German literature during the period of classicism.","date_from_description":"1749"},"c0fd7a73-d8ef-54d3-acf7-1b95c60e99f0":{"name":"Death of king Carol I","description":"Death of King Carol I. As he only had one daughter, who died at the age of three, Ferdinand, his fraternal nephew, had been designated heir to the Romanian throne in 1880.","date_from_description":"1914","date_to_description":"1914"},"c2cfc86e-3d78-557f-b498-ae8f293a68ac":{"description":"Beginning of the Muslim invasion of the peninsula following victory over the Visigoths at the Battle of Guadalete.","date_from_description":"711"},"e51306f9-7ebc-5fb3-a8bf-4084a48f8bf0":{"name":"pre-March Revolution","description":"The Pre-March Revolution involves a series of protests, gatherings and disturbances, but by July 1849 the Bundes troops are victorious and the revolution fails.","date_from_description":"1848","date_to_description":"1849"},"0458a9da-8b4d-5ff0-87e0-da901e4ea1ac":{"description":"Wenceslas II crowned King of Bohemia. Minting of Prague kreuzers, the most sought-after European silver currency. Wenceslas crowned King of Poland 1300, of Hungary 1301. The murder of Wenceslas III (1306) ended male line of Przemyslid dynasty.","date_from_description":"1283"},"89db1804-533f-5192-a876-220a9f594541":{"name":"Mohammad bin Saud established the first Saudi state","description":"In 1765 Imam Muhammad bin Saud establishes the First Saudi State in Arabia, starting with the Najd region, and making its capital the city of Dir‘iyya.","date_from_description":"1765","date_to_description":"1800"},"6d36b18e-248c-56d7-b27c-f1a061880805":{"description":"Death of Clovis, the Merovingian king who converted to Catholicism, won control of most of the Frankish kingdoms and took Aquitaine from the Visigoths.","date_from_description":"511"},"2a212264-a53f-550f-852b-e14e9c7fb3d0":{"description":"Murad I captures Edirne (Adrianople). 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The Treaty is renewed regularly until 1853, when a Perpetual Treaty is put into place.","date_from_description":"1835","date_to_description":"1835"},"9906c450-0cbb-5e4d-bc59-287aac1ff9d7":{"description":"Beginning of the reign of Francis I. Continuation of the Italian Wars, marked by victory at Marignano and defeat at Pavia (1526). The King of France effects a reconciliation with the Turks, creating a scandal in the Christian world.","date_from_description":"1515"},"6dd7704e-28da-54cd-994e-31a3250028c9":{"description":"Declaration of the Papal Bull of the Dissolution of the Jesuit Order. Prince Miklós Esterházy entertains Queen Maria Theresia (Theresa) in Eszterháza with splendid festivities, including Haydn’s music.","date_from_description":"1773"},"51191f52-ddd5-54ef-bffe-e6a8289b64ae":{"description":"Revolts in Kabylie.","date_from_description":"1796"},"f0378c93-047e-5f8a-bb0e-8b8246245a72":{"name":"Austrians were defeated by a French and Sardinian Army","description":"Defeat of the Austrians by a French and Sardinian Army at the Battle of Solferino on 24 June sees terrible losses on both sides.","date_from_description":"1859","date_to_description":"1859"},"0fb14610-e011-5b64-9a22-ae3cdae6a774":{"description":"Al-Ashraf Khalil defeats the Crusaders who retreat to Cyprus. He annexes the city of Acre in Palestine.","date_from_description":"1291"},"8128be6c-e252-53df-a192-523926903235":{"description":"Establishment of the first public museums (Opava). The first long-distance railway in Europe (České Budějovice–Linz, 1825). J. E. Purkyně introduces cell theory. Disturbances among workers and peasants.","date_from_description":"1814"},"14caae37-a082-5320-b2c6-8d3c41706f49":{"description":"Charlemagne (800–14) becomes the Emperor of Rome and the Holy Roman Empire is born.","date_from_description":"800"},"7cbfe03b-c7db-5dae-9833-cb09f7a8e4dc":{"description":"Expounding his economic and social programme (including regulation of the lower Danube) Count István Széchenyi publishes *Hitel* (Credit) the first Hungarian socio-economic reform programme.","date_from_description":"1830"},"797a2cba-06d1-5dc9-8479-ff5914b1a90b":{"name":"Pedro as Regent returns to Portugal to defend his daughter’s rights","description":"Civil war. Pedro returns to Portugal as Regent to defend his daughter’s rights. He launches military operations from Azores and Porto against the absolutist faction of Prince Miguel favored by the Quadruple Alliance. 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King Lajos (Louis) I founds Pécs University and enriches Aachen Cathedral’s Hungarian Chapel with great artworks.","date_from_description":"1367"},"e2c6e0ff-23b6-51fa-ada1-bc426edb793d":{"description":"Entry of Miklós Horthy (governor of Hungary from 1920) to Budapest as head of the national army ends the 133 days’ rule of a communist regime (Tanácsköztársaság) led by Béla Kun.","date_from_description":"1919"},"df480296-e505-5591-b42e-51a9b97477e7":{"description":"The completion of the Great Mosque of Ahmad ibn Tulun, which features many innovative elements in Islamic architecture. Annexed to it was a bimaristan (hospital) to treat the poor and it also served as a shelter for the disabled.","date_from_description":"877"},"18637c69-3047-5e90-8cf2-09d7de71678a":{"description":"Beylik of Salah Bey at Constantine. Renovation of the town and construction of el-Kantara bridge.","date_from_description":"1771–1792"},"66844d4f-f8ec-5442-ad5e-74fde0d86bee":{"description":"Provence becomes part of France. The Kings of France inherit the claims of the Angevins. Start of the Italian Wars.","date_from_description":"1481"},"776b31da-3663-540a-af66-449903290122":{"description":"Al-Zahir Baybars defeats the Tartars in Asia Minor.","date_from_description":"1276"},"a4e05eba-2359-59d5-9a95-f94cff178e1e":{"description":"Jesuits build their church in Rijeka. 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The convention replaces the Organic Regulations, becoming the new constitution of the United Principalities.","date_from_description":"1858","date_to_description":"1858"},"c8535c0d-6a38-5567-8f06-e61e10b00a66":{"description":"Jesuit Stjepa Glavač, a professor of the Zagreb Academy, publishes the first domestic geographic map of Croatia, which meets the high standards of cartography of that time in Europe.","date_from_description":"1673"},"c107a8ac-aa8d-5c26-b7e9-2acbaccec4fe":{"description":"Amuri, King of Jerusalem and leader of the Crusader army, captures the city of Bilbis and slaughters every man, woman and child. The burning of Fustat is ordered by Shawar, minister of the Fatimid caliph, to prevent the Crusaders from reaching Cairo. Twenty thousand barrels of oil were used for this purpose and the fire continued for 54 days.","date_from_description":"1168"},"f44c9645-723a-5045-86ba-4f19c1d7284a":{"name":"Ottoman and Egyptian navy destroyed at Navarino","description":"20 October: A joint British, French and Russian fleet destroys the Ottoman and Egyptian navy at Navarino as the Sublime Porte did not accept the declaration of the UK, France and Russia for an autonomous Greece (in the Protocol of London, 6 July 1827).","date_from_description":"1827","date_to_description":"1827"},"62a5e1c8-111e-5e0c-99c1-c922fb7b7bdf":{"description":"James VII (of Scotland) and II (of England) flees to France when William III of Orange, invited by politicians to save England from Roman Catholicism, lands in England.","date_from_description":"1688"},"d5a225de-68ca-5f9e-a54d-8cf2d9d43b82":{"name":"Britain occupies Egypt","description":"Britain occupies Egypt.","date_from_description":"1882","date_to_description":"1882"},"87a43f83-013e-52ab-97a5-e7971a3d8fa8":{"description":"The Peace Treaty of Drinápoly (Adrianapolis). Bálint Bakfark (Valentin Greff Bakfark) whose lute pieces were published in Lyon (1552) lives at the Transylvanian princely court (in 1572 moves to Padua).","date_from_description":"1568"},"e6d2aa53-98d4-5f8c-a7e3-143688535526":{"name":"Urabi Revolution","description":"The ’Urabi Revolution, led by Colonel Ahmed ’Urabi, erupts in February 1879 and continues until 1882. It is the first revolution of the modern age in Egypt.","date_from_description":"1879","date_to_description":"1882"},"76e01fa6-f7d0-5253-8859-c7014c752224":{"name":"Resistance to French occupation","description":"Tunisians put up stiff resistance to French occupation without any external support. The Sublime Porte, itself threatened by the Western powers, limits the show of protest against the French occupation.","date_from_description":"1881","date_to_description":"1884"},"0f0e330c-ea2b-5d7f-a70b-7cb63b7218ff":{"description":"The Almoravid amir Yusuf ibn Tashufin wins the Battle of Zallaca near to Badajoz and mints a gold coin, known as the maravedis in the Christian West.","date_from_description":"1086"},"01372f83-ca10-5ef4-866f-abb829d2045a":{"description":"Italy’s first parliament is inaugurated in Turin. Victor Emanuel II, King of Sardinia (1849–61), becomes the first king of Italy (1861–78).","date_from_description":"1861"},"c0aba31a-80c6-5273-a220-b84597e0f473":{"description":"On the 4th of July, the American Congress passes the Declaration of Independence, which formalises the 13 colonies’ independence from British rule.","date_from_description":"1776"},"afdf4a34-61cf-57cb-8a1a-f0c93d8cf7fb":{"description":"Census: 3 million people in the Czech lands. Introduction of astandardised system of measures and weights. P. Diviš constructed the first lightning conductor. V. A. Kounic-Rietberg became court and state chancellor.","date_from_description":"1754"},"e8abfaa9-54c8-5120-85d8-e917550305c1":{"description":"Foundation of the Qal’at Bani Hammad (Algeria).","date_from_description":"1007"},"f1eef633-b025-530e-9f24-58caef33da93":{"description":"Establishment of the Czech Academy of Science. K. V. Klíč invents photogravure. The first automobile with a combustion engine in the monarchy (1897); first Czech motorbike and cinema (1898). Widespread emigration to the USA due to the economic depression.","date_from_description":"1891"},"e4b020eb-e1db-5203-bd29-56d67c4a279f":{"name":"Freedom of commerce","description":"The intention of the trade treaty signed with France in August 1863 is to curb the damaging effects of protectionism and to limit the extent of European penetration but, subverted from its original purpose, it becomes one of the causes of the protectionism problem. The *Dahir* of June 1864 then proclaimed freedom of trade throughout the Sharifian Empire. The conventions of 1856, 1860–1 and 1863 established the legal bases for relations between Morocco and Europe. Europe’s influence then began to grow.","date_from_description":"1863","date_to_description":"1863"},"76ca0397-5ce3-5704-8d79-9e92e944d2ee":{"description":"Methuen Treaty between Portugal and the United Kingdom.","date_from_description":"1703"},"e628c68b-7d57-5eae-8bd7-d5c088e26ac0":{"description":"Foundation of the kingdom of al-Mu‘izz ibn Badis, which splits from the Fatimid Caliphate of Cairo.","date_from_description":"1016–1062"},"d8eb5131-93d9-5553-a4e8-12d1f3bb75b5":{"description":"Battle of Muhi: Mongolian troops led by Khan Batu defeat the army of King Béla IV. At the end of the Mongol invasion in 1242 Austrian and Styrian forces also attacked Hungary, which was rebuilt by King Béla IV.","date_from_description":"1241"},"0dc18487-63ca-5bca-833e-1deec0c2fc99":{"name":"Contesting the union of Transilvania with Hungary","description":"In 1892 a delegation of 237 Romanians sends Emperor Franz Joseph a Memorandum protesting against the discriminatory effects of the union of Transylvania with Hungary (1867). In 1893 the signatories of the petition are sent for trial at the end of which, in May 1894, they are sentenced to prison. 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Echoes of their militant action are seen in the riots of Djellaz on 11 November 2011 and the tramway accident on 8 February 1912.","date_from_description":"1907","date_to_description":"1912"},"9c8f81a8-ece3-5b44-97ed-f41a573fec3c":{"name":"Isabel II comes of age in 1843","description":"Isabel II comes of age in 1843. During her reign the political parties are divided into liberals and conservatives. The Church regains its privileges under the 2nd Concordat signed in 1851. The Queen's rule ends in 1868 with the revolution known as La Gloriosa (the Glorious Revolution).","date_from_description":"1843","date_to_description":"1868"},"3dc5ecf9-642b-52bd-937e-54c6b8c26174":{"description":"Expulsion of the Society of Jesus.","date_from_description":"1767"},"70be0e76-4551-58e2-a3cc-a30ce4cf06fe":{"name":"The British destroy Al Qawasim hegemony","description":"The British put a stop to Qawasim hegemony in the Lower Gulf region by destroying their ports, strongholds, and fleets on both shores of the Arab Gulf.","date_from_description":"1819","date_to_description":"1819"},"0f189c19-8d0e-5f2c-af07-5db542c81285":{"description":"The conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul) by Mehmed II which brings the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) to an end.","date_from_description":"1453"},"37059d81-d5cf-57a4-941c-f419f32cb6e8":{"description":"Yusuf ibn Tashufin annexes Andalusia to the Almoravid empire.","date_from_description":"1094"},"53b21358-7f48-567e-9c5d-c206eeb896ca":{"description":"Major fire in Umayyad Mosque of Damascus, addressed by a major renovation endeavour by the Ottoman Empire. Thus the current hall is a late-Ottoman renovation with strong Western stylistic influences.","date_from_description":"1893"},"b5185e44-a403-59df-aac5-72e0072cab29":{"description":"The Portuguese Inquisition starts its work. Jesuits arrive in Portugal.","date_from_description":"1540"},"6b04af09-19b5-5457-868e-6f71c2bce7af":{"name":"Formation of Turkish National Assembly","description":"23 April: Formation of Turkish National Assembly in Ankara.","date_from_description":"1920","date_to_description":"1920"},"0f13e13f-532c-5c56-a15a-0f0dc5ac7378":{"description":"The Crusaders take Antioch in June after a nine-month siege, founding the first Crusader state in the Levant.","date_from_description":"1098"},"5845f393-ba6d-5c40-9ef1-3e6e4b3364fb":{"name":"British impose a peace treaty","description":"The British impose a Peace Treaty on the Qawasim and other sheikhs of the Arab littoral of the Gulf. The signing is preceded by a preliminary agreement forcing the sheikhs to turn over all remaining vessels, fortifications and weapons in exchange for the restoration of their fishing and pearling vessels. The Treaty enjoins all signatories to fly a specific red-and-white flag.","date_from_description":"1820","date_to_description":"1820"},"3513b9af-0c20-5db1-af3a-945c0057099c":{"description":"Přemysl Otakar II killed at Battle of the Moravian Field. Under his rule, the Czech lands reached to the shores of the Adriatic. Bohemia governed by Otto of Brandenburg, Moravia by Rudolph of Habsburg.","date_from_description":"1278"},"dbfb208e-9ef7-5de2-80cf-cbb2915bc41d":{"description":"The Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amrillah (r. 996–1021) orders the destruction of the Holy Sepulchre Church. Ten years later he would order its rebuilding.","date_from_description":"1009"},"df91e41a-78ac-53b4-93f5-9d311ce78485":{"description":"The Battle of Varna: Sultan Murad II defeats the Hungarian army. King Ulaslo I dies but commander-in-chief János Hunyadi survives. Stripes and a double cross first appear together in Hungary’s coat of arms.","date_from_description":"1444"},"a6d6c4c5-ee24-52c6-be22-686d1d5b7a88":{"description":"Macbeth, king of Moray, kills Duncan I near Elgin and becomes king of the Scots; his rule ends when he is killed by Duncan’s son Malcolm Canmore in 1057.","date_from_description":"1040"},"0a80a03a-bbeb-5b69-b56e-02c5135daf25":{"name":"Abolition and extermination of the Janissary Corps","description":"15–17 June: The abolition and extermination of the Janissary corps (the so-called Auspicious Incident) in İstanbul by troops loyal to Sultan Mahmud II. This act provides the conditions for institutional modernisation.","date_from_description":"1826","date_to_description":"1826"},"c824d709-d2ba-5633-ad39-4ee07e7b96ca":{"description":"Isabel II ascends to the throne and start of a period of regency. Process of building a liberal Spanish state begins. Start of the first Carlist War (1833–40) against Isabel’s coronation, claiming the dynastic right of her uncle, Carlos María Isidro.","date_from_description":"1833"},"d441d9d9-9d79-5a5d-b9e5-0730eba6dce7":{"description":"Charles of Anjou, brother of the King of France, marries Beatrice, heir to the Count of Provence. Sailors from Marseilles become special allies of the Angevins in southern Italy.","date_from_description":"1246"},"237258a4-99c7-55b3-bbdd-5ba73ea164c3":{"description":"Lisbon earthquake. Reconstruction of the city begins under the auspices of the Prime Minister, the Marquis of Pombal.","date_from_description":"1755"},"7c09389d-e946-5db3-8b7b-8cbcee844e5b":{"name":"First Serbian railway and railway bridge","description":"The first Serbian railway and railway bridge is built in Belgrade.","date_from_description":"1884","date_to_description":"1884"},"2a5051fd-c8ce-5190-9301-2ebfde469594":{"description":"Philip the Fair, surrounded by his ‘jurists’, consolidates the authority of the King of France. Levying taxes on Jews and ‘Lombards’ and confiscating the riches of the Knights Templar, he enters into a conflict with the papacy which is only resolved in 1305 with the election of a French pope.","date_from_description":"1285"},"dc118738-02b5-525d-888b-545b10c9c60f":{"description":"Political stability under the reign of the Hafsid princes.","date_from_description":"1370–1394"},"ec698fe7-4144-5e90-a847-26e3e1fbe964":{"description":"Establishment of towns. German colonisation. Invasion of the Mongolians (1241). Introduction of mining law (1249), the provincial court (1253) and provincial statutes. The Inquisition introduced (1257).","date_from_description":"Around 1234"},"5a220c3a-13cf-51aa-aa83-4ae726f3e068":{"description":"The Russian Nestor Chronicle tells of an agreement in this year, stating, among other things, that: If a Rus (Swede) kills a Christian or a Christian a Rus he has to die where he commits this manslaughter. This law is typical for regional Scandinavian jurisdiction. Laws like this were written down in the 13th century, but this is one of very few proofs that they existed much earlier.","date_from_description":"911"},"f562c18f-4d48-50be-8456-fd2d224e24b7":{"name":"The second Saudi state","description":"Following the events of 1818, the Hijaz returns to Ottoman rule. Then in 1824 the Second Saudi State emerges, led by Imam Turki bin Abdullah, and with its capital now in Riyad following the destruction of Dir‘iyya. Imam Turki is then succeeded by the sons Imam Abdallah and ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Faisal. In ‘Abd al-Rahman’s reign, in 1891, the Second Saudi State falls into the hands of his enemy al-Rashid. This prompts the king to leave Riyad for Kuwait with his family.","date_from_description":"1824","date_to_description":"1891"},"5902e9f0-1f5e-58a0-a416-f603b26bff55":{"description":"Revolt of the Sicilian Vespers against Sicily’s French Angevin rulers. Aragon emerges victorious in Sicily, which is separated politically from Southern Italy.","date_from_description":"1282"},"22ae8d63-0806-559a-b713-b15cb56423a6":{"description":"King Konrad I (911–18) of the Conradine Dynasty becomes king.","date_from_description":"911"},"7fb75a2a-174f-5889-a93a-01a999249076":{"description":"A ruinous earthquake destroys Jerusalem and most of the cities of Jordan at the end of Umayyad rule.","date_from_description":"747"},"3fa14438-b4b6-5f5c-890f-1c3481e4ceda":{"name":"Italo-Turkish war","description":"Italo-Turkish war: Italy gains possession of Libya and the Dodecanese Islands.","date_from_description":"1911","date_to_description":"1912"},"f2dbfd4a-2937-5639-9f38-c6e1fa8367c4":{"name":"War and status of Mount Lebanon","description":"The privileged position enjoyed by Lebanon is ended by the Ottomans in World War I: Lebanon’s semi-automous status is abolished and Mount Lebanon, an important territory at the international level, is put under martial law by the Ottomans. The Turkish commander Jamal Pasha occupies Lebanon militarily.","date_from_description":"1914","date_to_description":"1914"},"46c4cfb1-3593-5170-976b-ba0e420253d1":{"description":"Damascus–Beirut railway (and Damascus–Hijaz railway in 1908) built by German workers reflecting economic and industrial ties between the Ottoman Empire and Germany. The German Emperor William II visits Damascus on November 1898.","date_from_description":"1895"},"7560c725-f1f9-5ae3-b2fa-1cd004f0e19e":{"name":"Founding of first Serbian journal *Novine serbske*","description":"In Vienna in 1813 Dimitrije Davidović, politician, diplomat, author of the Candlemas Constitution and one of the founders of journalism in Serbia, launches *Novine Serbske*, Serbia’s first daily newspaper. The newspapers are printed in Serbia for the first time in 1834.","date_from_description":"1834","date_to_description":"1834"},"fe23bf96-3929-5f22-88f9-80c3800efe11":{"name":"The German Empire","description":"The German Empire, a union of sovereign states and free cities, is established under Prussian leadership.","date_from_description":"1871","date_to_description":"1871"},"c23b6072-da45-5b41-93d3-84c3264c7d22":{"description":"As a result of the revolution in November 1918 Germany becomes a republic. Emperor Wilhelm II abdicates.","date_from_description":"1918"},"62f41fd3-1860-5be0-9c04-7a6370e10a79":{"description":"Union of the German Reich with the Kingdom of Burgundy under King Konrad II (1024–39) of the Salian Dynasty.","date_from_description":"1033"},"47eafb93-3dec-56e8-a95c-532def54b84d":{"description":"The first colonial exhibition opens in Marseille under the auspices of Jules Charles-Roux.","date_from_description":"1906"},"74d3f4fa-4fe1-515b-bbb2-84c36f36cf52":{"description":"Tahert founded by the Rustamids.","date_from_description":"761"},"d6d22b87-4333-572c-9d32-824cfd38f3cb":{"name":"Creation of the Emirate of Transjordan","description":"By August 1921 this British policy has been changed and it is decided to establish the Emirate of Transjordan under the leadership of Husayn ibn ’Ali’s son, Prince ‘Abdallah, who will become King of Jordan in 1946.","date_from_description":"1921","date_to_description":"1921"},"bcbb11ff-390a-518b-99f5-f2b734224056":{"description":"The Great Nordic War breaks out, with Russia, Poland and Denmark against Sweden led by King Charles XII (Karl XII).","date_from_description":"1700"},"6aa487ad-149e-585f-9b86-18ae6d154edd":{"description":"On 29 October the Croatian Parliament proclaims Croatia’s administrative relations with Austria and Hungary void. In December the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes is formed.","date_from_description":"1918"},"58e49658-5d56-5cee-a255-546c446b7c9c":{"description":"The discovery of the Cape of Good Hope has an adverse effect on trade in Egypt.","date_from_description":"1492"},"588f15d9-d644-513d-b9bf-aeca23c44bbd":{"name":"Muhammad Ali kills the Mamluks","description":"On 1 March, Muhammad ‘Ali invites some 470 Mamluk beys to the Citadel for a feast to celebrate his son’s imminent departure for Mecca. When the feasting is over the Mamluks mount their lavishly decorated horses and are led in procession down the narrow, high-sided defile, below what is now the Police Museum. As they approach Bab al-Azab, the great gates swing closed and gunfire rains down on them from above. After the fusillades, Muhammad ‘Ali’s soldiers wade in with swords and axes to finish the job. Legend relates that only one Mamluk escaped alive, leaping over the wall on his horse.","date_from_description":"1811","date_to_description":"1811"},"3818d5fd-c5b6-507f-af3e-cc1015160262":{"description":"A time of financial difficulties and European manoeuvring. Tunisia’s state debt results in the establishment of an international financial commission, and a French–English initiative intended to control Tunisian finances.","date_from_description":"1868"},"58905020-ab87-5e94-a3d4-66d653a6cbc1":{"description":"The first mosque in Egypt is built in Bilbis, east of the Delta, to honour the martyrs and 120 companions of the Prophet who died in battle there during the Arab invasion of Egypt. It followed the ground plan of the Prophet's mosque in Medina.","date_from_description":"639"},"ea76b19d-d318-510e-b037-2c49fe133c7e":{"name":"Union of Moldavia and Wallachia","description":"Union of Moldavia and Wallachia. In January 1859 Alexandru Ioan Cuza is elected ruler of both Moldavia and Wallachia, the double election being recognised by the Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire. In November 1861 the sultan issues a ferman approving the political and administrative union of Moldavia and Wallachia during Cuza’s reign. The United Principalities could now have a single government and parliament.","date_from_description":"1859","date_to_description":"1861"},"a82d8656-48f9-5319-a09b-fd380caeabf2":{"name":"Sympathizers of Tawhidi movement","description":"The British dismiss a former teacher of al-Taimiyyah School and a *Qadi* in Sharjah for sympathising publicly with the Tawhidi (Wahhabi) movement in Najd.","date_from_description":"1927","date_to_description":"1927"},"a85a1a69-0a7d-59be-bfd4-2023ac297f39":{"description":"The Jews thrown out of Spain are under the Ottoman protection.","date_from_description":"1492"},"5327b6d4-3a65-5293-a606-ea64db46f1fb":{"description":"The Byzantine Emperor Justinianus (later Justinian) grants the ally of the Byzantines, al-Haritha ibn Jibla, the Arab-Christian ruler of the Ghassan tribe who settled in Syria and Jordan, the title ‘Baselues’ (king).","date_from_description":"528"},"f209ded8-b80a-51ad-ba20-d1c2ab088ec1":{"description":"The Damascene theologian ‘Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi, from Sufi order called al-Naqshabandiyya, influenced by Ibn al-Arabi, writes many works on religion and mystical philosophy.","date_from_description":"1670"},"1a8d42c0-fd99-58bb-a840-10b2be8dc7a9":{"description":"In the Treaty of Verdun the Frankish Empire is divided into three separate parts called West-, Middle- and East Francia. The Germanic Empire is called the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.","date_from_description":"843"},"60d59e9e-7ec2-5d98-9957-b3bac9c7f0f0":{"description":"The town of Béjaia founded by the Hammadid prince al-Nasir. Bab al-Bunud (Gateway of the Standards) and Bab al-Bahr (Gateway of the Sea) erected.","date_from_description":"1068"},"7c0b3274-7bcb-5ba7-b3fd-f7e5edd13bab":{"description":"The Ikhshidid dynasty, based in Egypt, extends its rule to Damascus. The Abbasid empire begins to fragment.","date_from_description":"935–969"},"128e76da-afcc-5b89-9153-25eec0ade885":{"description":"Duke Branimir becomes Banus of Croatia and breaks up with Constantinople. Pope John VIII gave his blessing to the duke and the whole Croatian people, as he informed Branimir in his letters.","date_from_description":"879"},"d8178e1b-75fb-5950-86bb-9b794229a34b":{"name":"Giuseppe Mazzini founds the Giovine Italia","description":"Giuseppe Mazzini founds the republican movement for national unification, Giovine Italia (Young Italy).","date_from_description":"1831","date_to_description":"1831"},"59535ffd-671f-5e78-8f21-81f325d7570f":{"name":"Serbia became a Kingdom","description":"The first king of Serbia in the modern age is Milan Obrenović, Prince (1822–82) and King (1882–89). From the start of his independent reign, Knez Milan works to build up the military, and sides with Russia in his foreign policy. He declares war on Turkey in 1876, but it ends in Serbia’s defeat due to poorly prepared diplomatic policy. The signing of the Treaty of San Stefano (made between the two countries after the Russo-Turkish War) is followed by an about-face in Knez Milan’s policy as he turns more and more to Austria-Hungary. A decision by the Congress of Berlin in 1878 grants Serbia independence, while the Secret Convention (between Serbia and Austria-Hungary) binds Austria-Hungary into declaring Serbia a kingdom in 1882.","date_from_description":"1882","date_to_description":"1882"},"a0c5565d-bcb7-5aa2-b36c-ce7301eb22c3":{"description":"Sanctification of Bishop Theodorus as a bishop of Jordan and Palestine by the Empress Theodora according to the request of al-Haritha al-Ghassani.","date_from_description":"542"},"8b366f79-f1db-5df1-9d61-2f466087069d":{"name":"Foundation of the secret organisation Filiki Etaireia","description":"Foundation of the secret organisation Filiki Etaireia (Friendly Society) prepares the ground for the Greek Revolution.","date_from_description":"1814","date_to_description":"1814"},"a3ee0d33-6ca0-5b47-a931-404128f779be":{"description":"Following the death of Elizabeth I of England, James VI of Scotland becomes James I of England and Ireland, bringing about the ‘Union of the Crowns’.","date_from_description":"1603"},"bff4327f-780e-50a1-b88c-190b4d016eaf":{"description":"In this year the German missionary Ansgarius visits Birka, preaching Christianity to the Swedes, according to Vita Ansgarii by the monk Rimbert.","date_from_description":"830"},"accc96bc-6ab2-539a-b0df-e6cc0b3ec739":{"description":"Erik Bloodaxe, the Scandinavian king of York, is defeated and killed; this allows Edred, King of England, to rule over a united kingdom for the first time.","date_from_description":"954"},"5d82b804-e104-5bff-b26d-3815dc749d68":{"description":"End of the rebellion of Kharijite Abu Yazid (‘the Man of the Donkey’) against the Fatimids.","date_from_description":"946"},"7dede71a-1484-59fc-923d-a8d3dfd5b786":{"description":"Norman incursions on the coast of Ifriqiya. 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The Council marks the beginning of the Counter-Reformation.","date_from_description":"1545"},"10b1382a-ff42-52fc-9d16-2a0842cd92b3":{"description":"Black Death (the plague) spreads throughout the British Isles from the south coast, killing between one-third and a half of the population.","date_from_description":"1348"},"9aaaeb56-9081-5d5f-b3f9-350631115f35":{"description":"Christopher Polhem is asked to construct a new kind of steam engine, which is later used successfully in the copper mines at Stora Kopparberg in Sweden.","date_from_description":"1690"},"83c1de4a-980e-5ee6-bd25-691ec17566f0":{"name":"Republic of Weimar","description":"The Weimar Republic.","date_from_description":"1918","date_to_description":"1933"},"aa33b06c-4e59-5f3d-ac59-c14a054e3995":{"description":"In November the Fatimids of Egypt take control of Jordan during the region of al-Mu’izz Li-Deenillah.","date_from_description":"969"},"251dbd30-c263-51b4-af91-b2e3e1685fe3":{"description":"Mary, Queen of Scots, abdicates Scotland’s throne and her one-year-old son James VI becomes King of Scotland; Mary is executed in 1587 for plotting to kill Elizabeth I.","date_from_description":"1567"},"70009b19-9e8c-5af5-88a6-11f1459e79c3":{"description":"Annexation of the Kingdom of Portugal.","date_from_description":"1580"},"72e976ab-7b9c-57b2-8a32-1cf00bc51a16":{"description":"Ali ibn Abi Talib, the Prophet's cousin and companion, isappointed wali (ruler) of Egypt by ‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan, the third Righteous Caliph.","date_from_description":"655"},"368b9b30-fe58-57b6-ac37-4eb8ad940bfd":{"name":"Isabel II becomes Queen of Spain","description":"Isabel II becomes Queen of Spain. The Salic Law forbidding women to reign had been abolished in 1830 because Fernando VII's only heirs were female. His brother, Carlos de Borbón, asserts his claim to the throne against his niece (first Carlist War, 1836–39); two further Carlist wars will follow (1846–49, 1872–76).","date_from_description":"1833","date_to_description":"1833"},"b64c70c6-7190-5fd3-91f8-d792e406301d":{"name":"Revolution in Moldavia and Wallachia","description":"January 1821–July 1822: revolution in Moldavia and Wallachia against the Phanariotes (Greek rulers imposed by the Ottoman Empire since the beginning of the 18th century) and for social and economic measures to improve the lives of the people. After the suppression of the revolution the Empire appoints Romanian rulers in Moldavia (Ioniţă Sandu Sturdza) and Walachia (Grigore Dimitrie Ghica).","date_from_description":"1821","date_to_description":"1822"},"fe0b838a-25c3-56a6-a34f-c4473f54b366":{"description":"Conquest of Alcácer do Sal.","date_from_description":"1217"},"826c5209-aba9-591c-aefd-1bf8fca1b9e0":{"name":"Estatuto Real","description":"Estatuto Real signed by the Queen Regent, María Cristina de Borbón, as a royal charter similar to the one under the French King Louis XVIII. There is no constitution, but it has two chambers (similar to the British House of Lords and House of Commons) and a government, with a president and ministers.","date_from_description":"1834","date_to_description":"1834"},"e4b3dde1-a78c-56cf-8875-f0ac737c666c":{"description":"The Armada defeated by England.","date_from_description":"1588"},"d11003b4-e777-5ecb-b0eb-805d3ec485fe":{"description":"Battle of Mohacs. Ludwig Jagellon defeated by the Turks, the dynasty died out. According to a contract from 1515, the Czech throne passes to the Habsburg dynasty. Anti-Habsburg movement of the Czech Estates.","date_from_description":"1526"},"34fcab2b-dc2f-544c-b0e0-dc856d20ac60":{"name":"Aqaba became the new base for Faysal’s army","description":"In June 1917 the coastal city of Aqaba in Jordan becomes the new base for Faisal’s army, renamed the “Arab Northern Army”. Attacks on the Hijaz Railway continue, extending now as far north as southern Jordan. T. E. Lawrence, “Lawrence of Arabia” himself led reconnaissance parties into Syria and made contact with Arab nationalists in Damascus. The spectacular victory of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) at the Third Battle of Gaza (Beersheba) in October 1917, and the subsequent British advance into the Jordan Valley, gave renewed impetus to Faisal’s “railway war” further east. Meanwhile, Amir Faisal, with Lawrence as his adviser, had captured the seaport of Wejh (al-Wagh) on the Red Sea, 150 km north of Yanbu. From there, Faisal’s men spent most of 1917 attacking the Hijaz Railway. Small raiding parties blew up sections of track, destroyed bridges, water towers and even some weakly defended railway stations. The British, planning to invade Palestine, were keen for the Arab rebels to keep the 12,000 Ottoman troops tied down in Medina (Madinah).","date_from_description":"1917","date_to_description":"1918"},"30605f3f-79c6-5430-aaef-b20e16b57357":{"name":"Conflicts between the Druse and the Maronite","description":"Conflicts between the Druze and the Maronite Christians explode. A Maronite revolt against the feudal class erupts, lasting till 1858.","date_from_description":"1840","date_to_description":"1840"},"0e8b123d-17ff-56ae-bf1b-5eb48430f904":{"name":"Romania declares war on Austria","description":"Romania declares war on the Central Powers: Germany, Austria and Bulgaria.","date_from_description":"1916","date_to_description":"1916"},"547fd8d0-cdb7-50cf-813e-0a6d738ad687":{"description":"A Royal Navy fleet led by Admiral Lord Nelson in HMS Victory destroys the French and Spanish fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar; Nelson is killed in the battle.","date_from_description":"1805"},"c49acc6e-15c5-51b5-a7c9-07fac2322ced":{"description":"First edition of The Lusiads by Luís de Camões.","date_from_description":"1572"},"152c36c0-d0a5-53f3-aaa1-1679e8b8f8d0":{"description":"Mutiny of Aranjuez and abdication of Charles IV in favour of his son Ferdinand VII. Abdications of Bayonne. Joseph Bonaparte becomes King of Spain. Popular uprising in Madrid on 2 May and start of the War of Independence against the French occupiers (1808–13).","date_from_description":"1808"},"afdb6c38-1876-5448-a684-99a1e014502c":{"description":"Nikola Zrinski defeats the Pasha of Budim near Bobocsa. The fall of Kostajnica and the arrival of Ottomans in Turopolje.","date_from_description":"1556"},"1abad8aa-fe77-59c3-8da6-f5cc736a354d":{"name":"First Balkan War","description":"The First Balkan War begins in October 1912 between Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and the Ottoman Empire; Montenegro is accused of igniting it by attacking Skadar. At the request of Turkey, an armistice is concluded in December 1912. Negotiations in London fail and the war continues into 1913. A Peace Treaty is signed in London in May 1913. Turkey surrenders all territories west of the Enos-Midija. The Serbian Navy withdraws from the sea; in November 1912, Albania is formed due to Austrian pressure.","date_from_description":"1912","date_to_description":"1913"},"d2d232be-77e5-5589-b163-5011502463c4":{"description":"The Hafsid Kingdom of Tunis exerts a remarkable influence in politics, economics and culture.","date_from_description":"1228–1236"},"2ce84b2f-4047-5460-90db-e0c4b7e0a8a5":{"description":"The church of Haghia Sophia in Constantinople is opened on 27 December by Byzantine Emperor Justinian I having been rebuilt after its destruction in Nika Riot (532).","date_from_description":"537"},"e8443181-9b2b-5076-bbb2-bb68474dcfcd":{"description":"An Umayyad town is established on the citadel of Amman comprising a palace complex, congregational mosque, residential units, a reservoir and a bath.","date_from_description":"728"},"5e8d3ab6-e862-58f3-ae9e-1d931d60e54b":{"description":"Sa’id ibn Khalid, a grandson of the third orthodox Caliph ‘Uthman, leads a revolt against the Abbasids at al-Fudayn in Jordan calling for the restitution of the Umayyad caliphate. 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Mustafa Kemal Atatürk becomes the first president of Turkey.","date_from_description":"1923","date_to_description":"1923"},"bb3fda76-0312-5e9a-a89e-1b9a45f32688":{"description":"Foundation of the Kharijite cities of Mzab and start of the Hilalian invasions.","date_from_description":"1050"},"8fcec683-d1c6-572d-b49b-de8829a1ce4a":{"description":"The Synod of Whitby establishes the date of Easter in Britain and consequently the supremacy of Roman Christianity over Celtic Christianity.","date_from_description":"664"},"e1b83e18-7a70-583e-9f1a-ab5c213c38da":{"description":"Frederick Barbarossa (1123–90) arrives in Italy to side with the Pope against the Commune of Rome and the Normans. 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The Pope allows Catholics to vote.","date_from_description":"1912","date_to_description":"1912"},"2db35884-0dcb-51af-8feb-97eb2256b41b":{"description":"Peace with Spain, which recognises Portuguese independence.","date_from_description":"1668"},"49b1ea1c-4154-5de9-a06e-f7b48091e1e2":{"name":"Romania becomes part of the Triple Alliance","description":"30 October: by signing a treaty with Austro-Hungary, to which Germany adheres the same day and Italy in 1888, Romania becomes part of the Triple Alliance.","date_from_description":"1883 (18 October)","date_to_description":"1883 (30 October)"},"daa73a72-f069-50c3-abbc-df5a38d392b0":{"description":"Mazagán (al-Jadida), the last Portuguese town in Morocco, is abandoned.","date_from_description":"1769"},"c9bba37d-a0bf-5fc3-a408-e9a5dab9da60":{"description":"Sultan al-Ghawri is killed in battle against the Ottomans. 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Prince Mihailo Obrenović reigns for a short time before the Karađorđević Dynasty regains the Serbian throne in 1842. The 1858 *Svetoandrejska skupština* (Assembly convened on St Andrew’s Day) decides on a change of dynasty, overthrowing Prince Aleksandar Karađorđević and reinstating Miloš Obrenović. A 37-strong deputation from the Assembly, with a massive, heavily armed entourage, leaves Belgrade for Bucharest to bring the newly elected prince back to the country, marking the beginning of Miloš’ second, but short-lived reign, which ends when he dies in 1860.","date_from_description":"1859","date_to_description":"1859"},"a88260ac-0d11-50b8-9b3a-2d7220cc6a02":{"description":"On 4 September Prophet Muhammad emigrates with the Muslims to the town of Medina. This event known as Hijra and marks the beginning of the Hijri calendar.","date_from_description":"622"},"6c42f919-7aa0-50cf-bc11-abfe289fbdff":{"description":"The town of Sedrata destroyed. Kharijite exodus to Mzab.","date_from_description":"1069"},"e8e5c1de-5a72-513d-8780-6bd0f9d01843":{"description":"The Muslim armies expand in southern Palestine, and then begin to move towards the north. In the Battle of Yarmuk the Byzantine army is defeated and Greater Syria gradually falls under the control of the Muslim army.","date_from_description":"636"},"9174a4b4-0d7f-50c2-b352-98b3ff8d8dd5":{"description":"Battle of Sarmada, between the Crusader Principality of Antioch and the Artuqid Atabeg ruler of Aleppo, witnessing the success of the local Muslim forces even without assistance from the Seljuq sultanate.","date_from_description":"1119"},"d36604ba-45ea-57e0-adbc-56e7b6d707aa":{"description":"In this, or the following, year, King Magnus grants freedom of taxes for those who serve him in his wars as equestrians. 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Victory at Hadrumetum (Sousse).","date_from_description":"665"},"36e1af7c-3bb9-5f93-9462-befff7918c1f":{"description":"Insurrections and popular resistance against the occupation.","date_from_description":"1881–1885"},"c325c56a-f379-5525-a0bb-71fa220749a5":{"description":"The Fourth Crusade, which will last until 1204, leaves from Venice.","date_from_description":"1202"},"e8a92eb7-b493-55d1-8d0c-28c26221d3f8":{"description":"Period of internal power struggles in the bey families. The reigning princes manage to ensure the dynastic succession.","date_from_description":"1735–1782"},"6046c8ef-6db5-5a44-8caf-4c437bee3ef1":{"description":"Diet of Pozsony (Pressburg, today: Bratislava, Slovakia): coronation of Maria Theresia (Theresa), daughter of Karl (Charles) VI, as Queen of Hungary. The diet offers military help for the Habsburgs in the Austrian Succession Wars.","date_from_description":"1741"},"b74eb8da-0d1f-50e5-afa9-b3165ba07882":{"name":"Spain's neutrality in World War I","description":"Spain's neutrality in World War I brings important economic upturn.","date_from_description":"1918","date_to_description":"1918"},"2d9a0fd0-882b-5e8b-b439-eaac6a9dbd5b":{"description":"Appearance of the first taifa kingdoms in al-Andalus.","date_from_description":"1013"},"3c9d5659-a75b-52ca-945e-3308bac60539":{"description":"Death of the historian Ibn al-Warraq, whose work, dedicated to the towns of Tahert, Oran, Sijilmassa, Nekkour and al-Basra, would later be used by the geographer al-Bakri in his Description of Northern Africa.","date_from_description":"978"},"08bdd8d5-6c10-5db7-842c-d43cd59bc83f":{"description":"Crowning of the first Croatian king, Stjepan Držislav (969–97), a member of the Trpimirović Dynasty. The Byzantine Emperor Basil II gave him symbols of royal power.","date_from_description":"969"},"81f0fc36-c1ce-58fa-bce0-101ffd4fe578":{"description":"Bramante begins construction of the new Basilica of Saint Peter.","date_from_description":"1506"},"4d87d64c-3e45-5ad9-b697-61f6ff3f1759":{"description":"Genoa sells Corsica to France one year before the birth of Napoleon Bonaparte.","date_from_description":"1768"},"44eb6702-267e-5192-a6ab-eb4c560ff6a9":{"description":"Juan Sebastián Elcano completes the first circumnavigation of the globe.","date_from_description":"1522"},"0c142f63-19e1-586e-bd42-9a313543f63f":{"description":"King John Balliol of Scotland establishes a mutual defence treaty, the ‘Auld Alliance’, between Scotland and France, directed against the English.","date_from_description":"1295"},"472d3156-e5df-5b37-bd7e-f55225ad1cec":{"name":"Moroccan resistance","description":"Moroccan resistance is spirited, and provokes many Berber revolts. Following the surrender of Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Alkrim, who led the peasant revolts in the Rif (1919–26), France launched a campaign of “pacification” that lasted until 1934.","date_from_description":"1919","date_to_description":"1934"},"a91baf1b-b592-53e3-9cd6-8a1ef4b64d6c":{"description":"During the 1870s a series of crop failures lead to starvation and the beginning of large-scale emigration from Sweden to America.","date_from_description":"1870"},"83fe8d06-b6f3-5524-b5c3-50a778e3389f":{"description":"Black death.","date_from_description":"1348"},"79a18bd9-ece7-55a7-bf23-5fa46e37f311":{"description":"Creation of the United Kingdom of Portugal and Brazil.","date_from_description":"1815"},"ca13f3c3-9178-595b-a98d-ba165ecdfeae":{"description":"Liberal victory in the civil war. Establishment of a constitutional monarchy.","date_from_description":"1834"},"058cb8aa-8241-51a9-a850-bd9f4460b50f":{"description":"Fraternal Union. 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This is seen as the peak of the German freedom movement.","date_from_description":"1813"},"ab2086dd-5008-5695-870e-cee4f7734ffb":{"description":"The Hafsid ruler of Tunis takes refuge in Egypt. The Sultan helped him to take back his throne and he became the deputy of the Egyptian Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad bin Qalawun. The death of Ibn Mandhur, the author of Lisan al-Arab (‘The Arab Tongue’).","date_from_description":"1311"},"02290e31-334b-5a29-8261-9812e231a56e":{"description":"Start of the Bourbon dynasty with the coronation of Phillip V.  \nStart of the Spanish War of Succession.","date_from_description":"1701"},"7e173ce2-2de4-553a-a41d-5b61fcf1b23f":{"description":"The establishment of Great Moravia (Moravia, western Slovakia, parts of Hungary, Austria, Bohemia and Poland).","date_from_description":"Around 833"},"273d70c1-c2bb-571c-a79a-844701148f75":{"description":"The most well-known Swedish saint, Saint Birgitta, is born. Her Order, Ordo Sanctissimi Salvatoris (the Order of the Most Holy Saviour), is approved by a Papal Bull in 1370.","date_from_description":"1303"},"2c3e0e21-8805-5b99-af1f-0073a37781e3":{"description":"Muhammad ‘Ali, the Pasha of Egypt, sends his army under the command of his son Ibrahim Pasha to conquer Palestine and succeeds in bringing the country under his control.","date_from_description":"1831"},"9d8a7c8f-ad81-5516-b2bb-658af1cfc977":{"name":"September revolution known as La Gloriosa","description":"Carlist wars, economic crisis (1866–68) and disgruntlement with Queen Isabel II and the government explode in the September revolution known as La Gloriosa. The revolution is followed by six years of democratic government under Amadeo I, from the Italian Saboya family, (1870–73) and then under the first Spanish Republic (1873–74), causing the 3rd Carlist war.","date_from_description":"1868","date_to_description":"1868"},"aa02a42e-9565-58f3-ab44-c827737298ab":{"description":"Gregory the Great (590–604) becomes pope. During his pontificate, the Church becomes more independent from the Byzantine Empire and great efforts are made to evangelise the Anglo-Saxons and Lombards.","date_from_description":"590"},"8b047a14-4113-55b1-aa73-6fc91cfdba22":{"description":"The first golden coin is minted by Mehmet II.","date_from_description":"1478"},"c75a9819-4fac-5fb8-b9ea-f60b264d5c5d":{"name":"Demonstrations and riots against high bread price","description":"Widespread demonstrations and riots against high bread price. The government uses the army to repress protests: in Milan 85 demonstrators are killed.","date_from_description":"1897","date_to_description":"1898"},"7f434184-ddcb-5c28-8d42-ab2dbdfab6d0":{"description":"Issa ibn Yazid al-Assouad founds the town of Sijilmassa at Tafilalet, the great desert port on the gold route.","date_from_description":"757"},"b16040fb-7fff-5e4d-9880-f8a9cd6aca41":{"description":"Pico della Mirandola (1463–94) writes Oration on the Dignity of Man, an expression of the new Renaissance humanist culture that exalted man’s dignity and right to self-determination.","date_from_description":"1485"},"792cc7e2-44f5-5a27-9343-72d72bcd1f52":{"description":"The *Law of Vinodol* is composed, one of the first juridical regulations in this part of Europe.","date_from_description":"1288"},"328f265b-a477-590d-ae49-14d4e83ef499":{"description":"The Berlin Conference sets out the manner in which colonies are to be acquired, and preludes the division of Africa. France and Jules Ferry establish a protectorate in Tunisia (1881) and Madagascar (1885). ‘French’ territories in West Africa are united in a federation in 1890.","date_from_description":"1884-85"},"5613686d-95e8-539a-9ddd-370f90efee48":{"description":"On 28 May the Transjordan Emirate is established, headed by Prince Abdullah I, son of Sharif Husayn, who later became King Abdullah the founder of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.","date_from_description":"1921"},"a4f0fe71-bf7d-501b-9ad9-2626e2665b64":{"description":"Arrival of the Jesuit order; suppression of non-Catholics. The first independent map of Moravia (1569); the establishment of a university in Olomouc (1573). Fraternal Union published the Kralice Bible (1579); its language became the official norm.","date_from_description":"1556"},"cd81a354-8325-5bdf-a706-90372cee8350":{"description":"Reign of Barsbay marks the beginning of a period of peace, cultural vitality and increased trade.","date_from_description":"1422"},"0f51abf5-c8b2-569d-b23d-afe714bff765":{"description":"Hus burned at the stake at the assembly of the Council of Constance. Struggles between Catholics and Utraquists (“heretics”). Crusades, plundering of monasteries and churches, iconoclasm.","date_from_description":"1415"},"a3b52d76-925e-5ce9-a515-99bc63ff43d2":{"description":"The University at Dorpat is founded by Gustavus Adolphus. The town of Dorpat (Tartu) is today in Estonia.","date_from_description":"1632"},"0f5acb2c-7e7f-51ea-8a8b-9e0b1503a5d8":{"description":"The first diplomatic agreement of the Croats with the Holy See. 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He was famous for his successful military campaigns and also for his reform of the legal code. 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Archduke Josef becomes the new Hungarian Palatine. Pál Kitaibel invents a vacuum-filtering process.","date_from_description":"1795"},"c61a5b3a-b12b-5c2b-a169-6feb08ed2c4b":{"name":"Bashir II breaks away from the Ottoman Empire","description":"Bashir II breaks away from the Ottoman Empire, allies with Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha of Egypt and assists his son Ibrahim Pasha in a siege of Acre. This siege lasts seven months before the fall of the city on 27 May 1832. 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Foundation of Prague archbishopric.","date_from_description":"1344"},"2a878e02-8441-5986-ba7c-d99f0404125b":{"description":"William of Normandy lands at Pevensey, defeats and kills Harold II at the Battle of Hastings and becomes William I, the Conqueror; the first Norman King of England (until 1087).","date_from_description":"1066"},"ac7675fd-3117-5c7d-99de-6c9f534988ea":{"name":"Foundation of ministries","description":"Founding of the Ministry of Finance and formation of Sublime Council for Judicial Ordinances. The title “grand vizier” becomes “prime minister\".","date_from_description":"1838","date_to_description":"1838"},"e38eb7bb-c5e8-5f3d-99ac-8bd7b8098123":{"description":"Süleyman Bey, conquering Iznik, declares it the capital of the Anatolian Seljuqs.","date_from_description":"1080"},"6a8e5a77-1843-5ea2-9525-f6305af2a714":{"description":"The papal residence moved back to Rome from Avignon during the pontificate of Gregory XI (1370–8).","date_from_description":"1377"},"66e2c0cc-d8f8-5391-be7d-5738f2dfbd15":{"description":"King Charlemagne (768–814) is crowned as emperor in Rome by Pope Leo III (795–816).","date_from_description":"800"},"d327227e-c522-5553-af40-86f52c894373":{"description":"On 20 August a local government is formalised in Salt city after the decline of the Arab Kingdom at Damascus; its council of state was headed by Mazhar Rislan and its membership was made up of deputies from Amman, Madaba and ‘Udawn tribe.","date_from_description":"1920"},"e8286945-4b4e-5742-8d29-67d38200b404":{"description":"Prince Géza is succeeded by his son István who continues the Hungarian conversion to Christianity. Following nomadic tradition Prince Koppány claims the rulership but is defeated and killed.","date_from_description":"997"},"f2a72779-7feb-5a74-a2f5-dc6daf7807fb":{"name":"The Arab Revolt","description":"The Arab Revolt begins on 10 June 1916 led by the Governor of Mecca (Makkah), Sharif Husayn ibn ‘Ali, and his sons, the amirs ‘Ali and Faisal. His forces seize the city of Riyad and force the small Ottoman garrison to seek refuge in the local fortress. Another of Husayn’s sons, Amir Abdallah, manages to surround and then take the town of Ta’if.","date_from_description":"1916","date_to_description":"1917"},"7043adec-94a2-5cef-895e-898d5fc584f6":{"description":"The Abbasid Caliph al-Rashid appoints his brother Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi governor (wali) of Jordan. It was customary to appoint the brothers and family members of caliphs to administrative positions.","date_from_description":"796"},"999699a8-1c62-57f7-adcb-0797447fb6b5":{"description":"Crac des Chevaliers, a critical Crusader stronghold in the Syrian coastal mountains, falls to the Mamluk Sultan al-Zahir Baybars (r. 1260–77).","date_from_description":"1271"},"e21b4827-ea94-5fb0-8cf5-de9a45f8e87b":{"description":"Merchants from Amalfi (Italy) construct a huge social institution including a hospital in Jerusalem.","date_from_description":"1048"},"e6feeb0d-01bf-59bb-8069-390c3a62f0d3":{"description":"Ajlun becomes the centre of an administrative district (Niabah) extending from the Zarqa river in the south to the Yarmouk river in the north and from the Jordan valley in the west to Badiya in the east.","date_from_description":"1411"},"2f8c1e29-2c7a-5d73-9603-1ddb08087165":{"description":"Charles VII is crowned in Reims, having been proclaimed the true king of France by Joan of Arc. A gradual reconquest of the kingdom begins, to be completed towards the end of the 15th century.","date_from_description":"1429"},"f79e6586-b41d-5804-8d78-c3f4b0b49da0":{"description":"French expedition and start of the colonisation of Algeria.","date_from_description":"1830"},"3e46dcf2-c671-5ecd-8570-602dcc6b73b7":{"description":"Mulay Isma‘ïl takes the town of Mamora back from the Spanish and it is renamed al-Mahdiya.","date_from_description":"1682"},"fb485c98-2fef-5d95-9979-b4759442a502":{"description":"The Almoravids found the town of Marrakesh, heralding the start of a new era in Maghreb and al-Andalus.","date_from_description":"1062"},"087950f1-7aba-598e-9cbb-48c720664666":{"name":"Reign of Mulay al-Hasan I","description":"Reign of Mulay al-Hasan I: Mulay al-Hasan I maintains the political independence of the country. He attempted to adapt the country to its new circumstances and employed a policy of reforms, affecting all areas of political and economic life, to improve the management of public affairs.","date_from_description":"1873","date_to_description":"1894"},"60d359e4-5723-55aa-a72c-b16e64db0017":{"description":"Al-Azhar mosque becomes a centre for higher religious education under vizier Ya’qub ibn Killis, minister of the Fatimid Caliph al-Aziz Billah.","date_from_description":"988"},"a8b2889d-7ab4-5e6c-a382-56b3681070d0":{"name":"The beginning of the independence process in the Spanish territories in South America and Mexico","description":"The beginning of the independence process in the Spanish territories in South America and Mexico, influenced by the American and French revolutions. The first Declaration of Independence is in Ecuador in 1809 and the American process ends in 1898 with Cuba, followed by the independence of the Philippines and the selling of the Carolinas and the Mariana islands to Germany in 1899.","date_from_description":"1809","date_to_description":"1899"},"ed6800c0-3445-5557-a755-7876a32b6c4b":{"description":"The decline of the Almohads is deepened by the victory of the Sanhadja tribe from Bani Ghania at Béjaia.","date_from_description":"1184"},"c71bc23e-42c8-5156-858d-a7641dd585a9":{"description":"Master Simon Kézai, a cleric of King László (Kun) IV, starts to compile the Gesta Hungarorum, a chronicle of Hungary (completed in 1285) that contains the theory of the Hun-Hungarian identity.","date_from_description":"1282"},"186ea0b3-28bc-5331-86e0-704c5ef7795b":{"name":"After the defeat of the Al Qawasim by the British","description":"After the defeat of the Qawasim by the British, a British Residency is established at Bushire on the Persian littoral to represent Britain’s political, economic and military interests there. Shortly after, a “Native Agent” is based in Sharjah as his representative. Native agents were generally non-Arab but Arabic-speaking Muslims from the Indian subcontinent or the Persian littoral of the Gulf, chosen for their loyalty to Britain and their in-depth local and regional knowledge. Their task was to monitor activities on the Trucial Coast and liaise with local powers on Britain’s behalf.","date_from_description":"1823","date_to_description":"1825"},"8de2de38-0008-5470-854c-c8741ae77ba8":{"description":"Johannes Bureus’ Rvna-ABC is published. It was a reading book with parallel texts in runic and contemporary Swedish writing.","date_from_description":"1611"},"5a1ea0bc-5eaa-51e5-ba81-3c6a7d87d08a":{"description":"Autocracy is introduced under King Charles XI (Karl XI).","date_from_description":"1680"},"3a97e768-fdfd-5678-82f8-c2c62b2e9f3f":{"name":"The Peace (or Treaty) of Bucharest","description":"The Peace (or Treaty) of Bucharest between Romania and Austria.","date_from_description":"1918","date_to_description":"1918"},"9ed781be-d34c-590a-9e80-16be57da95ea":{"description":"Croatian king Stjepan I (1030–58) focused on rebuilding Croatia’s military strength and in 1032 he sent his naval fleet to assist Byzantium in its war against the Arabs.","date_from_description":"1032"},"66fc6d34-d859-55c8-9fe1-3ecc6fa4011c":{"description":"Tunis taken by King Charles V of Spain.","date_from_description":"1535"},"a3abaf9f-7e5f-5f29-be43-6b3655322505":{"name":"Diplomatic missions","description":"After his term as governor in Samos, Kostaki Musurus Paşa, a Phanariot Greek becomes the first Ottoman envoy to independent Athens (1840–47) followed by Vienna (1848) and London (1851–55).","date_from_description":"1840","date_to_description":"1840"},"46b02563-57d3-5b63-b95d-4ca37ce1335a":{"name":"The popular uprising","description":"The popular uprising sounds the death knell for reform. The great figure of this insurrection, ‘Ali bin Ghedham, comes from the region of Kasserine.","date_from_description":"1864","date_to_description":"1864"},"91ccf893-db26-5e21-8dd8-2baffc8ff692":{"description":"The War of Independence culminates in the creation of the modern Republic of Turkey in 1923.","date_from_description":"1919–1922"},"2611a998-35c3-5527-a22a-5f62c77511b5":{"description":"Prince Charles Edward Stuart (‘Bonnie Prince Charlie’) lands in Scotland and starts a campaign to restore his father James Francis (the Old Pretender) to the thrones of Britain.","date_from_description":"1745"},"edb31114-c3db-5d7c-a717-ca3d34a50f9f":{"description":"Afonso de Albuquerque conquers Goa.","date_from_description":"1510"},"2abc9658-095d-5a98-a9e3-b1c1ecb1ccd6":{"description":"The Battle of Ankara between Tamerlane and Bayezid and the start of the Interregnum (Fetret) Period.","date_from_description":"1402"},"0e79de47-da1b-53f9-8eac-fd97e6187a3e":{"description":"The Fatimids conquer Palestine, annexing it to Egypt.","date_from_description":"969"},"651e94f5-0f70-5505-ba14-e1290675437d":{"name":"The Austrian Government annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina","description":"The Austrian Government proclaims the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina and the evacuation of Austrian troops from the Sanjak on 6 October. The Austrian annexation then escalates into a major international crisis, which sees Serbia’s future hope to establish a Yugoslav empire shattered.","date_from_description":"1908","date_to_description":"1908"},"59b4bd4f-9dcb-5fa9-b511-3d234d9505d9":{"name":"Italian Socialist Party founded","description":"Italian Socialist Party founded.","date_from_description":"1892","date_to_description":"1892"},"415862c6-3b5a-5779-961a-b814e4cf1d07":{"description":"Moorish rebellion in the Alpujarras.  \nRisings in the Netherlands.","date_from_description":"1568"},"798257f6-1021-535f-9840-0aae074a5828":{"description":"Assembly of non-Catholic Estates. ’Prague Defenestration’ incident sparked a rising of the Czech Estates against the Habsburgs and the outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War. Czech Estates joined by Moravian and Austrian aristocracy and Frederick, Elector Palatine (Czech king 1619–20).","date_from_description":"1618"},"979d710a-1ec4-5981-837d-41ab03d27893":{"name":"Italy annexes Venice","description":"Italy participates in the Austro-Prussian War on the side of Prussia and annexes Venice.","date_from_description":"1866","date_to_description":"1866"},"6ffc72de-e2ca-54a2-abbf-57ec8f88cc1e":{"description":"Italy enters World War I (1914–18) on the side of France, England and Russia.","date_from_description":"1915"},"fc9476ee-fd24-5794-8618-07c87f363c41":{"description":"The first Anglican school is established in the city of Salt by Metropolitan Samuel Gobat who established 37 schools in the villages and cities of the region.","date_from_description":"1856"},"5c561e04-6086-5b89-b5b8-cae35dc41aa8":{"name":"Woodrow Wilson declares his 14 points","description":"Woodrow Wilson declares his “14 points” program in front of Congress.","date_from_description":"1918","date_to_description":"1918"},"68514ab3-8233-519f-b8f9-c20abd15aff7":{"description":"At the Peace of Kiel Sweden and Norway are united under one monarch in a personal union.","date_from_description":"1814"},"a30b5d58-c0a4-577e-b94e-de7261f9f627":{"description":"Byzantine reconquest of Africa led by the Byzantine general Belisarius. End of the Vandal kingdom.","date_from_description":"533"},"c81b6084-c7e0-5ee6-9d42-2ebe66c13390":{"description":"Battle of Salado. Decisive victory over the Marinids of North Africa, who had led the final Muslim offensive in the Peninsula.","date_from_description":"1340"},"dfe631ee-5cdf-519b-9900-189432eb9818":{"description":"The victory of the Byzantine army over the Persian army in the Battle of Nineveh on 12 December, which breaks the power of the Sassanid dynasty.","date_from_description":"627"},"cb1217ce-60de-563d-a0ab-97790f36d7a0":{"description":"Christopher Columbus discovers America. Lorenzo de’Medici dies.","date_from_description":"1492"},"be037dae-57a2-56b8-82d6-1085352b1f7c":{"description":"Muslims and Jews expelled from Castile, La Mancha and Extemadura, Andalusia, Catalonia and Murcia begin to settle in Morocco and other countries in the Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1609"},"b4e565db-820f-5c5a-9daa-d2b536ddcd1d":{"description":"Start of the Castilian War of the Communities.","date_from_description":"1520"},"71e546a2-7016-560d-ab53-888d66bd85df":{"description":"Great hardship due to a very high flood preventing the sowing of new crops in season; a great rise in prices and the cost of living.","date_from_description":"1620"},"85909fbb-7bcf-5aa6-953e-747d6abe0b07":{"description":"Basil II, also known as Bulgar-Slayer, ascends the throne of the Byzantine Empire.","date_from_description":"976"},"201c3e10-5a1e-511f-85ce-489ab781703a":{"description":"The Domesday Book is completed. A survey of every English county south of the rivers Ribble and Tees, it was commissioned by William I at Christmas 1085 to enable him to tax his landowning subjects.","date_from_description":"1086"},"bfac147f-bfa2-5f5b-a074-cf774ea13e0e":{"name":"Guerra de la Independencia","description":"Guerra de la Independencia (Peninsular War) during the French occupation of the Iberian Peninsula and the rule of King Joseph-Napoleon Bonaparte.","date_from_description":"1808","date_to_description":"1813"},"7afa4b50-1a4e-5434-8131-18e2304e897c":{"description":"Beginning of a power crisis for the central emirate sparking local rebellions for independence.","date_from_description":"879"},"f9c9412a-9326-54c1-ac37-5ba1dcfdded8":{"description":"The National Constituent Assembly gives France the unity it needs. The 1791 Constitution establishes a constitutional monarchy, which ends the following year after the events of 10 August and the deposition of Louis XVI.","date_from_description":"1789"},"334291dc-172a-596a-a24a-379f1e1d9428":{"description":"The Siege of Vienna by the Ottomans ends in the defeat of the Ottomans by a united army. A gradual retreat of the Ottomans begins.","date_from_description":"1683"},"7eb8ac05-861b-5f54-869d-e7795df9ca02":{"description":"The rule of the Azem family, lasting nearly a century, indicates the rise of local urban notables into the leadership of Syria as Ottoman strength in the Arab provinces begins to weaken.","date_from_description":"1725–1820"},"0cd237fb-4c85-53e3-9a45-33476737ed30":{"description":"The Mamluk Sultan al-Zahir Baybars captures Karak castle from the Ayyubids, putting an end to Ayyubid rule there; he rebuilt some of its towers and transferred his wealth to it.","date_from_description":"1262"},"3d9812e4-b8ef-57b6-9ac5-850fc6a37dfc":{"description":"The Suez Canal, build under the direction of Ferdinand de Lesseps and the watchful eyes of Empress Eugenie, is opened.","date_from_description":"1869"},"f765b2af-f1fc-560b-b967-c8a80d2cefb9":{"description":"The first wave of Eastern European Jewish immigrants settles in Palestine; this is the beginning of several waves of European Jewish immigration to Palestine.","date_from_description":"1882"},"d0a1821f-6553-5881-8654-dca4b4851c0b":{"description":"Adrian IV grants a papal bull, Laudabiliter, which recognises Henry II of England as lord of Ireland and licenses English colonisation of Ireland; the process begins with Henry’s arrival in 1171.","date_from_description":"1155"},"be05c3dc-95d8-5943-a914-04c1689110f3":{"description":"King Mátyás I dies and the all’ antica Renaissance presence in Hungary (see the Renaissance Buda castle, Mátyás I’s famous Corvina library) wanes. Struggle for the Hungarian throne.","date_from_description":"1490"},"6064a904-43b5-5c03-a1ae-8919ca2276e5":{"name":"Yusuf Bek Butros Karam","description":"Yusuf Bek Butros Karam, a Lebanese Maronite born in 1823 fights in the 1860 civil war and leads a rebellion in 1866-67 against the Ottoman Empire’s rule in Mount Lebanon. His proclamations have been interpreted as an early expression of Lebanese nationalism.","date_from_description":"1860","date_to_description":"1860"},"fcc50734-42e9-5c36-b3b6-59ef8a5e7f8e":{"description":"The most devastating plague hits Damascus, handicapping the city and killing 2,000 people a day, as recorded in the chronicles of the Moroccan voyager Ibn Battuta.","date_from_description":"1348"},"4e93cc09-17e7-5569-bac4-9f0f7b94a32f":{"name":"Mulay Sulayman and trade policy","description":"In relation to trade policy, Mulay Sulayman opposes the liberalism of his father Muhammad Ibn ‘Abd Allah by passing an edict in 1814 imposing a 50 per cent duty on imports, and takes restrictive measures by banning the export of most Moroccan commodities to Europe, including grain, oil, wool, animal hides and livestock. The years of drought and swarms of locusts that devastated all crops between 1810 and 1816 caused a shortage of basic commodities, price increases and famine, on top of the plague epidemics that swept the country. All of these factors necessarily weakened the country financially and demographically. This could help to explain the inward-looking policies adopted by the sovereign Mulay Sulayman, who—according to some historical sources—claimed that he did not need Europe and hoped that Europe did not need him. A desperate and exhausted Mulay Sulayman resigned and chose his nephew Mulay ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Hisham as his successor.","date_from_description":"1810","date_to_description":"1822"},"110abf60-df8a-5021-a435-e437a19eff34":{"description":"King Faisal enters Damascus, celebrating the first Arab government.  \nThe French army occupies the Syrian coast (1919).  \nKing Faisal is expelled by the French, after which he becomes king of Iraq.","date_from_description":"1918–1920"},"e72f3a22-2b6d-5269-8bd4-6f8656211e9c":{"description":"The Fatimids restore the Dome of the Rock.","date_from_description":"1027"},"d57ef1fd-9b93-512c-adf0-5ac932aba9b0":{"description":"Return of Ferdinand VII and restoration of autocracy.","date_from_description":"1814"},"729ec165-6619-50b1-97b2-215c22bcac7b":{"description":"The Regency of Algiers founded by Khaïr-Eddine. Algiers becomes the first vassal town of the Ottoman Empire in Central Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1518"},"4e65e772-0a02-5bc0-b0f5-337190cf98d8":{"description":"The Battle of Hattin. The rise of the Ayyubid dynasty as a successful force against the Crusaders, combined with cultural and demographic changes, transforms the face of Palestine after many years of Crusader control.","date_from_description":"1187"},"6daae50a-b99b-511d-afe3-0ac78441af43":{"name":"Second Restoration","description":"Second Restoration: the reign of Louis XVIII and his brother Charles X. France experiences an economic boom (i.e. the development of the railways), but discontent grows over the king’s authoritarian policies.","date_from_description":"1815","date_to_description":"1830"},"b9453ddd-b1fa-5026-b5b4-80c48b1d90da":{"description":"The caliphal court moves away from Syria and Baghdad, ‘City of Peace', is founded by the Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur, designed as a perfect circle.","date_from_description":"762"},"9df246be-7e24-59fd-98ca-5d56643eb083":{"description":"‘Abd al-Mu’min conquers Ifriqiya and unifies the three countries of the Maghreb (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia).","date_from_description":"1159"},"393b8cfb-9942-518d-8662-b4c0306464c2":{"name":"Al Qawasim confederation migrates to the Arab Gulf coast","description":"In the early 1700s, the (Al-Qasimi) Qawasim confederation migrates to the coast of the Arab Gulf from the Persian littoral. Here, they establish their main base in Julfar (later Ras al-Khaimah), soon extending their sway all along the lower Gulf, across areas of the east coast and towns on the Persian littoral.","date_from_description":"1700","date_to_description":"1700"},"b9624a6c-c148-5059-aa97-bb75b8d4815e":{"name":"Liberation wars","description":"The Liberation Wars (and the decisive Battle of Leipzig in 1913) were between Napoleon Bonaparte’s French troops and Central Europe; Napoleon is overthrown.","date_from_description":"1813","date_to_description":"1815"},"e8c1dc29-ee34-5f24-a0e2-af9d9bf7af11":{"description":"The Congress of Vienna restores the pre-Napoleonic fragmentation of Italian lands, and the hegemony of the Austrian Empire over the peninsula is sanctioned.","date_from_description":"1815"},"258c0bff-a9a9-5e51-af16-8f05e17c4a43":{"description":"The Pragmatic Sanction: Charles VI declared the heritability of the Habsburg crown in the female line in default of a male heir, and the indivisibility of the countries of the House of Habsburg. Plague endemics.","date_from_description":"1713"},"3b69be10-d58a-52a7-9805-ece6996337cb":{"description":"Roger II, governor of Sicily since 1112, is crowned King of Sicily and reigns until 1154.","date_from_description":"1130"},"26bcb535-5673-53d3-ad7f-5b58d2f25a57":{"description":"Cultural and economic exchange between the Italian states and Mamluk Syria, exemplified by Andreas Alpagos, physician of the Venetian consulate in Damascus, who translates many Arabic manuscripts.","date_from_description":"1491–1520"},"093ad85b-36a2-56f3-9f2f-c1793233d4d6":{"description":"The Ayyubid army leader Usama bin Mungidh erects Ajlun castle to counter the Crusader castle of Belvoir (Kawkab al-Hawa) to the west. In August of this year the Ayyubids besiege Karak Castle under the leadership of Salah al-Din (Saladin) the dynasty’s founder.","date_from_description":"1184"},"f9d06f35-e6e9-591b-bfb0-b9bebea912d2":{"name":"The Palestinian Mandate","description":"The letter from the British Foreign Secretary, Arthur Balfour, to Lord Rothschild in November 1917 offers British support to Zionist aspirations for Palestine to be a national home for Jews. This is internationally confirmed by the League of Nations handing over Palestine to Britain as a Mandate.","date_from_description":"1920","date_to_description":"1920"},"6f340f5a-d8bf-599e-8d60-2909d33f5e45":{"description":"The Abbasid family left al-Humayma in Jordan for Kufa in Iraq in order to lead the revolt against the Umayyads. Their plotting reaches a successful conclusion in this year.","date_from_description":"749"},"2aad596a-7b63-525c-8cce-41debbeaa7a4":{"description":"Al-Afdal Ibn Badr al-Jamali (d.515/1121), the commander-in-chief of the Fatimid armies completes the construction of the huge mosque of ‘Asqalan with its magnificent minbar (pulpit), which is exhibited to this day in the Ibrahimi Mosque in Hebron.","date_from_description":"1097"},"00f26137-b599-503d-96b8-cc9b88a52cfe":{"description":"Death of Miklós Zrínyi, great Hungarian commander in the Turkish wars. Turks defeated in the Battle of Szentgotthárd but the Habsburgs’ deplorable Peace of Vasvár causes Hungarian revolt.","date_from_description":"1664"},"a2ab2f86-d4d6-5d09-9e9f-dc2197107ed1":{"description":"Muhammad ibn Tughj rules Egypt autonomously under the title of al-Ikhshid given to him by the Abbasid Caliph.","date_from_description":"935"},"12eddebb-3b1f-53c0-8139-0b4499eeecf0":{"description":"Sulayman the Magnificent dies on his last expedition to the fort of Szigetvar on the Hungarian border and Selim II ascends the throne.","date_from_description":"1566"},"85c74932-11fc-5818-a400-b53441f61a78":{"name":"Beginning of reforms in the empire","description":"3 November: Mustafa Reşid Paşa declares the Imperial Rescript of Gülhane (the beginning of the Tanzimat reforms), granting basic rights to Ottoman subjects and declaring a policy of state reform. These reforms included the \"fair and public trial[s] of all accused regardless of religion”, the creation of a system of \"separate competences, religious and civil”, and the validity of non-Muslim testimony.","date_from_description":"1839","date_to_description":"1839"},"0e46db9d-a4fd-5082-8c26-25d11901cbed":{"description":"The Crusaders occupy Jordan and Palestine during their first campaign to the area until 1187.","date_from_description":"1099"},"78dd4d35-d6b9-5942-ab3e-7fd0b98349b5":{"description":"The Ottoman Empire's military strength and imperial patronage of religious and commercial buildings, especially in Damascus, by Lala Mustafa Pasha (1570), Darwish Pasha (1574) and Sinan Pasha (1589).","date_from_description":"1570–1590"},"c1191510-fdd8-540b-b777-5815e1913a56":{"description":"Wenceslas IV inherits Czech crown. Completion of the oldest Czech translation of the Bible. Klaret’s (Claretus) attempt to create Czech scholarly terminology. Discord among the king, his brothers and the aristocracy.","date_from_description":"1376"},"acb5324e-6ee9-50df-953c-ef7ed145490a":{"description":"The reign of the Lombards comes to an end. Charles King of the Franks takes Pavia and establishes Frankish rule in Northern Italy. The Duchy of Benevento and Venice remain independent.","date_from_description":"774"},"4c5520e5-28db-5680-8a1c-cad3e9a665c0":{"description":"Battle of Alcácer Quibir (also known as Battle of the Three Kings) during which King Sebastian dies.","date_from_description":"1578"},"7bdc11bd-0506-5fb4-8591-e9c1587220c0":{"name":"Sykes-Picot Treaty","description":"Sykes–Picot Agreement signed by the British, French and Russian governments on 16 May 1916 concerning the division of Ottoman lands in Greater Syria between the two colonial powers, the UK and France. According to this secret treaty southern Syria (Palestine and Jordan) and Iraq are to fall under British mandate and Syria and Lebanon under the French.","date_from_description":"1916","date_to_description":"1916"},"891e3bca-a1af-59b5-8bad-f06a6570abb5":{"description":"Sultan Barquq seizes power, establishing the Circassian Mamluk dynasty.Ibn Khaldun arrives in Egypt, where he lectures at al-Azhar and is appointed head of the Hanafite court of justice.","date_from_description":"1383"},"dd26595a-105c-5ac6-843c-4d0920f1aa0a":{"name":"Invasion of Algiers","description":"June–July: the invasion of Algiers.","date_from_description":"1830","date_to_description":"1830"},"d7c0ba86-2670-50a8-a0e9-229880d1cff3":{"description":"Around this time the portcullis gate in the Eketorp ring-fort on Öland falls for the last time. As far as we know, this gate, built around AD 400, was the first of its kind outside the Roman Empire.","date_from_description":"500"},"5f65d4d2-401d-512b-aa01-486fbc8f5134":{"description":"The Slavery Abolition Act makes slavery illegal throughout the British Empire, partly as a result of a ten-year campaign by evangelicals, quakers and methodists.","date_from_description":"1833"},"526938cd-a1ad-5502-b1e0-8baba34b9223":{"name":"Otto von Bismarck becomes Prussian prime minister","description":"Otto von Bismarck becomes prime minister of Prussia.","date_from_description":"1862","date_to_description":"1862"},"372f2dcd-a881-5181-ae34-488d9d454235":{"description":"John of Luxemburg marries Elizabeth Przemyslid. First Czech-langauge publication *Dalimil Chronicle* (1314); the first guild code in the Czech lands published (1318).","date_from_description":"1310"},"1c856a62-bfb9-5e4e-920b-d5a36439ae6f":{"description":"Council of Burgos abolishes the Mozarabic rite in favour of the Roman rite.","date_from_description":"1080"},"c300e0d4-21f2-5804-b91a-5e00d38022a5":{"description":"According to Annales Cambriae, the Battle of Camlann is fought between the forces of King Arthur and Mordred; both leaders are killed in the battle.","date_from_description":"537"},"a1f37412-001d-5ec1-a3f4-4c56a7a20c56":{"description":"Msila founded by the Fatimids.","date_from_description":"925"},"addd7ffb-1d9e-5390-9ecf-d4bae80076f7":{"description":"French expedition to Egypt, led by Napoleon, which continues for three years during which the first Arabic printing house was established in Egypt.","date_from_description":"1798"},"426811d5-e488-578e-bf2f-ed6b071df91f":{"name":"First parliament in the German history is being established","description":"Establishment of the first parliament in German history (at the Paulskirche, Frankfurt am Main), and elaboration of the German Imperial Constitution.","date_from_description":"1848","date_to_description":"1848"},"53e2a473-6218-53e4-ae36-e9634dbb30b1":{"description":"Abolition of slavery.","date_from_description":"1846"},"e5ec69f1-3f2a-58a8-9d89-34296fd7ca61":{"description":"Rumour has it that in this year King Hugleikr, possibly from what is Sweden today, was slain with all his men in Friesland by the Frankish, i.e. Merovingian, Prince Theodebert.","date_from_description":"521"},"cdb44628-286e-58a4-a172-35be0c6e4cef":{"description":"The fez is introduced, along with judicial, military and administrative reforms on more Western models in the Ottoman Empire.","date_from_description":"1828"},"f258c162-5afa-53dc-97a2-1a65f298faba":{"name":"Austria declared war against Serbia","description":"Austria declares war on Serbia in July: she is supported by Russia, France and Britain. Turkey and Bulgaria enter the war on the side of the German–Austrian Alliance.","date_from_description":"1914","date_to_description":"1914"},"701b3c4c-459b-54bc-af7e-fd494ad0988b":{"name":"Romania participates in the Second Balkan war","description":"In 1913 Romania participates in the Second Balkan War and under the Treaty of Bucharest receives the south of Dobruja from Bulgaria.","date_from_description":"1913","date_to_description":"1913"},"1f15d9fb-a195-5f6b-9f40-b3f1c20345ac":{"description":"The naval battle of Preveza off the Adriatic coast. Barbarossa defeats Genoese admiral Andrea Doria.","date_from_description":"1538"},"5bce1a44-ff42-5246-adff-a861e0eea35a":{"description":"The end of the Tulunids in Palestine.","date_from_description":"905"},"8989e4df-ee57-5979-ade0-7a8544768efb":{"description":"Spanish occupation of the Kingdom of Tunis and fall of the Hafsid princes.","date_from_description":"1535–1574"},"bdd92207-0f4c-5503-baf6-bb04dce976f4":{"description":"Arrival of Jesuits in Zagreb. In 1607 they established the Classical Gymnasium, the first gymnasium (high school) that still exists today.  \nArrival of the first pharmacist J. Gasparini in Zagreb.","date_from_description":"1606"},"20e3f2a9-16c9-5a27-a7ca-79342c290b07":{"description":"War with the USA. Loss of the last overseas territories (Cuba, Puerto Rico and Philippines).","date_from_description":"1898"},"47812d73-1765-51c9-a1f7-9106287d7a3c":{"description":"Tunis taken by the Ottoman privateer Barbarossa Khayr al-Din Pasha.","date_from_description":"1534"},"a2d7fd9a-de9f-53a2-8ead-7daca1751e64":{"description":"The Almoravid Sanhaja set out the conquer the Maghreb under the leadership of ‘Abdallah ibn Yassine.","date_from_description":"1054"},"57582bc6-4423-583c-942f-d77effb8e2f4":{"description":"Meeting at Mellalah (Béjaia) between the mahdi Ibn Tumart and ‘Abd al-Mu’min, founders of the Almohad dynasty.","date_from_description":"1117"},"21c22d2f-6ed1-5ec0-8eac-e1d12598e587":{"description":"Famous Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi (1611–82) was born in Istanbul.","date_from_description":"1611"},"0e9b8eb8-e957-5457-940d-eed66f32c54c":{"description":"The Convention Parliament restores Charles II to the English throne; the Indemnity Act pardons all except those who had signed Charles I’s death warrant, and they are hung, drawn and quartered.","date_from_description":"1660"},"0db574bc-e7a4-5ec9-a8f0-13f291ea264f":{"description":"The Battle of Kösedağ and the invasion of Anatolia by the Mongols.","date_from_description":"1243"},"2d648f71-76bf-5cd6-abf4-4e8acbf9fe43":{"description":"Coronation of King (St) László I who reforms Hungary’s legal codes, administrative and ecclesiastical system and life (1083: canonisation of King István and Prince Imre; 1092: synod of Szabolcs).","date_from_description":"1077"},"76612ecb-7de2-5f19-898c-9a0345125993":{"name":"San Remo Conference","description":"France takes control over Lebanese territory after the San Remo Conference.","date_from_description":"1920","date_to_description":"1920"},"9dbe88be-fa1c-5e79-b79f-e51460222b58":{"description":"The Tulunid dynasty collapses and Egypt reverts to direct Abbasid control.","date_from_description":"905"},"bfd763d5-09d1-5db0-8408-5e1f7fba178e":{"description":"On 3 September the Battle of ‘Ain Jalut takes place in Palestine between the Muslim Mamluks and the nomadic tribes of Mongols who defeated the Islamic world in the 13th century, destroying cities and killing citizens. 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The Treaty of Paris establishes the existence of an independent Romanian state.","date_from_description":"1851"},"a7c94de7-b5cb-5cd4-af7b-9f2d9b779252":{"description":"Baldwin I, the Crusader king of Jerusalem, erects a huge castle at Shawbak on a high mountain in Jordan in order to dominate the area, naming it Le Crac de Montreal.","date_from_description":"1115"},"c34053e8-373d-51c1-9459-84324ae6402b":{"description":"On the death of Henry I of England, his nephew Stephen of Blois stages a coup and seizes the English throne in place of Henry’s daughter and designated successor, the Empress Matilda.","date_from_description":"1135"},"1e25c1a1-f5e8-5679-972d-8d4abe2b9708":{"description":"Birth of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), who is seen as one of the foremost composers of concertos, cantatas and oratorios in the Western tonal tradition.","date_from_description":"1685"},"44f2f8e6-56eb-50ea-872a-14c2cdb51258":{"description":"King Charles XII (Karl XII) dies and is succeeded by his sister Ulrika Eleonora the Younger. 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Brno became the capital of Moravia.","date_from_description":"1648"},"e41e5dce-6445-59c9-bb41-416730136680":{"description":"In February mediation between ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib and Mu’awiya is held at Udhruh in southern Jordan after the battle of Siffin to decide who will be the caliph of Muslims. Mu’awiya wins by trickery.","date_from_description":"658"},"8f17df9c-3af3-55db-ba92-cc38b1e7b7c8":{"description":"Mua’yyad Shaykh retakes Syria and rules until his death in 824 / 1421.","date_from_description":"1412"},"b00bece1-e9ef-51c4-a46d-2ca684955112":{"description":"East India Company forces win the Battle of Plassey, placing control of Bengal in the hands of Great Britain; the victory achieves a significant presence in India for the British.","date_from_description":"1757"},"d1d1554b-3362-5368-9218-36949157048f":{"description":"The start of the new army Nizam-ı Cedid (New Order) by Selim III.","date_from_description":"1792"},"87651cd0-1b60-5e82-8132-362fb7bb320c":{"name":"Austria cooperated in the settlement","description":"Austria cooperates in a settlement to the Turkish–Egyptian crisis of 1840, sending intervention forces to conquer the Ottoman fortresses of Saida (Sidon) and St Jean d’Acre, and concluding with the Dardanelles Treaty signed at the London Straits Convention of 1841.","date_from_description":"1840","date_to_description":"1841"},"64d43c4e-1e03-5a4e-add5-79bdafe39326":{"description":"Voyage of Bartolomeu Dias around the south of Africa to the Indian Ocean. 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The replacement of the pro-Austrian Obrenović Dynasty by the pro-Russian House of Karađorđević under Peter I, changes the balance of power in the Balkans.","date_from_description":"1903","date_to_description":"1903"},"0e492afd-a496-5214-be48-1845eee3182d":{"description":"The French occupy the lands of the Papal States and proclaim the Roman Republic.","date_from_description":"1798"},"fc0145f9-4901-5066-af76-09df98b21db9":{"description":"Belvoir citadel (Kawkab al-Hawa) is built in a wave of citadel-building all over Palestine.","date_from_description":"1141"},"ce5ab688-36af-5c17-bf70-1f1c3171bc86":{"description":"Adherents of Martin Luther, the German religious reformer, appear in Prague. Outbreak of conflicts among Catholics, Utraquists and Lutherans. Anabaptists in Moravia.","date_from_description":"1519"},"984730ec-78ba-562d-aaa2-0a7e7716b621":{"description":"Manfred, son of Frederick II, becomes King of Sicily (1258–66).","date_from_description":"1258"},"b76ca99e-e559-5fdf-9a8b-04dce8d4dd75":{"name":"Berlin Conference was called by Portugal to regulate European colonization and convened by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck","description":"Berlin Conference called by Portugal to regulate European colonisation and convened by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. The Portuguese government presents the \"Pink Map”, a project uniting the colonies of Angola and Mozambique through the corridor of land that separates them. The proposal is rejected by England although endorsed by the majority of countries.","date_from_description":"1884","date_to_description":"1885"},"18b93719-ae33-55e3-a4bd-640d2059e998":{"name":"Muhammad Sadiq Bey promulgates a constitution","description":"Muhammad Sadiq Bey promulgates a constitution limiting his powers. Tunisia’s first constitution is the culmination of the reformist policies of the 19th-century Husaynid beys.","date_from_description":"1861","date_to_description":"1861"},"4d8c1c25-24e2-533a-84ea-3895341682a8":{"description":"Fall of Jerusalem to the Franks.","date_from_description":"1099"},"f195491d-369a-5107-b22f-925f5752f876":{"description":"Construction of the Djama’a al-Djedid mosque in Algiers, the first Hanafite mosque, inspired by Byzantine architecture.","date_from_description":"1660"},"4bf552ac-f39d-59d7-b9e6-ec494b60f204":{"description":"Under Duke Henry of Saxony the term ‘Kingdom of the Germans’ (Regnum teutonicum) is used for the first time.","date_from_description":"920"},"d8faf424-dbf7-5084-8268-7865f0071002":{"description":"Brief reign of Shajar al-Durr, widow of al-Salih Ayyub, as Sultana for 80 days.","date_from_description":"1250"},"8c86ef04-ea21-5362-a81f-96e5cdc55dca":{"description":"Birth of the ‘Abd al-Wadid Dynasty in Tlemcen and the long reign of Abu Yahya I ibn Zayyan, making Tlemcen an important commercial, cultural and spiritual centre in Central Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1236"},"551ebb0f-8760-5cad-a847-7b8053f88589":{"description":"Ottoman Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent orders the establishment of Ma’an pilgrimage station.","date_from_description":"1531"},"7eb302aa-f081-538b-a781-b0bc915391de":{"name":"Franco prussian war","description":"The Franco-Prussian War: France's defeat to Prussia results in the abdication of Napoleon III. Proclamation of the Third Republic.","date_from_description":"1870","date_to_description":"1870"},"4e477f9f-7e9e-5b5f-98d2-f95c52c6274c":{"name":"Development and rearmament","description":"Development and rearmament (*Aufrüstung*) of the German Navy.","date_from_description":"1898","date_to_description":"1900"},"8bcd27f3-c0ad-5d38-8347-1971bca6fcd5":{"name":"Bankruptcy of Greece","description":"Prime Minister Charilaos Trikoupis declares that Greece is bankrupt.","date_from_description":"1895","date_to_description":"1895"},"ba088189-fc32-514c-92f5-dbb368c7cfb4":{"description":"Fakhr al-Din al-Ma’ni II, a tribal ruler of Mount Lebanon and Western Syria, gains autonomy and attempts to by-pass Ottoman authority by signing a treaty with the Italian Tuscans.","date_from_description":"1603–1610"},"b529bd07-47c3-539d-9de7-789064fb5dfb":{"description":"Sultan Sulayman I besieges Szigetvár defended by Count Miklós Zrínyi who getting no help and with heavy odds against him dies with his soldiers in a sortie. The Sultan had died two days earlier.","date_from_description":"1566"},"a54850a0-2512-5381-82c2-2021586cfa21":{"description":"The first Swedish Court of appeal (Svea Hovrätt) is founded by King Gustavus Adolphus (Gustav II Adolf).","date_from_description":"1614"},"e4df6026-d90b-5d19-9f62-9e85843131a4":{"description":"Publication of El Quijote, by Miguel de Cervantes.","date_from_description":"1605"},"568ecb10-6968-5ecc-8936-673c7480eaeb":{"name":"Italian Risorgimento","description":"Italian “Risorgimento” (movement for national unification).","date_from_description":"1815","date_to_description":"1860"},"2f124f94-76c2-57a9-86cc-04e893c85b21":{"description":"Expulsion of the Byzantines and unification of the peninsular lands of the Visigoth Kingdom of Toledo.","date_from_description":"630"},"a57c5044-ff50-5ae3-a544-ddf51a5d82c3":{"description":"The first industrial exhibition in Klementinum, Prague. Beginnings of the Czech linguistics. Origins of the nationalist movement. Establishment of the Academy of Fine Arts in Prague (1799).","date_from_description":"1791"},"3a5c7b0e-5525-51cb-9a92-f7c14cf42418":{"description":"Croats establish the principalities of Primorska Hrvatska on the Adriatic Coast and Posavska Hrvatska in north Croatia.","date_from_description":"791"},"3f178cfd-a839-5dff-b912-dc73471fb7ee":{"description":"The invention of the printing machine with movable metal types by Johannes Gutenberg (c. 1398–c. 1468) results in the first printing of the Gutenberg Bible (Biblia Sacra) in 1455.","date_from_description":"1455"},"1adf1060-6f94-584f-acd2-4bbe43e3fbbe":{"name":"The Queen Regent, María Cristina, is forced to reinstate the 1812","description":"The Queen Regent, María Cristina, is forced to reinstate the 1812 Constitution after a military coup (*pronunciamiento*) in order to get support from the liberals in the First Carlist War. Under the Desamortización de Mendizábal Church properties are disentailed to fund the war. General Espartero takes over the Regency from the Queen in 1841.","date_from_description":"1836","date_to_description":"1836"},"c7e39669-756d-5628-a85e-5f6e63e52e37":{"description":"A treaty is made between the Roman Empire and the Ghassanids, a Christian Arab tribe settled in southern Syria and Damascus, in order to defend the eastern frontiers against the Persians.","date_from_description":"502"},"68099065-5a0b-5db3-b89d-67cf2f079a0a":{"description":"Start of the Avignon Papacy: under the direct influence of the King of France, the popes set up the papal residence in Avignon.","date_from_description":"1309"},"a5b46708-9432-5415-8f45-474e2c94e280":{"description":"Battle of Lipany, defeat of the Hussites. Sigismund of Luxemburg crowned Czech king (1436). The Basle “Compacts” acknowledging the communion of bread and wine.","date_from_description":"1434"},"a52dcdb9-fca4-5934-aa06-beb9ba79bc0a":{"description":"An earthquake destroys half of Ramla, most of Jericho and Nablus, and causes some damage in Jerusalem. A year later, the Fatimid Caliph al-Zahir (r. 1021–36) orders reconstruction of the Aqsa Mosque and repair of the Dome of the Rock.","date_from_description":"1034"},"bb06b73c-f591-5a2b-991b-6707ab102939":{"description":"The authority of the Hungarian-Croatian parliament over Croatian internal legal questions is acknowledged at the joint council at Požun.","date_from_description":"1714–15"},"4158faf2-bdc2-5dce-b596-c5084591557f":{"name":"First World War","description":"World War I is declared and fought.","date_from_description":"1914","date_to_description":"1918"},"654a2977-9950-5731-a830-9fab6a5d5cc3":{"name":"War against Greeks in western Anatolia","description":"30 August: Final battle in western Anatolia results in the collapse of the Greek army.","date_from_description":"1923","date_to_description":"1923"},"976ca7cb-265a-5998-8ae5-7250fc2ed750":{"name":"Carlist party rises three times in three dynastic wars against the State","description":"As a consequence of political instability and of a woman taking over the rule of Spain, the deeply conservative and ultra-Catholic Carlist party rises three times in three dynastic wars against the State (1836–39, 1846–49 and 1872–76).","date_from_description":"1836","date_to_description":"1876"},"b3e9340f-746f-5f40-8598-469c96c12b25":{"description":"The Golden Bull becomes the first constitution of the empire by which the German emperor is chosen by seven electors.","date_from_description":"1356"},"2a28984c-7460-524b-babb-a5502f9b5da7":{"description":"The inauguration of the first railway between Jaffa and Jerusalem","date_from_description":"1892"},"22b37828-9479-5d5b-96eb-d2063238fae1":{"description":"The Hanseatic League, an alliance of trading guilds from the cities of Lübeck, Hamburg, Wismar and Rostock is officially founded.","date_from_description":"1259"},"977b1c25-67c0-5e7f-88f4-033570cb4b2e":{"name":"Carol de Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen ruler of the United Principalities","description":"14–20 April: plebiscite leading to German Prince Carol de Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen being elected ruler of the United Principalities and recognised by the Ottoman Empire in October. 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The British launch naval attacks against the Qawasim strongholds at Ras al-Khaimah along the Gulf and on the Persian littoral. However, the Qawasim succeed in rebuilding their fleet and positions to resume their defensive trade-war against the British and their Omani allies.","date_from_description":"1809","date_to_description":"1810"},"1a506441-db7f-5726-acfc-932b10d3a7b1":{"description":"Al-Mahdi's son, Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid, the protagonist of many tales in the ‘1001 nights’, moves his court to al-Raqqa, which becomes the ‘Abbasid capital for the next 12 years.","date_from_description":"796-808"},"636b3bef-07bf-57f9-843a-faeefcb32adb":{"description":"The battle of ‘Ain Jalut, the first defeat of the Mogul armies and the rise of the Mamluk power in Greater Syria in addition to Egypt.","date_from_description":"1260"},"10bf9640-3d11-572b-9725-3e5d4d8eccb4":{"name":"Mulay Sulayman","description":"At the beginning of his reign, Mulay Sulayman adopts a policy to isolate the country, excluding contact with the European and even Turkish worlds. 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Buffalini from Urbino which displays features of developed Roman Baroque.","date_from_description":"1671"},"6d4f9ede-e846-50b7-b846-12f530be1e23":{"description":"It was around this time that the first Viking expeditions to the East, conducted by people who called themselves Svear (Swedes), are successful enough to bring home the first Arabic silver coins.","date_from_description":"800"},"f2e97bee-ecc2-5dd8-9315-3224384abab6":{"name":"The Austrian republic is founded in Vienna","description":"Emperor Charles I renounces his participation to the government of Germany-Austria (Deutsch Österreich). The Austrian republic is founded in Vienna.","date_from_description":"1918","date_to_description":"1918"},"66283311-38ae-55c1-9fb3-7a442949d310":{"name":"Austria ceded Lombardy but not Venetia to Napoleon III","description":"At the Peace of Zürich (10 November) Austria cedes Lombardy, but not Venetia, to Napoleon III; in turn, Napoleon hands the province over to the Kingdom of Sardinia.","date_from_description":"1859","date_to_description":"1859"},"9920fb8a-96c7-5363-9af9-de70d2143d3e":{"name":"Formation of Serbian Duchy Vojvodina","description":"The Serbian uprising against the Austrian monarchy sees the formation of *Srpsko Vojvodstvo* (the Serbian Duchy). Stevan Knićanin-Vojvoda (military commander) commands Serbian volunteers during the Hungarian Revolution (1848–49).","date_from_description":"1848","date_to_description":"1848"},"bc9ad394-a1da-54aa-8d59-da7b490761ae":{"description":"Sulayman I the Great occupies Buda. Hungary torn into three parts: Turkish *vilajet* (province); Upper Hungary under Ferdinand I; the rest under Queen Isabella and János II (János Zsigmond), son of the Queen and János I.","date_from_description":"1541"},"900cd715-30bd-5aa2-a41c-89b6ad4b1a55":{"description":"‘Abd al-Mu’min restores Tlemcen.","date_from_description":"1131"},"788dca06-e404-5193-be41-f794901f648b":{"description":"The land of Thuringia is conquered by rulers of the Merovingian Dynasty with the help of the Saxons.","date_from_description":"531"},"28ecf140-0f7f-5f9d-b485-35516c1bee43":{"description":"The arrival at Ma’an of the Hijazi Railway line from Damascus is celebrated on 1 September, on the anniversary of the accession of Sultan ‘Abd al Hamid II to the throne.","date_from_description":"1904"},"0948125d-276f-50a5-87be-a47f18ec6b58":{"description":"The Commune of Rome is born, an expression of the nascent communal civility that will have a profound effect on Italian cultural identity.","date_from_description":"1143"},"a165c9bb-32b7-5499-9d94-b7888b6bd79d":{"description":"Dagobert I, King of Austrasia, creates a united Frankish kingdom with its capital in Paris. With the help of the future Saint Eligius, his precarious reign lasts for about ten years.","date_from_description":"629"},"b22c9412-b81d-541c-ac67-550c7b3423fa":{"description":"Treaty of Tordesillas: division of the lands discovered and to be discovered in the Eastern, Portuguese, hemisphere and the Western, Spanish, hemisphere.","date_from_description":"1494"},"e6a20dd3-2812-51b6-b796-4a720035fc27":{"description":"The Highland Clearances, where tenants are evicted to make way for sheep farming, result in thousands of Scots emigrating to America, Australia, New Zealand and Canada between 1763 and 1775.","date_from_description":"1763"},"433360bc-e2c9-5614-a09f-7d06bf6e2a56":{"name":"A series of incidents provoke the intervention of the French army","description":"A series of incidents provoke the intervention of the French army when in August 1907 the French land in Casablanca and occupy Oujda, Casablanca and Fez, despite opposition from Germany.","date_from_description":"1907","date_to_description":"1912"},"592ec00c-9384-51ec-9937-eace81147978":{"name":"Treaty Britain-Morocco","description":"In 1856 a treaty is signed, initiated by Britain in order to strengthen its influence over Morocco and to maintain its naval supremacy in the Mediterranean, which hugely undermines Moroccan sovereignty. This treaty wrested control over the extent of European penetration away from the governing institution of Morocco the Makhzen. The advantages gained by European traders, combined with their superior technique and the quantity of capital behind them, enabled then to monopolise most of the sea trade and to reduce Moroccan players to mere intermediaries.","date_from_description":"1856","date_to_description":"1856"},"fde54950-5fd5-5b9b-9601-8073f41c898c":{"description":"The Treaty of Northampton officially acknowledges Scottish independence, which in 1320 had been recognised by the papacy following the Declaration of Arbroath.","date_from_description":"1328"},"cde4a42a-7836-5f60-bcf4-af77253199ed":{"description":"Beginning of the Rif War. Tragic Week in Barcelona, with protests against the sending of Catalan reservists to the war in Africa.","date_from_description":"1909"},"a243ad19-d20c-5f94-b415-81b04e7a6c36":{"name":"Jordan was a part of the Ottoman Syria","description":"Jordan is a part of Ottoman Syria. 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The ceremony was in Lund, which was then Danish but is now a town in southern Sweden. Stefan was ordained by the Danish archbishop Eskil on 5 August and Pope Alexander III was among the participants. Stefan’s see was in Uppsala. He went to work immediately and one of his letters from 1165 still exists. This is the oldest preserved letter in Sweden. It is written in Latin.","date_from_description":"1164"},"5ea85de4-6ad1-5da8-80e7-e340d86d1aab":{"name":"The Republic is proclaimed in Lisbon on 5 October.","description":"The Republic is proclaimed in Lisbon on 5 October. King Manuel II is forced to exile in England together with his mother Queen Amelia who ends up in her homeland France. A Provisional Government is set up, headed by Teófilo Braga, a well-known respected jurist and writer. 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He sets up an authoritarian regime by coup d'état (December 1851), and declares himself emperor in 1852.","date_from_description":"1848","date_to_description":"1852"},"ea03b14b-4d46-52b3-9829-7c5d67ea667d":{"description":"Draught and famine in Egypt because of the low Nile flood and more than 17,500 persons die that year.","date_from_description":"1296"},"ff2f7b63-df5b-5738-8a4e-4afa91239df1":{"description":"Maria Theresa ascends throne (d. 1780). Invasion of the Prussian army leads to inheritance wars over the Czech crown. Unifying style known as ’Pragmatic Sanction in art’.","date_from_description":"1740"},"458024a5-91ec-5bdd-8a07-af31da303332":{"description":"Venice conquers Karlobag attacking Novi Vinodolski, the city of the Frankopans. 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Opening of the southern sea routes.","date_from_description":"1701"},"7a6c3010-26aa-5cf1-a20e-8c9f84d04c4d":{"description":"The Croatian People’s Peasants’ Party – from 7 December Republican Peasants’ Party – led by Stjepan Radić refuses to acknowledge the monarchy and leads Croats to ethnic and political emancipation.","date_from_description":"1920"},"97f3fb7e-3209-5e2c-a5bb-df21a46512a1":{"description":"At the synod (church assembly) at Uppsala this year it is decided to keep Sweden in the Lutheran faith, banning foreign religions in the country.","date_from_description":"1593"},"cafcedd7-d08c-58c0-88a0-9afe6f78d930":{"name":"Ibrahim Pasha was forced to retreat to Egypt","description":"Bilad al-Sham (Greater Syria, including Jordan) is under Ibrahim Pasha who is ruling on behalf of his father, Muhammad 'Ali of Egypt. 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Wallace goes into hiding but is captured in 1305 and executed in London for treason.","date_from_description":"1298"},"e450d568-2f2e-5dca-b923-c611fabdfc18":{"description":"In January the inhabitants of Pella sign a covenant with the new Muslim rulers after the battle of Fihl (Pella) agreeing to pay poll and land taxes; the transition from Byzantine to Islamic rule at Pella was peaceful and uninterrupted.","date_from_description":"635"},"0938b094-9d19-5539-847a-deaa3b19396c":{"description":"Military disaster at Annual in northeastern Morocco during the African conflict.","date_from_description":"1921"},"da43fca1-5998-517d-be0a-aa3e6869443a":{"description":"Musa ibn Nossayr becomes the first governor of Ifriqiya.","date_from_description":"705"},"2ab34570-1028-519d-900b-b19f23b80e8a":{"description":"During the rule of the Merovingian Dynasty (558–629), rulers of the Frankish Dynasty gradually gain power over parts of what will later become Germany.","date_from_description":"558"},"ab9f145d-ab63-598c-827f-553071bb33c2":{"description":"War between France and the European monarchies. Proclamation of the French Republic.","date_from_description":"1793"},"f4651af3-bcb4-5c95-994b-774c069af48e":{"description":"Roger I of Hautville (1072–1101) begins the conquest of Sicily against the Arabs, which is completed in 1091.","date_from_description":"1061"},"d8d9d642-a711-5136-bdad-fe9e9688f1da":{"description":"Deposition and exile of the last sultan, Mehmed Vahiduddin.","date_from_description":"1922"},"6c1930cf-088a-5c20-9e5a-8bbd43461b7e":{"name":"Queen Maria II","description":"Queen Maria II (1819–53) regains the crown after her father’s death and the liberals’ victory. The Queen has to cope with the transition from absolutism to constitutionalism and disputes between opposing factions, conservatives on one side (Cartismo supporters of the 1826 Charter) and radicals on the other (Vintismo defenders of the Constitution of 1822).","date_from_description":"1834","date_to_description":"1836"},"f8ab46ce-bcc2-511a-850d-f38946c479f9":{"description":"On 5 July Salah al-Din (Saladin) wins a great victory at Hittin over the Christian Frankish troops; he went on to destroy the power of the Crusaders in Palestine and Jordan.","date_from_description":"1187"},"d192615b-1534-5d7d-adf1-b637a02711eb":{"description":"Execution of the leaders of the Wesselényi revolt against the Habsburgs. All needs of the Austrian armies based in Hungary paid for by Hungary causing paupery. Continuing oppression of Protestants.","date_from_description":"1671"},"79af730b-ca67-5371-a316-30f78c8396eb":{"description":"Catholicism becomes the official religion of the Visigoth Kingdom of Toledo.","date_from_description":"589"},"627c032e-d1d5-5cea-adb2-a0a4eb3e15f3":{"description":"War of Catalonia and Portuguese secession.","date_from_description":"1640"},"bf236d04-4009-51bb-ad6b-4483bda35b4a":{"description":"Under the influence of Saint-Simonian Ismail Urban, Napoleon III applies his ‘Arab kingdom’ policy in Algeria.","date_from_description":"1860"},"db3cf6a9-5343-5856-9f86-57ba82b813a3":{"description":"The siege of Siget. Nikola Šubić Zrinski holds out against the army of the Sultan Sulayman I and falls during the last attack.","date_from_description":"1566"},"3791815a-9bf9-5eca-a777-ee474a6db196":{"description":"On 25–28 January Emperor Henry IV (1056–1106) of the Salian Dynasty is forced on a walk of penitence to Canossa to beg forgiveness of Pope Gregor VII and to accept him as arbitrator. The Way (or Walk) to Canossa refers to the walk itself and the events surrounding his journey.","date_from_description":"1077"},"bf2a3eee-32a7-59e6-a08f-d1f67a936713":{"description":"Algiers founded by Buluggin ibn Ziri.","date_from_description":"960"},"fa9e3a30-f855-5391-954a-d0a6594bc53e":{"description":"Election of Gábor Bethlen (Protestant Transylvanian prince) as King of Hungary. He leads a freedom fight against the Habsburgs and brings cultural and economic prosperity to Transylvania.","date_from_description":"1620"},"2305d7b6-00ab-52e6-8465-2a991867a6f4":{"name":"Abdication of Napoleon I","description":"Abdication of Napoleon I on 6 April sees the end of the First French Empire (1804–14).","date_from_description":"1814","date_to_description":"1814"},"56ad7d25-7c26-56a7-a9a4-c9f725bec018":{"description":"Vandal occupation and the Berber kingdom of the Djeddars.","date_from_description":"500"},"fcaa4990-56bd-58ef-9e83-96246178abfd":{"description":"Abbasid Caliph al-Mahdi (r. 775–85) visits Palestine and Jerusalem, ordering restoration of damage caused by an earthquake in 775.","date_from_description":"779"},"851486b5-b95c-5b54-ad89-2f7a1ad4914c":{"description":"A general strike is called after a period of recession, reduced wages and lockouts.","date_from_description":"1909"},"3d728eba-aff4-5a4f-86da-605c78b0b4c9":{"description":"The Capitulations afford French ships and subjects the freedom of the Ottoman Empire. French consuls gain the right to judge their compatriots in criminal and civil courts. Trade is greatly facilitated.","date_from_description":"1535"},"58310e59-46aa-5b4e-bc32-362f0b4fed0a":{"name":"Jamal Pasha","description":"Turkish commander Jamal Pasha initiates a blockade of the entire eastern Mediterranean coast. Lebanon witnesses thousands of deaths from widespread famine and plague.","date_from_description":"1915","date_to_description":"1915"},"cbd2db7e-72ef-5012-a5f3-845860281f0e":{"description":"To suppress the Ahmad Orabi rising the British Fleet bombards Alexandria. 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Establishment of first (Benedictine) monasteries and Prague bishopric (974). Foundation of the Czech state under the Przemyslid dynasty.","date_from_description":"965"},"84f53825-ab39-583f-b00b-4fbdcb2972f8":{"description":"Charles I of Spain made Holy Roman Emperor (Charles V).  \nRevolt in the Germanias.","date_from_description":"1519"},"2d7d9a59-43ed-5170-a1ad-4e0390ae0f19":{"name":"Italy participates in WWI on the side of Britain, France and Russia","description":"Italy participates in World War I on the side of the UK, France and Russia, despite widespread opposition to entering the war. On the Austrian front, Italy suffers a crushing defeat at Caporetto in 1917, but wins in 1918. In Libya, Arab revolt: Italy keeps control only of coastal towns. Casualties are 650,000 military deaths, 950,000 wounded, 600,000 prisoners of war or missing.","date_from_description":"1915","date_to_description":"1918"},"87c22453-97fc-510d-8609-c93ccb1d12bb":{"description":"The first Normans arrive in Southern Italy.","date_from_description":"1009"},"b9f3c4da-72a6-5963-a86e-8c41d7515200":{"name":"Dreyfus Affair","description":"The Dreyfus Affair: Captain Dreyfus is unjustly accused of espionage, is militarily degraded, and then deported at the end of the trial. The writer Émile Zola denounces this situation in a pamphlet entitled *J’accuse*. The case divides France; it is recognised that Dreyfus is innocent.","date_from_description":"1894","date_to_description":"1898"},"93eeb569-6e0c-523e-a5aa-5b5d8226c6c2":{"description":"Beginning of Entente Cordiale between France and England, resulting in the division of the Mediterranean and recognition of England’s influence in Egypt and France’s influence in Morocco. The 1912 Franco-Moroccan Agreement establishes a French protectorate in Morocco.","date_from_description":"1904"},"448e2952-7f34-5034-9f9b-bf57836f2d10":{"description":"Expulsion of the Jews and the Muslims.","date_from_description":"1496"},"9c76674a-4fbb-556b-b357-81a0dc29adaf":{"description":"Albigensian Crusade against Cathars established in southern France triggers the conquest of the Languedoc by barons from the north of France. The Kingdom of France experiences an unprecedented period of economic and cultural expansion.","date_from_description":"1208"},"61264f6f-b22b-5433-93a5-c21f758f3450":{"description":"Phillip III orders the expulsion of Moors from his kingdoms.","date_from_description":"1609"},"1b07e539-903c-5a05-b20b-eb21d9f608de":{"description":"Abu al-Alaa al-Ma'arri, blind Syrian poet, dies. His most famous literary work, Risalat al-Ghufran (Letter of Forgiveness), inspires Dante Alighieri’s Divine Comedy three centuries later.","date_from_description":"1058"},"3203faf7-f674-56b8-9ff5-abe8897e67c3":{"description":"King Otto II (r. 973–83) marries the Byzantine princess Theophanu and Byzantine influence enters German art and culture.","date_from_description":"972"},"5480a2e9-b3cf-5698-8812-798710f49173":{"name":"World War I","description":"On 25 July, at the onset of World War I, ‘Abbas Hilmi II is in Constantinople where he suffers wounds to his hands and cheeks during a failed assassination attempt. On 5 November of that same year, when Britain declares war on Turkey, ‘Abbas is accused of deserting his country because he did not return home forthwith. In addition, because the British believe that he has been plotting against their rule, when the Ottoman Empire joins the central powers in the war, Britain declares Egypt an independent Sultanate under British Protectorate on 18 December, and ‘Abbas is deposed.","date_from_description":"1914","date_to_description":"1914"},"bdc520c0-d465-57f8-94ca-4cb5e75dd289":{"description":"The Muslims begin the conquest of Spain under the leadership of Tarik ibn Ziyad.","date_from_description":"711"},"ebbd957d-2247-5a2c-a0ca-239a804b4a25":{"name":"Colonial rivalries: the Moroccan crisis","description":"Colonial rivalries: the Moroccan crisis brings about a new raft of trade agreements between the English and the French, with the participation of the Spanish, sharing out Morocco and Egypt, which is greeted with dismay by Moroccans.","date_from_description":"1907","date_to_description":"1907"},"6ac1e7a4-0763-567a-9aab-392a58ec9f2a":{"description":"Promulgation of a charter during the reign of Muhammad Pasha Bey guaranteeing the rights of his Tunisian subjects and people living in Tunisia.","date_from_description":"1857"},"2dfede66-08ea-5b14-998b-45bb3c2c24ce":{"description":"A moribund Idrisid Morocco vacillates between the Umayyads of al-Andalus and the Fatimids of Ifriqiya for 27 years.","date_from_description":"836"},"53ea5d1e-6589-5473-abc2-37eb450a38d0":{"name":"Visit of Ottoman Sultan to France and Britain","description":"The 1850s and 1860s sees close political, commercial and cultural relations between the Ottoman Empire and Britain. The zenith of this relationship is the state visit of Ottoman Sultan ‘Abd al-‘Aziz to France and then Britain. The Prince of Wales then reciprocates with a visit to Constantinople, Damascus and Jerusalem in 1869.","date_from_description":"1867","date_to_description":"1867"},"157c2813-3d90-50aa-a7d3-6fe4e265eb85":{"description":"The Ayyubids capture the Crusader castles of Karak and Shawbak, ending the Crusaders’ rule in Jordan.","date_from_description":"1189"},"535178d2-75c5-5c3e-a065-3ec6deee5020":{"description":"Pope Alexander III’s papal bull Manifestis Probatum recognises the king of Portugal.","date_from_description":"1179"},"001c8856-52f3-584e-ae67-7431d385a9b0":{"name":"Greece wins Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria","description":"Under the leadership of King Constantine I and Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos, Greece defeats the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria during the Balkan Wars.","date_from_description":"1901","date_to_description":"1903"},"3c91edce-1d52-54ad-82bd-d17232131431":{"name":"Municipal organization for Istanbul","description":"The Tanzimat Council appoints a City Ordering Commission (Intizam-ı Şehir Heyeti), comprising Ottoman and foreign residents, charged with developing new regulation to transform the structure of Instanbul into a municipal government. It recommends establishment of a commission to enforce urban regulations and improve the city's physical make-up, financed through a separate tax structure.","date_from_description":"1854","date_to_description":"1854"},"33d1073a-c0cd-567b-a9e8-7aaae1de3e6a":{"name":"Crimean War","description":"War between Russia and the Ottoman Empire and its allies France, UK and Piedmont-Savoy. The Crimean War is a consequence of rivalry over the Eastern Question and France’s support of Catholic claims and Russia’s support of Orthodox claims to control the holy sites in Jerusalem. Russia seeks to exploit Ottoman political weakness to gain diplomatic rights for Orthodox subjects of the Empire. Peace established by the Treaty of Paris (1856).","date_from_description":"1853","date_to_description":"1856"},"efc21828-9124-5e11-9771-508147e2ab25":{"name":"Death of King Alfonso XII","description":"Death of King Alfonso XII. Alfonso XIII born posthumously. Pacto de El Pardo: agreement between liberals and conservatives to rule the country by turns. Regency of Queen María Cristina until 1902 when King Alfonso XIII comes of age.","date_from_description":"1885","date_to_description":"1885"},"fa3f1f07-d3b6-5a96-9e8f-4bcbc686594f":{"description":"A cast of Turkish soldiers (deys) from Istanbul govern the Regency of Tunis.","date_from_description":"1574–1612"},"ecde9fa3-39ac-5cad-8542-8c81a363ddf5":{"description":"Ottoman Empire declares bankruptcy. Balkan uprisings.","date_from_description":"1875"},"75ab6cf4-67be-510f-9810-3d8d239173a7":{"description":"Amir Ziri ibn Atiya of the Maghrawa takes Fez.","date_from_description":"991"},"963e3689-f49e-516d-953b-972e7f9e5da2":{"description":"A professorial chair of Semitic languages is established at Uppsala University. It is the oldest chair of Semitic languages in Sweden.","date_from_description":"1605"},"4feb54ce-0f2f-5592-8f51-c16b2b766eea":{"description":"In Ireland, half the potato crop fails followed by almost the entire crop of 1846; around one million people subsequently die in the Irish Famine between 1845 and 1851.","date_from_description":"1845"},"7aeb2f08-5d28-5ee1-a897-67339824e4f1":{"description":"The Porta Pia Breach: on 20 September, the Sardinian army liberates Rome, annexing the city and the Papal States to the Kingdom of Italy. The unification of Italy is complete","date_from_description":"1870"},"90bfa0dd-40ce-568a-9055-6506205b8c6f":{"description":"Ifriqiya is invaded by Hilalian tribes from Egypt. 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Publication of *Harmonia Coelestis* composed by Prince Pál Esterházy, Palatine of Hungary.","date_from_description":"1711"},"8b2181da-e6d7-56c0-8fd9-a5101b4879eb":{"description":"Issue of the Charter of Felicianus mentioning the founder of the Diocese, King Ladislas, the first bishop of Zagreb, Bishop Duh, and other clergy.","date_from_description":"1134"},"1962e747-521f-5cfa-a679-5538e2d26bce":{"description":"Foundation of the town of Mahdia, capital of the Fatimids.","date_from_description":"921"},"8c0ca8b9-fbea-5d31-a1a5-403cace11fd7":{"description":"Enlightenment leads to the creation, under the Grand Duke of Tuscany Pietro Leopoldo (1765–90), of a new penal code. 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During Medieval times Hungary was its most extensive under his rule. Compilation of a Hungarian chronicle, the Képes Krónika (Illustrated Chronicle).","date_from_description":"1358"},"7f0247de-f0bf-5359-855d-9d7d6cfdb6e5":{"description":"Birth of the illustrious scholar Ibn Arfa.","date_from_description":"1316"},"ac405094-1617-53c9-b850-3eecd1e25865":{"description":"St Columba and a small group of monks sail from Ireland to the west coast of Scotland. They establish a monastery that becomes the head of the Celtic church in Britain and a major political centre.","date_from_description":"563"},"39331e52-56f9-57b3-aa21-c246025ffb0f":{"description":"Death of Louis XIV. 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The pact guarantees Tunisians and also foreigners their civil and political rights, security of persons and properties, equality before the law, etc.","date_from_description":"1857","date_to_description":"1857"},"398a51cb-b12c-5007-9180-fe06cc51a912":{"description":"Abu Inan builds the Buinaniya madrasa in Fez, where Marinid decorative arts find their full aesthetic expression.","date_from_description":"1350"},"53111dfb-b9b9-5f55-9240-9b6e026d8d53":{"description":"Galileo is tried by the Inquisition for his scientific theories.","date_from_description":"1633"},"4fd74db0-e844-5e21-9d9e-dfa3dda881be":{"description":"Dubrovnik recognises the authority of Venice, which will last until 1358. In that period Dubrovnik was obliged to pay Venice annual tribute and to accept Venetians as its dukes and archbishops.","date_from_description":"1205"},"d5152fda-76e7-5dae-a0d9-1d2f36e55fc6":{"description":"The King of France, Charles VI, is afflicted by madness. 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The first permanent cinema.","date_from_description":"1907"},"f165063a-aa20-5646-b298-4a2c2325198e":{"description":"The entire Umayyad court is massacred by the ‘Abbasids, except for ‘Abd al-Rahman bin Mu‘awiya who escapes from Syria to al-Andalus (Spain) and founds there a line continuing the Umayyad dynasty.","date_from_description":"750"},"44b77875-cbba-5a35-a2f4-48014c5867ec":{"description":"On the initiative of the Council of Trent the Bishop of Zagreb, Juraj Drašković, establishes the Zagreb Seminary (Seminarium Clericorum) to promote theology.","date_from_description":"1565"},"76cf902a-1193-599d-aede-2794482c58be":{"name":"Edirne retaken","description":"23 July: Edirne retaken by the Ottoman Army under the command of Enver Paşa.","date_from_description":"1913","date_to_description":"1913"},"26a2c361-31dc-55a0-87ad-7487948ea18a":{"description":"The wedding of King Lajos II and Mary Habsburg (Mary leaves Hungary after the deaths of Lajos II and as Mary of Hungary later becomes the governor of the Low Countries).","date_from_description":"1522"},"73ce346b-a7ba-59c9-9d97-77f864f326b8":{"description":"Charles II lands in Scotland and is proclaimed King of Scotland, but two years later Scotland is occupied by Cromwellian forces, and incorporated into the Commonwealth.","date_from_description":"1650"},"41c83dd7-921e-5b8b-b4a6-27f412fa3e00":{"description":"Chlothar I, son of Clovis, becomes the sole ruler of the Franks, having previously shared his kingdom with his brothers.","date_from_description":"558"},"9bb23d04-4eb9-5a0b-99fb-b6e49c6ba414":{"description":"Almohad victory over the Christians at the Battle of Alarcos (Ciudad Real).","date_from_description":"1195"},"d30aeb41-22eb-5171-b465-98b2ac76c327":{"description":"Death of the historian Ibn Khaldun.","date_from_description":"1406"},"44829943-397f-50a4-acae-5a65332f8c8c":{"description":"Jesuits build the Church of St Catherine in Zagreb, from its architecture and inventory one of the most outstanding Jesuit churches in Croatia.","date_from_description":"1620"},"04542783-0f79-581a-afc4-9ffd350ba514":{"name":"British Occupation of Egypt","description":"Britain also acquires indirect control over Egypt, with an occupying army and control over Egyptian finances and administration. Egyptian tourism flourishes and with it a superficial economic development – an affluent class, construction of railways and building projects. However, European cultural influences in Egypt are mostly French.","date_from_description":"1882","date_to_description":"1882"}}
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Turks defeated in the Battle of Szentgotthárd but the Habsburgs’ deplorable Peace of Vasvár causes Hungarian revolt.","date_from_description":"1664"},"0122123e-63bc-54b7-b032-d30da0fb5de7":{"description":"The foundation of the Ottoman Empire.","date_from_description":"1299"},"01372f83-ca10-5ef4-866f-abb829d2045a":{"description":"Italy’s first parliament is inaugurated in Turin. Victor Emanuel II, King of Sardinia (1849–61), becomes the first king of Italy (1861–78).","date_from_description":"1861"},"0150d888-aaf3-5a0d-8e08-1bc069c2d2cb":{"name":"The Italian army captures Rome","description":"In 1870, taking advantage of French defeat at the hands of Prussia, the Italian army captures Rome, which becomes the capital of Italy. The Pope considers Italian rule on Rome to be illegitimate and bans Catholics from participating in Italian political life. In the following decades the ban is progressively lifted to counter socialist growth.","date_from_description":"1870","date_to_description":"1912"},"0195a905-bb4f-5e13-b237-f98ad8774abe":{"description":"Victory of Selim I the Grim over Shah Ismail at the Battle of Çaldıran.","date_from_description":"1514"},"01abf43a-c670-559b-8424-96f9384c2c44":{"description":"Edward the Elder, King of England, wins a decisive victory against the Danes at Tettenhall in Staffordshire and extends his kingdom north to the Humber estuary.","date_from_description":"910"},"01b6aded-ecb9-54cd-9373-b8298b8164cb":{"description":"The Abbasid Caliph Abu Ja’far al-Mansur (r. 754–75) visits Palestine, stays in Jerusalem and orders a renovation project in the Haram al-Sharif and elsewhere, damaged as a result of the earthquake","date_from_description":"758"},"01b860d5-66df-5df2-847b-12a9e31906c3":{"description":"Death of Katip Çelebi (1609–57), famous Turkish geographer, historian and bibliographer.","date_from_description":"1657"},"01c4ef6b-4b90-50a4-8386-a6c9459347cd":{"description":"Berber insurrections threaten the Byzantine army, which suffered repeated setbacks.","date_from_description":"534–548"},"01ca3cd0-5cf6-5255-80ea-9d687b6979f7":{"description":"Hungarian King Ladislaus Pohrobek takes the Czech throne. 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Contract signed to build the first permanent bridge (today: Széchenyi Lánchíd) between Buda and Pest initiated by Count István Széchenyi.","date_from_description":"1838"},"0db574bc-e7a4-5ec9-a8f0-13f291ea264f":{"description":"The Battle of Kösedağ and the invasion of Anatolia by the Mongols.","date_from_description":"1243"},"0dbef608-f76a-5bbf-b4a4-4896564ff2b0":{"description":"First war of independence: Charles Albert of Savoy, King of Sardinia (1831–49) leads a coalition of Italian states to drive the Austrians from the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia.","date_from_description":"1848"},"0dc18487-63ca-5bca-833e-1deec0c2fc99":{"name":"Contesting the union of Transilvania with Hungary","description":"In 1892 a delegation of 237 Romanians sends Emperor Franz Joseph a Memorandum protesting against the discriminatory effects of the union of Transylvania with Hungary (1867). 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Charles University made over to the Jesuits.","date_from_description":"1620"},"103bfb7f-3909-5a55-9170-c2bc8871d5a9":{"description":"Golden Bull of Sicily: Roman King Friedrich II defines the relationship between Czech kings and the Holy Roman Empire. The Czech king becomes one of seven electors privileged to elect the Roman king.","date_from_description":"1212"},"10b1382a-ff42-52fc-9d16-2a0842cd92b3":{"description":"Black Death (the plague) spreads throughout the British Isles from the south coast, killing between one-third and a half of the population.","date_from_description":"1348"},"10bf9640-3d11-572b-9725-3e5d4d8eccb4":{"name":"Mulay Sulayman","description":"At the beginning of his reign, Mulay Sulayman adopts a policy to isolate the country, excluding contact with the European and even Turkish worlds. He leant on the national brotherhoods and maintained mediaeval, feudal ways of life that eschewed Western technical innovations which he deemed to be dangerous. 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It is signed in 1835 in the city of Kragujevac, with the intention to limit the absolute power of Miloš, but under pressure from the *Porte* (Turkish Government), Austria and Russia the Constitution is abolished as early as the following year.","date_from_description":"1835","date_to_description":"1835"},"11b93b11-084a-5942-9d1d-2aabba0f5a0c":{"description":"The death of Frederick Barbarossa in the river of Calycadmus.","date_from_description":"1190"},"120e2be4-fbf3-5705-ab07-e367fb80ddf4":{"name":"The German National Assembly approves the Constitution of the German Empire","description":"The German National Assembly approves the Constitution of the German Empire.","date_from_description":"1849","date_to_description":"1849"},"1233e1c8-d1a4-58d8-8d9f-22763c0fea1e":{"description":"Highlights of the Czech radical baroque: construction of Church of St. Nicholas, Prague, began (architect K. Dienzenhofer). Charles Bridge embellished with statues by M. B. Braun and F. 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Pope John VIII gave his blessing to the duke and the whole Croatian people, as he informed Branimir in his letters.","date_from_description":"879"},"129e1619-237c-5252-9906-6ce2910d2524":{"description":"The Zirid princes share out the kingdom of Ifriqiya and the fortress of the Bani Hammad.","date_from_description":"1015"},"12a2eeca-0b1d-517c-ac50-ab8fa7b534b8":{"description":"Pedro Álvares Cabral discovers Brazil.","date_from_description":"1500"},"12eddebb-3b1f-53c0-8139-0b4499eeecf0":{"description":"Sulayman the Magnificent dies on his last expedition to the fort of Szigetvar on the Hungarian border and Selim II ascends the throne.","date_from_description":"1566"},"1315fea9-0b32-50d4-8167-65c27887ac55":{"name":"Irish Free State","description":"Of the 32 counties of Ireland, twenty-six southern counties vote to secede from the United Kingdom to become the Irish Free State.","date_from_description":"1922","date_to_description":"1922"},"133fe939-8db6-5b41-902c-d3dc5bc831e0":{"description":"Louis IX is captured by the Ayyubid army in Mansourah and later released for a ransom of 100,000 dinars. Al-Salih Ayyub dies and is succeeded by his son Turan Shah who shatters the Crusader army attacking the Delta.","date_from_description":"1249"},"13a93ace-6a19-5374-9786-7b306ea3d7f4":{"description":"The defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte at Waterloo by the United Kingdom, Prussia, Austria and Russia marks the end of the Napoleonic Wars and peace is established in Europe at the Congress of Vienna.","date_from_description":"1815"},"13c15681-862c-52cb-b9a5-7003467a77ae":{"description":"The powers of the Almohads declines.","date_from_description":"1184–1209"},"13dac36b-9fbb-5fa2-8583-815b08f81f34":{"name":"German warships shell Russian ports","description":"29 October: German warships, officially designated as Ottoman vessels, shell Russian Black Sea ports, an action that leads the Ottoman Empire to enter World War I.","date_from_description":"1914","date_to_description":"1914"},"13e73776-c4fc-5ef3-a4b7-9cf5eeade4e2":{"description":"On 7 March Amir Faysal, the son of Sharif Husayn, is made king of Greater Syria by the Syrian National Congress. The administrative structure of this kingdom consists of eight provinces, three of them in Jordan.","date_from_description":"1920"},"147cd727-f65b-557a-ba84-e1a5e73b486e":{"description":"Beginning of the Western Schism, which will divide the Christian Church and see two different popes on the papal seat.","date_from_description":"1378"},"14caae37-a082-5320-b2c6-8d3c41706f49":{"description":"Charlemagne (800–14) becomes the Emperor of Rome and the Holy Roman Empire is born.","date_from_description":"800"},"152c36c0-d0a5-53f3-aaa1-1679e8b8f8d0":{"description":"Mutiny of Aranjuez and abdication of Charles IV in favour of his son Ferdinand VII. Abdications of Bayonne. Joseph Bonaparte becomes King of Spain. Popular uprising in Madrid on 2 May and start of the War of Independence against the French occupiers (1808–13).","date_from_description":"1808"},"153f92ad-21a5-5743-b4bb-1ac74cad8c8a":{"description":"Charles Martel, son of Pippin of Herstal, stops the Muslims of ‘Abd al-Rahman who had raided as far as Poitiers, and subsequently extends his rule over Aquitaine and Provence.","date_from_description":"734"},"15505c68-ae85-5788-8b44-3a5ad2cc6bcd":{"description":"Ahmad Ibn Tulun rules independently from the Abbasid Caliphate and founds al-Qatai city, the third Islamic capital of Egypt.","date_from_description":"869"},"156d8464-f294-5c24-bab6-fe3806d2a9d0":{"description":"Frequent incursions by Portuguese, French, Spanish and Italian fleets in the ports of Central Maghreb: Honain, Oran, Algiers and Béjaia.","date_from_description":"1390–1400"},"157c2813-3d90-50aa-a7d3-6fe4e265eb85":{"description":"The Ayyubids capture the Crusader castles of Karak and Shawbak, ending the Crusaders’ rule in Jordan.","date_from_description":"1189"},"158eb698-9413-5fa7-86d3-311318547a6f":{"description":"The warship Wasa sinks in Stockholm on her maiden voyage. The ship was discovered and salvaged in 1956, and is now exhibited in Stockholm.","date_from_description":"1628"},"15ef6e9b-2925-5093-a5e2-9edeabc2b1c4":{"description":"French military victories are marked in particular by Bonaparte’s success in Italy. Under the Directoire, he prepares an expeditionary force for Egypt, which is accompanied by a team of experts intended to bring modern techniques and institutions to the country. The French are stalled in Egypt and leave the country in 1801.","date_from_description":"1798"},"15efcbdb-4dcb-5878-9a4c-13426648045a":{"description":"The Young Turks Revolution overthrows Sultan Abdulhamid II. The Second Constitutional Period begins.","date_from_description":"1908"},"16bfa79f-50f4-5128-90a4-c0f159b646ee":{"description":"Death of Louis IX at the gates of Tunis during the Eighth Crusade following an initial defeat in Egypt (Seventh Crusade). Louis IX will be canonised in 1297.","date_from_description":"1270"},"16d29a40-f9f8-52a9-bdaf-4de60397ce72":{"description":"The second Crusade arrives in Syria, led by Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, besieging Damascus for four days, but failing to conquer it.","date_from_description":"1148"},"16e436e2-76c7-53af-a380-e4ad7f0d6779":{"name":"Louis Philippe becomes king","description":"The July Monarchy: Louis-Philippe becomes “Citizen-King”, and economic growth is joined by increased poverty.","date_from_description":"1830","date_to_description":"1830"},"175052f1-afe4-51a6-9bfd-e303319a98f9":{"description":"Pippin the Younger, son of Charles Martel, is proclaimed King of the Franks and turns his attention to the south. He leads expeditions against the Lombards, recovers Narbonne from the Muslims and helps to revitalise trade in the Mediterranean.","date_from_description":"751"},"17e57512-3af9-56ad-bf1e-82fc5f7a325e":{"description":"Economic and religious interaction between Arabia and the Fertile Crescent as Muhammad joins his uncle on mercantile travel to Syria, where he meets the monk Bahira in Bosra.","date_from_description":"c.590–595"},"18637c69-3047-5e90-8cf2-09d7de71678a":{"description":"Beylik of Salah Bey at Constantine. Renovation of the town and construction of el-Kantara bridge.","date_from_description":"1771–1792"},"186ea0b3-28bc-5331-86e0-704c5ef7795b":{"name":"After the defeat of the Al Qawasim by the British","description":"After the defeat of the Qawasim by the British, a British Residency is established at Bushire on the Persian littoral to represent Britain’s political, economic and military interests there. Shortly after, a “Native Agent” is based in Sharjah as his representative. Native agents were generally non-Arab but Arabic-speaking Muslims from the Indian subcontinent or the Persian littoral of the Gulf, chosen for their loyalty to Britain and their in-depth local and regional knowledge. Their task was to monitor activities on the Trucial Coast and liaise with local powers on Britain’s behalf.","date_from_description":"1823","date_to_description":"1825"},"1884ecf3-5742-5cdc-85e9-3961fdd618ba":{"description":"Scots under Robert Bruce (Robert I) comprehensively defeat the invading English army at the Battle of Bannockburn, re-establishing Scotland’s independence.","date_from_description":"1314"},"18a3d60f-dabd-5abb-9cbc-8f4adfd349e8":{"description":"The British Army suppresses the Easter Rising, a rebellion in Dublin designed to force Ireland’s independence from Great Britain, and its leaders are executed.","date_from_description":"1916"},"18b93719-ae33-55e3-a4bd-640d2059e998":{"name":"Muhammad Sadiq Bey promulgates a constitution","description":"Muhammad Sadiq Bey promulgates a constitution limiting his powers. Tunisia’s first constitution is the culmination of the reformist policies of the 19th-century Husaynid beys.","date_from_description":"1861","date_to_description":"1861"},"18d2bdda-f67c-5529-92cd-ed765d901ec3":{"description":"The Hungarian Jacobin Conspiracy’s members are executed or imprisoned. Archduke Josef becomes the new Hungarian Palatine. Pál Kitaibel invents a vacuum-filtering process.","date_from_description":"1795"},"18f48aaf-32b5-5177-bb0d-6bed68c2d15c":{"description":"Largest uprising of the serfs. Patents of King Leopold I include: corvée patent, legalisation of the Evangelical church (1691). The first textile manufactories.","date_from_description":"1680"},"1962e747-521f-5cfa-a679-5538e2d26bce":{"description":"Foundation of the town of Mahdia, capital of the Fatimids.","date_from_description":"921"},"1986b3e4-b784-5a0c-985e-b3ccf9fe26b3":{"description":"A military expedition to Jordan and Palestine is mounted by Ibrahim Pasha, son of Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha of Egypt, who controlled the whole area for ten years.","date_from_description":"1831"},"198d4297-6a40-5ac7-b16c-f5bc23676c10":{"description":"Emperor Rudolph II transfers his court to Prague, which became a major European centre of politics, science and arts (de Brahe, Kepler). The first public autopsy (Ján Jesenský, 1600).","date_from_description":"1583"},"1a2f1bf5-03f4-5776-b538-6c8a51882add":{"name":"Treaty of Erzurum","description":"28 July: Treaty of Erzurum, which ends the Ottoman–Iranian war and restores the previous border.","date_from_description":"1823","date_to_description":"1823"},"1a50617c-4ad6-5dce-adac-8976cf87e0c3":{"description":"Jerusalem is surrendered by the Patriarch Sophronius to ‘Umar Ibn al-Khattab. The Plaza of the Haram al-Sharif is cleaned and prepared for a modest wooden structure. It will take the Muslim armies another ten years to control the rest of Palestine.","date_from_description":"637"},"1a506441-db7f-5726-acfc-932b10d3a7b1":{"description":"Al-Mahdi's son, Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid, the protagonist of many tales in the ‘1001 nights’, moves his court to al-Raqqa, which becomes the ‘Abbasid capital for the next 12 years.","date_from_description":"796-808"},"1a8d42c0-fd99-58bb-a840-10b2be8dc7a9":{"description":"In the Treaty of Verdun the Frankish Empire is divided into three separate parts called West-, Middle- and East Francia. The Germanic Empire is called the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.","date_from_description":"843"},"1ab81572-3f54-5b35-99a1-f877dcff13eb":{"name":"Almost uninterrupted rule by Giovanni Giolitti","description":"Almost uninterrupted rule by Giovanni Giolitti, who allows more freedom of action to trade unions, introduces some social reforms and makes some openings for Socialists and Catholics.","date_from_description":"1901","date_to_description":"1914"},"1abad8aa-fe77-59c3-8da6-f5cc736a354d":{"name":"First Balkan War","description":"The First Balkan War begins in October 1912 between Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and the Ottoman Empire; Montenegro is accused of igniting it by attacking Skadar. At the request of Turkey, an armistice is concluded in December 1912. Negotiations in London fail and the war continues into 1913. A Peace Treaty is signed in London in May 1913. Turkey surrenders all territories west of the Enos-Midija. The Serbian Navy withdraws from the sea; in November 1912, Albania is formed due to Austrian pressure.","date_from_description":"1912","date_to_description":"1913"},"1adf1060-6f94-584f-acd2-4bbe43e3fbbe":{"name":"The Queen Regent, María Cristina, is forced to reinstate the 1812","description":"The Queen Regent, María Cristina, is forced to reinstate the 1812 Constitution after a military coup (*pronunciamiento*) in order to get support from the liberals in the First Carlist War. Under the Desamortización de Mendizábal Church properties are disentailed to fund the war. General Espartero takes over the Regency from the Queen in 1841.","date_from_description":"1836","date_to_description":"1836"},"1b07e539-903c-5a05-b20b-eb21d9f608de":{"description":"Abu al-Alaa al-Ma'arri, blind Syrian poet, dies. His most famous literary work, Risalat al-Ghufran (Letter of Forgiveness), inspires Dante Alighieri’s Divine Comedy three centuries later.","date_from_description":"1058"},"1c3233e2-5df3-5ec8-9e6f-4f6649c63ddc":{"description":"The assasination of Austria’s crown prince leads to the beginning of the First World War in which Germany fights on the sides of the Central Powers against the Allied Powers.","date_from_description":"1914"},"1c856a62-bfb9-5e4e-920b-d5a36439ae6f":{"description":"Council of Burgos abolishes the Mozarabic rite in favour of the Roman rite.","date_from_description":"1080"},"1ca0bf3c-392f-5a57-b07d-4bb268d08b2c":{"description":"The coronation of the last Hungarian royal couple, Charles IV and Zita. Romania declares war on Hungary and enters Transylvania. The Allies reject the peace note of the Central Powers.","date_from_description":"1916"},"1cb440c0-2d91-5e8e-80da-66e695173cb5":{"description":"The Lombards officially convert to Catholicism, a process that began with the work of Gregory the Great.","date_from_description":"653"},"1cca0a62-f5d5-504c-aa2a-4dc46801148f":{"description":"The Sassanian invasion of Syria (Bilad al-Sham) begins under the  leadership of Shahrbaraz, causing the destruction of many cities.","date_from_description":"613"},"1d082139-5292-56e4-aac4-022bb99ea92a":{"description":"The first parliament  (Meclis-i Mebusan) is established.","date_from_description":"1877"},"1d63bf29-4526-5efc-afcd-23dc9e584090":{"description":"Death of the great geographer al-Hassan al-Wazzan (Leo Africanus), whose works, written in Latin, illuminated many aspects of civilisation in the Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1552"},"1db05db3-c34d-56cf-9db2-7bea8b690a56":{"description":"Publication of *Ratio Educationis*, Maria Theresia’s school reform. The Nagyszombat University (Tyrnau; today: Trnava, Slovakia), founded by Bishop Péter Pázmány in 1635, moves to Buda.","date_from_description":"1777"},"1dcea065-7a87-5568-818f-1b90906eb3b2":{"description":"Third war of independence: Italy succeeds in freeing the Veneto region from Austrian control.","date_from_description":"1866"},"1dfb515f-0c54-5471-b716-2910b7723024":{"description":"The crisis that besets all of the countries at war in Russia takes the form of a genuine revolution whose repercussions will be felt far beyond its borders.","date_from_description":"1917"},"1e03d820-87e5-553c-aedf-5af513a46450":{"description":"Universal male suffrage.","date_from_description":"1890"},"1e25c1a1-f5e8-5679-972d-8d4abe2b9708":{"description":"Birth of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), who is seen as one of the foremost composers of concertos, cantatas and oratorios in the Western tonal tradition.","date_from_description":"1685"},"1eb96ee0-fce4-5fe8-af8b-27bda3c4ebef":{"description":"Coup d’etat by Louis Napoleon, who becomes emperor as Napoleon III. He takes France to war in the Crimea alongside England. The Treaty of Paris establishes the existence of an independent Romanian state.","date_from_description":"1851"},"1ec47d0a-c730-5a8b-9afe-827478896737":{"description":"The first post office is founded in Irbid city during Ottoman rule under Sultan ‘Abd al Hamid II, who wanted to have telegraph offices in the empire.","date_from_description":"1883"},"1ede7a52-2e20-52ab-9f52-e95f1bdc881d":{"description":"Byzantine conquest of Central Maghreb.","date_from_description":"533"},"1efa4fa9-de8d-5c0a-a288-28d272fc6adf":{"name":"Restoration of the monarchy","description":"Restoration of the monarchy. A military uprising under General Martínez Campos in Sagunto against the Republic returns the throne to the Bourbon Dynasty, with Alfonso XII (son of Isabel II) as King.","date_from_description":"1874","date_to_description":"1885"},"1f0e0f75-5d99-5efc-a6ba-2180bdcb726c":{"name":"Madrid Conference","description":"The intention of the 1880 Madrid Conference, reflected in the agreements signed by Morocco under the reign of Mulay al-Hasan I and the countries of Europe, is to enhance the benefits of reform in Morocco and to provide a legal and regulatory framework for Mulay al-Hasan I. Following these agreements, the European countries won the right to own land and assets throughout Morocco. The agreements were the result of globalisation of Moroccan business.","date_from_description":"1880","date_to_description":"1880"},"1f15d9fb-a195-5f6b-9f40-b3f1c20345ac":{"description":"The naval battle of Preveza off the Adriatic coast. Barbarossa defeats Genoese admiral Andrea Doria.","date_from_description":"1538"},"1faaca18-8185-5001-83b0-eb570c68caa3":{"description":"England’s Parliament issues the Bill of Rights, establishing a constitutional monarchy in England and barring Roman Catholics from the throne.","date_from_description":"1689"},"1fbf7f36-ff20-50d7-9aa7-e8cb6774fb4a":{"description":"V. M. Kramerius publishes the first Czech revival newspaper, the first mass reading material in the Czech language in 170 years.","date_from_description":"1789"},"1ffa7658-10ce-552e-9a0b-b2ba7645c278":{"description":"Revolution against British occupation led by Saad Zaghloul in which all classes of society join.","date_from_description":"1919"},"201c3e10-5a1e-511f-85ce-489ab781703a":{"description":"The Domesday Book is completed. A survey of every English county south of the rivers Ribble and Tees, it was commissioned by William I at Christmas 1085 to enable him to tax his landowning subjects.","date_from_description":"1086"},"20a1d615-9888-5343-8c3e-bf6100e8fdb1":{"description":"Building of St Vitus Cathedral at Prague Castle commenced (master builder: Matthias of Arras, followed by Peter Parler). Foundation of Prague archbishopric.","date_from_description":"1344"},"20ceb169-43cb-54ed-93ea-681457da361b":{"description":"Great victories over Turks in north Croatia. The commanders of the victorious army were Banus Nikola Erdödy, General Leslie and Johann Joseph Herberstein.","date_from_description":"1684"},"20e3f2a9-16c9-5a27-a7ca-79342c290b07":{"description":"War with the USA. Loss of the last overseas territories (Cuba, Puerto Rico and Philippines).","date_from_description":"1898"},"2100c09e-81da-5cf9-9bc3-e90abebe3635":{"description":"Sultan Sidi Muhammad Ibn ‘Abdallah succeeds his father, opens up trading relations with Europe and undertakes a huge programme of construction and fortification of the Atlantic towns.","date_from_description":"1757"},"213a880a-9ea7-5e70-9c3b-bf3fd002c1da":{"name":"The French expedition to Algeria","description":"The French expedition to Algeria arouses strong emotions in Morocco. It was understood to be a direct threat, in particular following incursions by French troops into eastern Morocco. Mulay ‘Abd al-Rahman accepted the call of the people of Tlemcen and gave his support to the religious and military leader ‘Abd al-Qadir.","date_from_description":"1830","date_to_description":"1844"},"21c22d2f-6ed1-5ec0-8eac-e1d12598e587":{"description":"Famous Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi (1611–82) was born in Istanbul.","date_from_description":"1611"},"21c23f70-444b-57fe-b454-dcb0dce6dd69":{"description":"Establishment of the Egyptian Federation of Industries.Britain grants Egypt autonomous rule. Sultan Fouad takes the title of King.","date_from_description":"1922"},"21cce328-4c0c-54bc-9dba-0ae3df9eb063":{"description":"King Ferdinand I promulgates the Sesmaria law on agriculture.","date_from_description":"1375"},"22648a84-1ebd-59b2-86ca-54573888a8e4":{"description":"Michelangelo finishes the fresco Last Judgement in the Sistine Chapel.","date_from_description":"1541"},"229112dd-6bd9-56e0-926a-cc1c945f41e6":{"description":"Egypt comes under the control of the Abbasid Caliphate and al-Askar, the second Islamic capital of Egypt, is founded. Marwan ibn Muhammad, the last Umayyad Caliph in the East, is murdered in Abu Seir, Fayyum, west of the Delta.","date_from_description":"750"},"22a3799f-f1a9-5a4c-a5f4-276e3a29522a":{"description":"Discovery of the Cabo Verde archipelago.","date_from_description":"1456"},"22ae8d63-0806-559a-b713-b15cb56423a6":{"description":"King Konrad I (911–18) of the Conradine Dynasty becomes king.","date_from_description":"911"},"22b37828-9479-5d5b-96eb-d2063238fae1":{"description":"The Hanseatic League, an alliance of trading guilds from the cities of Lübeck, Hamburg, Wismar and Rostock is officially founded.","date_from_description":"1259"},"22b932b5-680c-554f-a87a-6b93adc2a209":{"name":"Treaty of Sèvres and the Arab Revolt","description":"Squabbling among the allies (those that had betrayed the Arab Revolution) delays the signing of the Peace Treaty with the Ottomans, which is being negotiated at Sèvres in France up until 10 August 1920. The Treaty confirmed French and British possession of Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan and Iraq in the guise of League of Nations mandates. Sharif Husayn ibn ‘Ali is rewarded for his leadership of the Arab Revolt with international recognition of the Hijaz as an independent kingdom.","date_from_description":"1918","date_to_description":"1920"},"22c92de3-b426-5587-b678-4e9a4377b322":{"description":"Trianon Peace Treaty: Hungary loses two-thirds of its territory – 190,000 square km – (Transylvania, the Uplands, part of Western, Eastern and Southern Hungary).","date_from_description":"1920"},"2305d7b6-00ab-52e6-8465-2a991867a6f4":{"name":"Abdication of Napoleon I","description":"Abdication of Napoleon I on 6 April sees the end of the First French Empire (1804–14).","date_from_description":"1814","date_to_description":"1814"},"23415d77-cbe0-5611-9250-b42909c13baf":{"name":"Curzon’s tour of the Gulf","description":"The British Viceroy, Lord Curzon, visits the sheikhdoms of the Gulf to confirm treaties of protection that exclude other European powers. Iraq and Arabia fall under a British- Indian sphere of influence with the Indian rupee as the principal currency. Curzon’s policy lasts until 1970.","date_from_description":"1901","date_to_description":"1901"},"2356e8e4-2b1f-58d9-aba5-abed93fc65a0":{"description":"The Marinid sultan Abu Ya’qub lays siege to Tlemcen for seven years.","date_from_description":"1307"},"237258a4-99c7-55b3-bbdd-5ba73ea164c3":{"description":"Lisbon earthquake. Reconstruction of the city begins under the auspices of the Prime Minister, the Marquis of Pombal.","date_from_description":"1755"},"239ff1b5-450c-5354-b43c-92df405718b8":{"description":"Napoleon incorporates Dalmatia, Dubrovnik and western Croatia as the French Illyrian Provinces. France stimulated agriculture and commerce in the provinces and fought piracy.","date_from_description":"1797"},"244c912b-9393-598d-b577-23a3ebd86437":{"description":"On 17 June in this year, in the Swedish town of Kalmar, the three Nordic countries Denmark, Norway and Sweden are united under the Danish Monarch, Queen Margarethe. For Sweden this loss of independence and Danish sovereignty will last 125 years.","date_from_description":"1397"},"246fac45-2103-5efc-93ef-b65ee8b5167c":{"description":"Nur al-Din, son of Zangi, takes control of Damascus and establishes it as a capital city. It becomes the new cultural, economic, religious, political and educational hub of the Islamic world at large, attracting many scholars.","date_from_description":"1154"},"2476a503-db5c-5c24-b19c-5d5859b96b05":{"name":"The right to vote is extended","description":"The right to vote is extended to all men above the age of 30 (or aged 21 if they completed primary school). The Pope allows Catholics to vote.","date_from_description":"1912","date_to_description":"1912"},"2491f00b-fa4c-53ef-8114-252f0b7fb028":{"description":"Al-‘Adil unites the Ayyubid empire.","date_from_description":"1199"},"24ed5e53-2968-5136-bffb-ec109f9d11f7":{"name":"Creation of the first Romanian political parties","description":"Creation of the first Romanian political parties: the Liberal Party (1875), the Conservative Party (1880), the Radical-Democratic Party (1888), and the Social-Democratic Party of Romanian Labourers (1893).","date_from_description":"1875","date_to_description":"1893"},"24f27e64-f75c-5d52-97a1-b1d4c22c4e5b":{"description":"Ladislas of Naples, Croat king and a claimant to the Hungarian throne as King Ladislav of Anjou, sells Dalmatia to the Venetians for 100,000 ducats. By 1420 Venice controlled all of Dalmatia except for Dubrovnik.","date_from_description":"1409"},"250fca80-30bb-5744-8a3d-b19026ef60d8":{"description":"Egypt, Jerusalem and Damascus come under the rule of the Persian Emperor Xerxes II.","date_from_description":"619"},"251dbd30-c263-51b4-af91-b2e3e1685fe3":{"description":"Mary, Queen of Scots, abdicates Scotland’s throne and her one-year-old son James VI becomes King of Scotland; Mary is executed in 1587 for plotting to kill Elizabeth I.","date_from_description":"1567"},"256a53ec-978d-5e74-b834-40234b8fa7fe":{"description":"The Swedish East India Company is founded for trading in the Far East.","date_from_description":"1731"},"256e947f-df5e-5b8d-9c3e-9002b6c85a2b":{"description":"On 4 September the Battle of Mu’ta begins between the Muslims and the Byzantines at the site of Mu’ta in southern Jordan. The cause of the battle is the killing of messenger of Prophet Muhammad by the Ghassanids.","date_from_description":"629"},"258c0bff-a9a9-5e51-af16-8f05e17c4a43":{"description":"The Pragmatic Sanction: Charles VI declared the heritability of the Habsburg crown in the female line in default of a male heir, and the indivisibility of the countries of the House of Habsburg. Plague endemics.","date_from_description":"1713"},"25e6c170-8d7e-521f-8401-3a43c5a6dd70":{"description":"Musa ibn Abi ’l-Afiya, chief of the Miknassa tribe, conquers Fez and takes control of all of Maghreb.","date_from_description":"925"},"25f8a351-0c67-5511-ae9a-05836ea0c1ed":{"description":"King Gustavus III, through a coup d’état makes himself absolute monarch. Twenty years later, in 1792, he is murdered at a masquerade ball.","date_from_description":"1772"},"2611a998-35c3-5527-a22a-5f62c77511b5":{"description":"Prince Charles Edward Stuart (‘Bonnie Prince Charlie’) lands in Scotland and starts a campaign to restore his father James Francis (the Old Pretender) to the thrones of Britain.","date_from_description":"1745"},"266cc2c7-1e9e-5cf3-992e-efa0cddaa017":{"description":"Sweden enters the Thirty Years’ War under Gustavus Adolphus (Gustav II Adolf). This war involved most European nations.","date_from_description":"1630"},"26a23d8f-c395-5825-94d9-d5f8c8161336":{"description":"Carolina Resolutio: Emperor Karl (Charles) VI (Karl III as king of Hungary) regulates Protestant affairs. England accepts the Pragmatic Sanction in return for economic advantages.","date_from_description":"1731"},"26a2c361-31dc-55a0-87ad-7487948ea18a":{"description":"The wedding of King Lajos II and Mary Habsburg (Mary leaves Hungary after the deaths of Lajos II and as Mary of Hungary later becomes the governor of the Low Countries).","date_from_description":"1522"},"26bcb535-5673-53d3-ad7f-5b58d2f25a57":{"description":"Cultural and economic exchange between the Italian states and Mamluk Syria, exemplified by Andreas Alpagos, physician of the Venetian consulate in Damascus, who translates many Arabic manuscripts.","date_from_description":"1491–1520"},"26cadaf0-aa1b-5dc9-9eec-cfa4060a7250":{"description":"The first period of Iconoclasm begins when Byzantine Emperor Leo III forbids the worship of religious images.  \nEmpress Irene, who took power as regent for his son, Constantine VI (780–97), brought this period to an end with a council held in Nicea in 787 in favour of icon worship.","date_from_description":"730"},"26cc8040-5466-5d1a-9014-b3a494b8aff8":{"description":"The physician Robert Koch (1843–1910) finds the bacillus of the Cholera disease. This is only one of the numerous findings of the pioneer of bacteriology.","date_from_description":"1884"},"26da04ee-7f58-53c5-a266-2422fcc19d78":{"name":"Great peace congress was held in Vienna","description":"The Great Peace Congress is held in Vienna from 18 September 1814 to 9 June 1815. Clemens Wenzel Duke of Metternich organises the Austrian predominance in Italy. Austria exchanges the Austrian Netherlands for the territory of the Venetian Republic and creates the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia.","date_from_description":"1814","date_to_description":"1815"},"273d70c1-c2bb-571c-a79a-844701148f75":{"description":"The most well-known Swedish saint, Saint Birgitta, is born. Her Order, Ordo Sanctissimi Salvatoris (the Order of the Most Holy Saviour), is approved by a Papal Bull in 1370.","date_from_description":"1303"},"27dd0edc-9407-5509-9877-9ef53d79fbca":{"description":"Having already founded the Zagreb bishopric, King (St) László I founds the St Egid Benedictine monastery in Somogyvár (his first burial site before Várad [today: Oradea, Romania]), inviting monks from Saint Gilles.","date_from_description":"1091"},"27f820b6-9acd-56c6-be82-ee4130019591":{"description":"The epic Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf, consisting of 3,182 lines of Old English, is probably written; the poet is anonymous.","date_from_description":"1000"},"2830c84c-9afc-5074-8669-1ba50eb536d8":{"description":"Michelangelo Buonarroti starts work on David, a masterpiece of the Renaissance. 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These mandates put an end to the Arab Kingdom of Syria under King Faysal on 24 July 1920.","date_from_description":"1916","date_to_description":"1920"},"299920bb-2a53-53ee-8813-0d0c51f44bef":{"description":"The Act of Union unites the kingdoms of England and Scotland and transfers the seat of Scottish government to London, creating the Kingdom of Great Britain.","date_from_description":"1707"},"29a0a883-e78d-55c3-b87a-8866ad3d7b70":{"name":"Italy’s first African war","description":"Italy’s first African war: in 1882 Italy starts colonial expansion in the Horn of Africa; in 1890, Eritrea becomes an Italian colony. Afterwards, Italy attempts to penetrate into Ethiopia and suffers a crushing defeat at Adwa (the biggest African victory over a colonial army): Italy loses 4,000 Italian and 2,000 colonial soldiers. The Crispi government resigns.","date_from_description":"1882","date_to_description":"1896"},"29dd3711-8399-5487-8219-33352bc528eb":{"description":"Start of the islamicisation of al-Andalus. First incursions in al-Gharb.","date_from_description":"711"},"2a212264-a53f-550f-852b-e14e9c7fb3d0":{"description":"Murad I captures Edirne (Adrianople). As the third Ottoman capital, Edirne now becomes the headquarters for the further expansion.","date_from_description":"1361"},"2a28984c-7460-524b-babb-a5502f9b5da7":{"description":"The inauguration of the first railway between Jaffa and Jerusalem","date_from_description":"1892"},"2a5051fd-c8ce-5190-9301-2ebfde469594":{"description":"Philip the Fair, surrounded by his ‘jurists’, consolidates the authority of the King of France. 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Assassination of ‘Ali, nephew of the Prophet, by a Kharijite (secessionist).","date_from_description":"661"},"2b96c252-e950-5517-a8db-89da1a889f25":{"description":"Development of commercial relations with Italian towns.","date_from_description":"1394–1434"},"2b9a07fc-5259-59a3-897b-1f73f087c01e":{"name":"Stimulus by French July Revolution","description":"Stimulated by the French July Revolution, the *Vormärz* (pre-March) Revolution refers to the formation of political programmes and factional movements.","date_from_description":"1830","date_to_description":"1847"},"2bcdd51c-06b0-57fc-b7f9-744fb2055517":{"description":"The plague of ‘Amwasa, a town located between Jerusalem and Jaffa, in which hundreds of soldiers and officers, including the army commander Abu ‘Ubaida ‘Amir bin al-Jarrah, lose their lives","date_from_description":"639"},"2c3e0e21-8805-5b99-af1f-0073a37781e3":{"description":"Muhammad ‘Ali, the Pasha of Egypt, sends his army under the command of his son Ibrahim Pasha to conquer Palestine and succeeds in bringing the country under his control.","date_from_description":"1831"},"2cd8dc54-23b9-50ab-b089-94ebbecc93f8":{"description":"Famine due to the low level of the Nile for several consecutive years and an earthquake result in over 240,000 dead.","date_from_description":"1200"},"2ce70c94-398f-5338-904d-87fbc76bbd71":{"description":"Anatolian Seljuq Sultan Alaeddin Keykubad marries the daughter of the Ayyubid Sultan al-Malik Adil.","date_from_description":"1225/6"},"2ce84b2f-4047-5460-90db-e0c4b7e0a8a5":{"description":"The church of Haghia Sophia in Constantinople is opened on 27 December by Byzantine Emperor Justinian I having been rebuilt after its destruction in Nika Riot (532).","date_from_description":"537"},"2d1e62e5-c8e3-5d7b-a8ff-2dfa53b6e735":{"description":"Establishment of the Beylik of Constantine.","date_from_description":"1567"},"2d225d93-e88c-5abf-8ce2-adc5e930c715":{"name":"Triple Alliance","description":"The Triple Alliance formed (Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary).","date_from_description":"1882","date_to_description":"1882"},"2d302fe6-eab4-5362-83f2-162983ff38de":{"description":"Gaza becomes an independent Mamluk governate (niyaba).","date_from_description":"1311"},"2d5e5adf-59ef-5b7b-8714-644157da49f0":{"description":"The fall of ‘Asqalan, the last Fatimid military base in Palestine.","date_from_description":"1153"},"2d648f71-76bf-5cd6-abf4-4e8acbf9fe43":{"description":"Coronation of King (St) László I who reforms Hungary’s legal codes, administrative and ecclesiastical system and life (1083: canonisation of King István and Prince Imre; 1092: synod of Szabolcs).","date_from_description":"1077"},"2d7d9a59-43ed-5170-a1ad-4e0390ae0f19":{"name":"Italy participates in WWI on the side of Britain, France and Russia","description":"Italy participates in World War I on the side of the UK, France and Russia, despite widespread opposition to entering the war. On the Austrian front, Italy suffers a crushing defeat at Caporetto in 1917, but wins in 1918. In Libya, Arab revolt: Italy keeps control only of coastal towns. Casualties are 650,000 military deaths, 950,000 wounded, 600,000 prisoners of war or missing.","date_from_description":"1915","date_to_description":"1918"},"2d945522-a203-5f90-9c18-0c592affebc6":{"description":"Peace of Westphalia marks the end of the Thirty Years’ War. Habsburg rule in the Czech lands officially acknowledged. Moravia lost almost half of its population. Inflow of foreign aristocracy. Brno became the capital of Moravia.","date_from_description":"1648"},"2d9a0fd0-882b-5e8b-b439-eaac6a9dbd5b":{"description":"Appearance of the first taifa kingdoms in al-Andalus.","date_from_description":"1013"},"2db35884-0dcb-51af-8feb-97eb2256b41b":{"description":"Peace with Spain, which recognises Portuguese independence.","date_from_description":"1668"},"2df6d6ea-d613-5474-930a-90e8d74c3754":{"description":"Basilica of Euphrasius built in Piorec, one of the most important monuments in Croatia. It was built on the remains of an earlier three-naved basilica.","date_from_description":"553"},"2dfede66-08ea-5b14-998b-45bb3c2c24ce":{"description":"A moribund Idrisid Morocco vacillates between the Umayyads of al-Andalus and the Fatimids of Ifriqiya for 27 years.","date_from_description":"836"},"2e049eef-f57d-5de3-8ec0-4c10938509ee":{"description":"Daily life in the regency is marked by civil wars and power struggles, first among the deys and then the beys.","date_from_description":"1650–1695"},"2e10d16d-0c4d-585e-b2b4-02defffc0781":{"description":"Foundation of the abbey at Cluny (near to Mâcon), whose monks followed the Benedictine order. The monks at Cluny travelled throughout Europe and played an important role in 11th-century reform.","date_from_description":"910"},"2e3ea087-5afe-5338-957a-9a3889459efb":{"description":"Governor Camilio Gonzaga establishes the city of Split. He proposed to the Venetian Senate to build a bulwark to defend the town.  \nThe Paulist School of philosophy was established.","date_from_description":"1656"},"2e841549-695a-56ea-97fc-8cd7ad6c5b2a":{"description":"The Almoravids take the town of Sijilmassa.","date_from_description":"1055"},"2f124f94-76c2-57a9-86cc-04e893c85b21":{"description":"Expulsion of the Byzantines and unification of the peninsular lands of the Visigoth Kingdom of Toledo.","date_from_description":"630"},"2f53789c-449c-5aff-b105-7d621c8784c6":{"name":"Bashir II becomes the leader of Lebanon","description":"Bashir Shihab II, helped by the Ottomans and by Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar (governor of Acre), defeats his rival in the Battle of Simqanieh. Bashir Jumblatt dies in Acre at the order of al-Jazzar. Bashir II represses the Druze rebellion, particularly in and around Beirut. This makes Bashir II the only leader of Mount Lebanon.","date_from_description":"1825","date_to_description":"1825"},"2f8c1e29-2c7a-5d73-9603-1ddb08087165":{"description":"Charles VII is crowned in Reims, having been proclaimed the true king of France by Joan of Arc. A gradual reconquest of the kingdom begins, to be completed towards the end of the 15th century.","date_from_description":"1429"},"2fc2c359-cb5d-59f7-b25c-981347b36b4b":{"description":"Conquest of Nasrid Granada and expulsion of the last Muslim power in the Peninsula.  \nExpulsion of the Jews.  \nDiscovery of America.","date_from_description":"1492"},"30123690-f935-51d6-b829-15c09c5bf051":{"name":"British occupation of Aden","description":"British control of India is driven by trade. Steamships require fuelling stations. To this purpose Aden is occupied and controlled imperially from India for a century. Most British control of the Middle East is indirect and informal. 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Jawhar Al-Siqili founds al-Qahira (Cairo) to the north of al-Fustat in anticipation of the arrival of the Fatimid Caliph al-Mu’izz from North Africa to make Cairo his seat of rule.","date_from_description":"969"},"31bb7f1e-29db-5a59-b2b2-95c8964ab870":{"description":"The Norse (Viking) raids on England and Scotland begin with a raid on the Lindisfarne monastery on the north-east coast of England.","date_from_description":"793"},"3203faf7-f674-56b8-9ff5-abe8897e67c3":{"description":"King Otto II (r. 973–83) marries the Byzantine princess Theophanu and Byzantine influence enters German art and culture.","date_from_description":"972"},"328f265b-a477-590d-ae49-14d4e83ef499":{"description":"The Berlin Conference sets out the manner in which colonies are to be acquired, and preludes the division of Africa. France and Jules Ferry establish a protectorate in Tunisia (1881) and Madagascar (1885). ‘French’ territories in West Africa are united in a federation in 1890.","date_from_description":"1884-85"},"32a440a3-8f52-5588-82d1-6b7f499325f1":{"description":"Unsuccesful peasant revolt led by György Dózsa. The presentation to the Hungarian Parliament of the *Tripartitum*, a collection of Hungarian unwritten laws compiled by jurist István Werbőczy (published Vienna, 1518).","date_from_description":"1514"},"32bb5381-b440-58d3-b4c0-e94e9f40869d":{"description":"After the Plombières meeting between Napoleon III and Cavour, an alliance is signed between France and Piemont. War with Austria results in the Armistice of Villafranca, the first step towards Italian unity (Rome remains under papal control for the time being). Savoy and Nice become part of France following a referendum.","date_from_description":"1859"},"32c40eda-8fa3-56c0-be35-bfebe4210d85":{"description":"The world's first permanent passenger railway service, the Stockton and Darlington Railway, opens in northern England.","date_from_description":"1825"},"32f946ec-2f50-5de0-b6f6-28fcc0e8facb":{"name":"Armistice between Austro-Hungary and the Entente Powers","description":"Armistice between Austro-Hungary and the Entente Powers (France, Russia and the United Kingdom).","date_from_description":"1918","date_to_description":"1918"},"32fcaa4e-3de5-5d1e-bf7d-62fe60a7c94b":{"name":"The Treaty of Sevres","description":"The Treaty of Sèvres is ratified after the victory of the Balkan Wars and the end of World War I. Consequently, Greece gains administration of the area of Smyrna.","date_from_description":"1912","date_to_description":"1913"},"33154f08-3836-548b-bcda-a749c70d2d84":{"description":"The assassination of Henry III ends the reign of the Valois, which was marked by Wars of Religion between Catholics and Protestants. The Catholic League’s recognition of Henry IV, now converted to Catholicism, allows the kingdom to be reunited.","date_from_description":"1589"},"333b762f-21b9-587d-b2b7-a54ceeab8f8a":{"description":"Hammadid kingdom conquered by the Almohads.","date_from_description":"1152"},"334291dc-172a-596a-a24a-379f1e1d9428":{"description":"The Siege of Vienna by the Ottomans ends in the defeat of the Ottomans by a united army. A gradual retreat of the Ottomans begins.","date_from_description":"1683"},"3374a7bb-9d39-587e-aeb9-774f13809a60":{"name":"Repeated skirmishes between British and Qawasimi vessels","description":"Repeated skirmishes between British and Qawasim vessels are labelled “piracy” by the former and taken as justification to plot the final destruction of the Qawasim by the latter. The British launch naval attacks against the Qawasim strongholds at Ras al-Khaimah along the Gulf and on the Persian littoral. However, the Qawasim succeed in rebuilding their fleet and positions to resume their defensive trade-war against the British and their Omani allies.","date_from_description":"1809","date_to_description":"1810"},"3393c160-73b5-5f90-8d3c-916dd33b279a":{"description":"Glorious Revolution and end of the Bourbon dynasty.","date_from_description":"1868"},"33d1073a-c0cd-567b-a9e8-7aaae1de3e6a":{"name":"Crimean War","description":"War between Russia and the Ottoman Empire and its allies France, UK and Piedmont-Savoy. The Crimean War is a consequence of rivalry over the Eastern Question and France’s support of Catholic claims and Russia’s support of Orthodox claims to control the holy sites in Jerusalem. Russia seeks to exploit Ottoman political weakness to gain diplomatic rights for Orthodox subjects of the Empire. Peace established by the Treaty of Paris (1856).","date_from_description":"1853","date_to_description":"1856"},"33fcc702-ac35-5fa5-b9d0-4731722d1a6b":{"description":"Al-Zahir Baybars captures the city of Antioch, the second Crusader state in the Levant after al-Raha.","date_from_description":"1268"},"34352b64-976c-536f-b35f-5a07f4cceca3":{"name":"First Restoration","description":"First Restoration: the return of the monarchy, referred to as the Bourbon Restoration. Louis XVIII (brother of Louis XVI) facilitated this by accepting a return to the monarchy by means of the Charter of 1814. This Charter combined the more moderate ideas of the Revolution with certain monarchist traditions.","date_from_description":"1814","date_to_description":"1815"},"34862ab6-f257-5c9d-8c63-f9c5480fc6d4":{"name":"Opening of the Suez Canal","description":"Built largely with French expertise and capital, the Suez Canal shortens the journey to India. The British government secures a major financial interest in the Canal in 1876, and its security becomes a major British interest for the following century.","date_from_description":"1869","date_to_description":"1869"},"34b05ed8-7b3b-57c5-b08b-b87e6eb4a7f6":{"name":"Emperor Pedro I of Brazil turned Pedro IV of Portugal gave up the throne to his daughter","description":"With the death of his father, Emperor Pedro I of Brazil becomes Pedro IV of Portugal but gives up the throne to his daughter, future Queen Maria II. The proclamation of a moderate Constitutional Charter does not stop the absolutist movement led by his brother, Prince Miguel (1802–66), who disregards the rights of his niece Princess Maria and Pedro’s decision.","date_from_description":"1826","date_to_description":"1832"},"34fcab2b-dc2f-544c-b0e0-dc856d20ac60":{"name":"Aqaba became the new base for Faysal’s army","description":"In June 1917 the coastal city of Aqaba in Jordan becomes the new base for Faisal’s army, renamed the “Arab Northern Army”. Attacks on the Hijaz Railway continue, extending now as far north as southern Jordan. T. E. Lawrence, “Lawrence of Arabia” himself led reconnaissance parties into Syria and made contact with Arab nationalists in Damascus. The spectacular victory of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) at the Third Battle of Gaza (Beersheba) in October 1917, and the subsequent British advance into the Jordan Valley, gave renewed impetus to Faisal’s “railway war” further east. Meanwhile, Amir Faisal, with Lawrence as his adviser, had captured the seaport of Wejh (al-Wagh) on the Red Sea, 150 km north of Yanbu. From there, Faisal’s men spent most of 1917 attacking the Hijaz Railway. Small raiding parties blew up sections of track, destroyed bridges, water towers and even some weakly defended railway stations. The British, planning to invade Palestine, were keen for the Arab rebels to keep the 12,000 Ottoman troops tied down in Medina (Madinah).","date_from_description":"1917","date_to_description":"1918"},"3513b9af-0c20-5db1-af3a-945c0057099c":{"description":"Přemysl Otakar II killed at Battle of the Moravian Field. Under his rule, the Czech lands reached to the shores of the Adriatic. Bohemia governed by Otto of Brandenburg, Moravia by Rudolph of Habsburg.","date_from_description":"1278"},"35f32299-83bc-56af-8759-78e7c473b0fa":{"description":"The Umayyad Dynasty starts its caliphate in Syria and Jordan under Mu’awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, who makes Damascus his capital.","date_from_description":"661"},"368b9b30-fe58-57b6-ac37-4eb8ad940bfd":{"name":"Isabel II becomes Queen of Spain","description":"Isabel II becomes Queen of Spain. The Salic Law forbidding women to reign had been abolished in 1830 because Fernando VII's only heirs were female. His brother, Carlos de Borbón, asserts his claim to the throne against his niece (first Carlist War, 1836–39); two further Carlist wars will follow (1846–49, 1872–76).","date_from_description":"1833","date_to_description":"1833"},"36c600ee-238c-5104-b1d5-181e80447600":{"description":"Ibn Marzuq, celebrated historian of the Marinid Sultan Abu al-Hassan, dies in Fez.","date_from_description":"1380"},"36e1af7c-3bb9-5f93-9462-befff7918c1f":{"description":"Insurrections and popular resistance against the occupation.","date_from_description":"1881–1885"},"37059d81-d5cf-57a4-941c-f419f32cb6e8":{"description":"Yusuf ibn Tashufin annexes Andalusia to the Almoravid empire.","date_from_description":"1094"},"372f2dcd-a881-5181-ae34-488d9d454235":{"description":"John of Luxemburg marries Elizabeth Przemyslid. First Czech-langauge publication *Dalimil Chronicle* (1314); the first guild code in the Czech lands published (1318).","date_from_description":"1310"},"3791815a-9bf9-5eca-a777-ee474a6db196":{"description":"On 25–28 January Emperor Henry IV (1056–1106) of the Salian Dynasty is forced on a walk of penitence to Canossa to beg forgiveness of Pope Gregor VII and to accept him as arbitrator. The Way (or Walk) to Canossa refers to the walk itself and the events surrounding his journey.","date_from_description":"1077"},"379adc29-287b-5b4e-9d83-375ab79250cb":{"description":"The Battle of Nikápoly: Sultan Bayazid I defeats the crusaders of King Sigismund of Luxemburg, sole ruler of Hungary after the death of his first wife, Queen Mary, daughter of Lajos (Louis) I in 1395.","date_from_description":"1396"},"37bc9459-586b-5e66-b94c-492828a4e324":{"description":"Moroccan resistance fighters win the Battle of Annual in the Rif, defeating the Spanish army.","date_from_description":"1921"},"37bf8829-e6ef-54b3-bfd7-6c5dda09e2c6":{"name":"Military Coup","description":"A military coup brings about restitution of the Karađorđević Dynasty.","date_from_description":"1903","date_to_description":"1903"},"37daa534-8ff0-5ad7-8825-af2533e9cbbd":{"description":"Election of King Mátyás (Matthias) I Hunyadi (Corvinus) son of János Hunyadi. 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Its outcome is the convocation of the Berlin Congress (1878), at which both Serbia and Montenegro gain independence, and Austria-Hungary takes over Bosnia-Herzegovina.","date_from_description":"1875","date_to_description":"1878"},"38957083-5395-5510-a2cc-c5c82063cde9":{"description":"End of the Thirty Years’ War. The Peace of Westphalia is signed in Münster and Osnabrück and results in a territorial agreement for Germany.","date_from_description":"1648"},"38b37486-4ca5-5ea5-a8ad-ff3929a1df98":{"description":"Peace in Srijemski Karlovci. The end of Turkish rule in north Croatia It remained under the rule of Habsburgs while south Croatia, with the exception of Dubrovnik Republic, was dominated by Venice.","date_from_description":"1699"},"391e794a-87d2-5483-baa5-bd477e8e9f79":{"name":"Reforms of Khayr al-Din","description":"The regency of Khayr al-Din, the Grand Vizier reformer, who reorganises institutions and the economy. 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It recommends establishment of a commission to enforce urban regulations and improve the city's physical make-up, financed through a separate tax structure.","date_from_description":"1854","date_to_description":"1854"},"3c9d5659-a75b-52ca-945e-3308bac60539":{"description":"Death of the historian Ibn al-Warraq, whose work, dedicated to the towns of Tahert, Oran, Sijilmassa, Nekkour and al-Basra, would later be used by the geographer al-Bakri in his Description of Northern Africa.","date_from_description":"978"},"3d0779fd-2a97-5ac7-bd15-b1fc7e31bd7f":{"description":"The long reign of Bey Hammuda Pasha enhances the legitimacy of the dynasty and helps to stabilise the country.","date_from_description":"1782–1814"},"3d0f8752-a96c-5c13-a9bf-51021b32acdc":{"name":"The heir apparent of Austria Franz Ferdinand gets killed in Sarajevo by a member of the Serbian intelligence service","description":"The heir apparent of Austria, Franz Ferdinand, is murdered in Sarajevo by a member of the Serbian intelligence service known as the “Black Hand”. 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The Mongols lose Syria when they are defeated by the Mamluks in Ain Jalut.","date_from_description":"1259–1260"},"3db76185-8b18-5ca3-add1-fdcce7e70fbf":{"description":"A severe earthquake causes great damage all over Palestine.","date_from_description":"1458"},"3db937f3-6f2c-555f-87d9-3cd4d5ba7ff3":{"description":"The oldest German code of law (Sachsenspiegel), written by Eike von Repgow (ca.1180–d. after 1233) in Latin and translated to German appears in final form. It becomes a standard for all future codes of law.","date_from_description":"1275"},"3dc5ecf9-642b-52bd-937e-54c6b8c26174":{"description":"Expulsion of the Society of Jesus.","date_from_description":"1767"},"3e12f5fd-ba5d-52e4-80bb-44e6a023c956":{"name":"Assasination of the first Governor of Greece","description":"The First Governor of Greece, Conte Ioannis Kapodistrias, is assassinated.","date_from_description":"1831","date_to_description":"1831"},"3e3954f1-27ae-55d2-9fb6-0379bad29d5e":{"description":"The Representation of the People Act 1918 allows women over the age of 30 with the minimum property qualifications to vote in the United Kingdom’s elections for the first time.","date_from_description":"1918"},"3e450688-88c2-56bb-bfd7-280b207b6d36":{"name":"The German National Assembly meets in Frankfurt","description":"The German National Assembly meets in Frankfurt.","date_from_description":"1848","date_to_description":"1848"},"3e46dcf2-c671-5ecd-8570-602dcc6b73b7":{"description":"Mulay Isma‘ïl takes the town of Mamora back from the Spanish and it is renamed al-Mahdiya.","date_from_description":"1682"},"3e6e7aa9-2883-5b04-b168-4538152bf867":{"description":"The first academic thesis in Swedish is presented. Up until now all theses had been written in Latin and even after this date Latin remained the academic language.","date_from_description":"1738"},"3e7a6480-896d-5bfb-ad87-fdd66ac7fb34":{"description":"During the conquest of Jordan, a plague called ‘Emwas’ starts in Palestine and spreads all over Jordan. 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The monks taken are bought back through the Abbey of Saint-Victor.","date_from_description":"1047"},"405ce77a-8dfe-54f7-8fcf-62e914fe9e08":{"description":"The ‘Fundamental law’ for military territory (the so-called ‘Vojna krajina’ of the Varaždin and Karlovac military district) in Croatia is established.","date_from_description":"1754"},"407082c9-f7f9-5726-8678-89804c243ef5":{"description":"Defeat of the Klis, the last southern fortress. Ottomans constitute the Sanđak of Klis.","date_from_description":"1537"},"4081b08b-c5ec-5ae8-a186-1eb79b2a0d5a":{"description":"Badr Al-Jamali, the Fatimid vizier, consolidates Cairo’s walls while extending its perimeter.","date_from_description":"1087"},"4081d6fa-5d80-56a2-9ef3-1bb154005ea3":{"description":"Compromise with the House of Habsburg (activated by Ferenc Deák on the Hungarian side). Emperor Franz Joseph I crowned King of Hungary in Buda. Birth of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy.","date_from_description":"1867"},"41204c10-4ff6-558d-8cab-bc6fcc7e525a":{"description":"Babylon (the Roman settlement south of present-day Cairo) capitulates to the Muslim armies led by Amr ibn al-'As.The first Islamic capital of Egypt, Fustat, is founded.","date_from_description":"641"},"415862c6-3b5a-5779-961a-b814e4cf1d07":{"description":"Moorish rebellion in the Alpujarras.  \nRisings in the Netherlands.","date_from_description":"1568"},"4158faf2-bdc2-5dce-b596-c5084591557f":{"name":"First World War","description":"World War I is declared and fought.","date_from_description":"1914","date_to_description":"1918"},"41779435-72d2-5d45-8768-1dceddd75d06":{"description":"The Second Crusades arrive in Anatolia on the way to the Holy Lands.","date_from_description":"1147"},"41c83dd7-921e-5b8b-b4a6-27f412fa3e00":{"description":"Chlothar I, son of Clovis, becomes the sole ruler of the Franks, having previously shared his kingdom with his brothers.","date_from_description":"558"},"4232ff9c-1256-5deb-96fe-5d0ebb21e721":{"description":"Bey Husayn bin ‘Ali founds the dynasty that will run the country until 1881 independently, and then under the French protectorate until 20 March 1956. Eighteen different beys come into power. The word bey refers to a political-military position dating back to the Turkish conquest, like pasha and dey.","date_from_description":"1705–1728"},"426811d5-e488-578e-bf2f-ed6b071df91f":{"name":"First parliament in the German history is being established","description":"Establishment of the first parliament in German history (at the Paulskirche, Frankfurt am Main), and elaboration of the German Imperial Constitution.","date_from_description":"1848","date_to_description":"1848"},"426d1d37-8fd0-5398-af00-f51502b04de6":{"description":"During the reign of Abu Hammu Musa I, the Tachfiniya madrasa is built in Tlemcen, the town is fortified and the kingdom is expanded to Constantine and Béjaia.","date_from_description":"1308-1318"},"42bcc0c6-2c2d-56d5-9824-e015cd16a1ca":{"description":"Three years after Scottish victory at Largs, Alexander III of Scotland and Magnus IV of Norway sign the treaty of Perth, handing sovereignty over the Western Isles and the Isle of Man to Scotland.","date_from_description":"1266"},"42cec425-fe67-5db6-9273-f3e6dbac1020":{"description":"Penda establishes his kingdom of Mercia as the pre-eminent Anglo-Saxon realm after defeating and killing Oswald of Northumbria at the Battle of Maserfield.","date_from_description":"642"},"433360bc-e2c9-5614-a09f-7d06bf6e2a56":{"name":"A series of incidents provoke the intervention of the French army","description":"A series of incidents provoke the intervention of the French army when in August 1907 the French land in Casablanca and occupy Oujda, Casablanca and Fez, despite opposition from Germany.","date_from_description":"1907","date_to_description":"1912"},"43a6bdfe-913d-53ed-a7e1-d1f54dbc4dee":{"description":"Aqaba Castle is established on the shore of the Red Sea during the reign of the Mamluk Sultan Qansawh al-Ghawri.","date_from_description":"1515"},"43a82bf6-3fd0-5e78-b728-fb49dce467ea":{"description":"Spanish presence in the coastal towns of Mers el-Kébir (1505), Oran (1509), Algiers (1510) and Béjaia (1510).","date_from_description":"1505-1510"},"43dd3e00-777b-59a8-9acc-29c4ba3e6d59":{"description":"French ships bombard the town of Salé.","date_from_description":"1851"},"43ede450-465f-5c99-852d-554217fca08e":{"description":"The colonial powers sign the Act of Algeciras, proclaiming the independence of the Sultan of Morocco, the integrity of the empire and the economic equality of the colonial powers.","date_from_description":"1906"},"440f98e6-7968-5b4d-9f22-4d30cae32afd":{"description":"Ahmad al-Mansur starts work on the al-Badi Palace (the Incomparable) in Marrakesh and reorganises sugar production in Chichaoua, Darâ and Essaouira regions.","date_from_description":"1578–9"},"4420ce42-e991-54b0-8b2d-2aabe2e96f6c":{"description":"The villages of Mount Nablus revolt against the Ottoman governor, refusing to pay taxes after a locust attack destroys their harvest.","date_from_description":"1664"},"44829943-397f-50a4-acae-5a65332f8c8c":{"description":"Jesuits build the Church of St Catherine in Zagreb, from its architecture and inventory one of the most outstanding Jesuit churches in Croatia.","date_from_description":"1620"},"448e2952-7f34-5034-9f9b-bf57836f2d10":{"description":"Expulsion of the Jews and the Muslims.","date_from_description":"1496"},"44b77875-cbba-5a35-a2f4-48014c5867ec":{"description":"On the initiative of the Council of Trent the Bishop of Zagreb, Juraj Drašković, establishes the Zagreb Seminary (Seminarium Clericorum) to promote theology.","date_from_description":"1565"},"44eb6702-267e-5192-a6ab-eb4c560ff6a9":{"description":"Juan Sebastián Elcano completes the first circumnavigation of the globe.","date_from_description":"1522"},"44f2f8e6-56eb-50ea-872a-14c2cdb51258":{"description":"King Charles XII (Karl XII) dies and is succeeded by his sister Ulrika Eleonora the Younger. The royal power is restricted, with more power given to council and parliament.","date_from_description":"1718"},"4500cecf-6397-5924-b9df-815925ebb0c8":{"name":"Kinglake’s tour of the Middle East","description":"The development of steam power brings increased trade and travel to the eastern Mediterranean. This leads to the publication of travel literature and an interest in the archaeology of the Bible. A. W. Kinglake’s *Eothen* is the most widely read of the travel books.","date_from_description":"1834","date_to_description":"1834"},"4527189c-23d1-5794-9384-5b409f2418f1":{"description":"Conquest of Cairo by Selim I the Grim.","date_from_description":"1517"},"455df1fc-7f8d-5efe-97db-15681e3f982e":{"name":"The Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act","description":"The Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act renames parliament to reflect the change following secession of Southern Ireland. The state is now known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.","date_from_description":"1927","date_to_description":"1927"},"458024a5-91ec-5bdd-8a07-af31da303332":{"description":"Venice conquers Karlobag attacking Novi Vinodolski, the city of the Frankopans. This marks the beginning of the Austro-Venetian war, at this stage known as the Uskok war.","date_from_description":"1615"},"46074fd4-311b-50a6-8e84-ea49fd4d20a3":{"description":"The first Czech periodical newspaper (Prague). Moravian aristocracy in service of the empire. Viennese artists in Moravia. Development of pilgrimages; church celebrations.","date_from_description":"1719"},"46751acf-b479-5590-9e2a-9b5a81257c3b":{"description":"King Boabdil, the last Nasrid king, takes refuge in Oran then Tlemcen.","date_from_description":"1492"},"46b02563-57d3-5b63-b95d-4ca37ce1335a":{"name":"The popular uprising","description":"The popular uprising sounds the death knell for reform. The great figure of this insurrection, ‘Ali bin Ghedham, comes from the region of Kasserine.","date_from_description":"1864","date_to_description":"1864"},"46c4cfb1-3593-5170-976b-ba0e420253d1":{"description":"Damascus–Beirut railway (and Damascus–Hijaz railway in 1908) built by German workers reflecting economic and industrial ties between the Ottoman Empire and Germany. The German Emperor William II visits Damascus on November 1898.","date_from_description":"1895"},"46f3181d-ae5c-5da3-9130-643d909e0b19":{"description":"Prague described in narration of Jewish-Arabian merchant Ibn Jákúb. Establishment of first (Benedictine) monasteries and Prague bishopric (974). Foundation of the Czech state under the Przemyslid dynasty.","date_from_description":"965"},"472d3156-e5df-5b37-bd7e-f55225ad1cec":{"name":"Moroccan resistance","description":"Moroccan resistance is spirited, and provokes many Berber revolts. Following the surrender of Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Alkrim, who led the peasant revolts in the Rif (1919–26), France launched a campaign of “pacification” that lasted until 1934.","date_from_description":"1919","date_to_description":"1934"},"4752ff39-18ff-59d8-96d5-baeeb4555349":{"description":"Second taifas in al-Gharb. Afonso Henriques recognised as king at the Zamora Conference.","date_from_description":"1143"},"47812d73-1765-51c9-a1f7-9106287d7a3c":{"description":"Tunis taken by the Ottoman privateer Barbarossa Khayr al-Din Pasha.","date_from_description":"1534"},"47a1f2b0-9844-5245-b45b-dd2a1c34746e":{"description":"The British and Austrian fleets with the support of the Ottomans attack Palestinian shores, putting an end to Egyptian rule. European influences, including architectural, began to appear in the landscape.","date_from_description":"1840"},"47c305a3-f4e7-5d68-999a-faa2b8aa5b4b":{"description":"Sykes-Picot Agreement between France and Britain divides the eastern Arab countries between both countries; Palestine is allocated to Britain.","date_from_description":"1916"},"47eafb93-3dec-56e8-a95c-532def54b84d":{"description":"The first colonial exhibition opens in Marseille under the auspices of Jules Charles-Roux.","date_from_description":"1906"},"481332a0-4c39-547a-aaf4-d49d9a16b02d":{"description":"The Swedish Missionary Society is founded.","date_from_description":"1835"},"48133435-09eb-53ab-b185-f93d5f3346e1":{"description":"Barbarossa’s fleet comes to the aid of the French in their struggle against Charles V.","date_from_description":"1543"},"49101bbd-fd62-5af9-8332-7152a64fb22f":{"description":"Foundation of the abbey at Alcobaça.","date_from_description":"1153"},"496ad0eb-f1dc-5b9b-8da1-c440a8be3b8c":{"description":"Carthage conquered by the Arabs under the leadership of Hassan ibn Numan.","date_from_description":"698"},"49b1ea1c-4154-5de9-a06e-f7b48091e1e2":{"name":"Romania becomes part of the Triple Alliance","description":"30 October: by signing a treaty with Austro-Hungary, to which Germany adheres the same day and Italy in 1888, Romania becomes part of the Triple Alliance.","date_from_description":"1883 (18 October)","date_to_description":"1883 (30 October)"},"49e447ab-f314-5806-b5f5-033f39e6eb13":{"description":"Death of the Berber resistance fighter Kahina.","date_from_description":"701"},"4a39af34-47d2-5b95-9bc0-e368cab023ca":{"name":"At the congress of Berlin in June 1878","description":"In June the signatories at the Congress of Berlin grant Austria the right to occupy and fully administer Bosnia and Herzegovina for an undetermined period.","date_from_description":"1878","date_to_description":"1878"},"4a9ebcf4-02f0-5f0e-9d67-1c3497d69ede":{"description":"Almohad dominance in the south.","date_from_description":"1156"},"4b2fe6a5-e85d-5b5d-ad5f-2a2281ac018d":{"description":"Muslim attack on Santarém, resulting in the death of Abu Ya‘qub Yusuf.","date_from_description":"1184"},"4b44c7bc-b668-5732-b7a9-3d74e28a7366":{"description":"Croats settle in the area between the Adriatic Sea and the Sava and Drava rivers.","date_from_description":"614"},"4b8b1ac1-fdef-5ff1-bd9d-bc3fc36c1e27":{"description":"Badis, son of al-Mansur, leaves Qalaa for the last time and goes to Béjaia.","date_from_description":"1104"},"4bb80339-3cc4-5f43-bb32-146ee218ab19":{"description":"According to the double conquest theory of Gyula László the origin of the first archaeological finds in the Carpathian basin indicate the presence of the first wave of the Hungarian tribes.","date_from_description":"670/680"},"4bf552ac-f39d-59d7-b9e6-ec494b60f204":{"description":"Under Duke Henry of Saxony the term ‘Kingdom of the Germans’ (Regnum teutonicum) is used for the first time.","date_from_description":"920"},"4c20974b-4462-568c-b57b-1f721ff80056":{"description":"Birth of the first organised Tunisian nationalist party named the Destour after the constitutions, suspended since 30 April 1864.","date_from_description":"1920"},"4c2c72ca-f944-55e9-a890-4e06fc17bac5":{"description":"Prolific historiographical and encyclopaedic writing in the Mamluk period. Three authors focused on urban topography of Damascus are Ibn ‘Abd al-Hadi (d. 1503), al-Nu’aymi (d.1520) and Ibn Tulun (d.1546).","date_from_description":"1482–1546"},"4c5520e5-28db-5680-8a1c-cad3e9a665c0":{"description":"Battle of Alcácer Quibir (also known as Battle of the Three Kings) during which King Sebastian dies.","date_from_description":"1578"},"4c7d31a5-4c08-5953-ac0a-9058010e9734":{"description":"The Buda printing house of András Hess publishes his *Chronica Hungarorum*, a chronicle of Hungary. Fruitless negotiations with Emperor Friedrich III lead Mátyás I to occupy Vienna in 1485.","date_from_description":"1473"},"4c9f1e73-78be-543a-ada9-45f90963999e":{"description":"Count Ferenc Széchenyi donates his library and collections to the Hungarian nation. This is the nucleus of the National Museum of Hungary and of the National Széchenyi Library.","date_from_description":"1802"},"4cb7338d-726c-597d-b2b5-2bf4487370c3":{"description":"Dynastic union between Castile and Aragon through Isabel I and Ferdinand II.","date_from_description":"1479"},"4d364b05-cc1a-5137-92cc-adf2648c528e":{"description":"Construction of the Sidi Abdarrahman mausoleum to house his tomb and the necropolis that formed around it.","date_from_description":"1627"},"4d8480d4-69c3-54c8-8ab2-240c5f2784bc":{"description":"Independent emirate with ‘Abd al-Rahman I (Umayyad dynasty).","date_from_description":"756"},"4d87d64c-3e45-5ad9-b697-61f6ff3f1759":{"description":"Genoa sells Corsica to France one year before the birth of Napoleon Bonaparte.","date_from_description":"1768"},"4d885000-7c9e-55fe-b2ab-87459f40e258":{"description":"Establishment of the Portucuese Counties.","date_from_description":"1095"},"4d8c1c25-24e2-533a-84ea-3895341682a8":{"description":"Fall of Jerusalem to the Franks.","date_from_description":"1099"},"4daf1c53-294e-5b97-8c94-86a42bc8918a":{"description":"Karak Castle is built by Payen le Boutellier. It is named Crac de Moab or simply le Crac by the Franks. It was a very important castle to Crusaders due to its position as a watch centre of the Islamic army movements.","date_from_description":"1142"},"4dc5a0b8-04a6-512d-ac75-6ef210a6a2cb":{"name":"Creation of the United Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia","description":"19 August: the Ottoman Empire, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Piedmont, the UK and France sign the Paris Convention marking the creation of the United Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, with separate rulers, legislative and executive powers, and only two institutions in common (Supreme Court of Appeals and central legislative commission). The convention replaces the Organic Regulations, becoming the new constitution of the United Principalities.","date_from_description":"1858","date_to_description":"1858"},"4dd015c9-34bf-551c-b584-d072c3d9fc51":{"name":"In 1853 started the War of Krimaia","description":"The Crimean War starts in October 1853. On one side is the Russian Empire and on the other the Ottoman Empire, the British Empire, France and the Kingdom of Sardinia. Greece participates with a volunteer corps of 1,000 men as one of Russia’s few allies.","date_from_description":"1853","date_to_description":"1856"},"4dd40d00-a8e3-5a70-9a14-9452ce7a029a":{"description":"During the lifetime of Saint Boniface, an English missionary who lived from c. 675 to 754, the tribes in Germany become Christians.","date_from_description":"700"},"4e2bb256-d175-543c-9a34-3932839a8a99":{"description":"King of Portugal attacks the Algarve region.","date_from_description":"1189"},"4e477f9f-7e9e-5b5f-98d2-f95c52c6274c":{"name":"Development and rearmament","description":"Development and rearmament (*Aufrüstung*) of the German Navy.","date_from_description":"1898","date_to_description":"1900"},"4e65e772-0a02-5bc0-b0f5-337190cf98d8":{"description":"The Battle of Hattin. The rise of the Ayyubid dynasty as a successful force against the Crusaders, combined with cultural and demographic changes, transforms the face of Palestine after many years of Crusader control.","date_from_description":"1187"},"4e7ceac9-496f-530a-b3a6-6da81ccd6df5":{"name":"Revolution of February","description":"Revolution of February 1848: Louis-Philippe abdicates and the Republic is proclaimed.","date_from_description":"1848","date_to_description":"1848"},"4e93cc09-17e7-5569-bac4-9f0f7b94a32f":{"name":"Mulay Sulayman and trade policy","description":"In relation to trade policy, Mulay Sulayman opposes the liberalism of his father Muhammad Ibn ‘Abd Allah by passing an edict in 1814 imposing a 50 per cent duty on imports, and takes restrictive measures by banning the export of most Moroccan commodities to Europe, including grain, oil, wool, animal hides and livestock. The years of drought and swarms of locusts that devastated all crops between 1810 and 1816 caused a shortage of basic commodities, price increases and famine, on top of the plague epidemics that swept the country. All of these factors necessarily weakened the country financially and demographically. This could help to explain the inward-looking policies adopted by the sovereign Mulay Sulayman, who—according to some historical sources—claimed that he did not need Europe and hoped that Europe did not need him. A desperate and exhausted Mulay Sulayman resigned and chose his nephew Mulay ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Hisham as his successor.","date_from_description":"1810","date_to_description":"1822"},"4ec80c98-e99f-5e84-a520-9924c20c2b97":{"description":"Al-Salih Ayyub builds up an army of Turkish slaves and houses them in his fortress on Roda island in the Nile. They come to be known as the Bahri Mamluks.","date_from_description":"1240"},"4f4821d8-4fc4-5539-9381-abc32c175b40":{"name":"Sykes-Picot Agreements","description":"British interests in the Middle East are driven partly by the British Indian administration and partly by the strategic alliance with France. Mark Sykes for Britain and George Picot for France come to a diplomatic agreement to divide the Ottoman Levantine possessions for their respective countries. This conflicts with an earlier British promise of independence.","date_from_description":"1916","date_to_description":"1916"},"4f5c68b0-eb71-5363-9d15-78b719a872dc":{"description":"Byzantine Emperor Justinian orders the construction of St. Catherine’s Monastery at the foot of Mount Moses in Central Sinai. It became the third pilgrimage site after Jerusalem and Rome.","date_from_description":"527"},"4fa5b084-ccee-51a0-888e-441a0eadc4e7":{"name":"Second empire becomesmore liberal","description":"After an authoritarian period (1852–60), during which time freedoms are severely restricted and political opponents are forced into exile, the Second Empire is declared and the political climate becomes more liberal and the economy grows.","date_from_description":"1852","date_to_description":"1870"},"4fd74db0-e844-5e21-9d9e-dfa3dda881be":{"description":"Dubrovnik recognises the authority of Venice, which will last until 1358. In that period Dubrovnik was obliged to pay Venice annual tribute and to accept Venetians as its dukes and archbishops.","date_from_description":"1205"},"4feb54ce-0f2f-5592-8f51-c16b2b766eea":{"description":"In Ireland, half the potato crop fails followed by almost the entire crop of 1846; around one million people subsequently die in the Irish Famine between 1845 and 1851.","date_from_description":"1845"},"5001b852-cd6c-5311-8e47-c6bc520dca86":{"description":"Almoravid invasion following the Christian conquest of Toledo. Almoravid victory at the Battle of Sagrajas or Zallaqa (Badajoz).","date_from_description":"1086"},"50ac747b-311e-5615-8daf-488a530d5ee7":{"description":"Turks occupy a large part of north Croatia.","date_from_description":"1433"},"511016af-9b07-5c9f-8d6c-a30b2ea930ec":{"description":"The Portuguese take the town of Qsar al-Saghir.","date_from_description":"1458"},"51191f52-ddd5-54ef-bffe-e6a8289b64ae":{"description":"Revolts in Kabylie.","date_from_description":"1796"},"511a6ac5-66fd-55c4-85e0-9318d4099983":{"name":"German Confederation","description":"German Confederation.","date_from_description":"1815","date_to_description":"1866"},"511ce86e-19e7-5ace-969b-b24404fb8218":{"name":"The Ottoman Sultan Abdulhamid built the Hijaz Railway","description":"Under the Ottoman Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid, the Hijaz Railway is built, running from Istanbul to the Medina (Madinah) province.","date_from_description":"1901","date_to_description":"1909"},"52217393-d8ee-5402-bd51-bded5e32a4d9":{"description":"Petar Zrinski and Fran Krsto Frankopan executed in Wiener Neustadt (Bečko Novo Mjesto).  \nBuilding of Dubrovnik Cathedral after the plan of A. Buffalini from Urbino which displays features of developed Roman Baroque.","date_from_description":"1671"},"523f9595-4283-5b18-9a26-9225bab37429":{"description":"On 4 October a torrential stream destroys the buildings, markets and mosque of Ajlun.","date_from_description":"1328"},"524c3bcc-fc78-5fc9-8cf8-bd35b6f1c912":{"description":"The Ottomans, led by Sinan Pasha, oust the Spanish from Tunis and annex the town to the Ottoman empire.","date_from_description":"1574"},"526938cd-a1ad-5502-b1e0-8baba34b9223":{"name":"Otto von Bismarck becomes Prussian prime minister","description":"Otto von Bismarck becomes prime minister of Prussia.","date_from_description":"1862","date_to_description":"1862"},"52b45bf8-f440-5884-9c8b-7b9eedbddc86":{"description":"Charles IV appointed Margrave of Moravia.","date_from_description":"1334"},"52dd8832-74f2-57f4-bd89-3e527329eb34":{"description":"The Italian Communist Party is formed.","date_from_description":"1920"},"52f62145-5642-55a4-937b-73eed89a215b":{"description":"Olomouc bishopric promoted to archbishopric. Foundation of a bishopric in Brno. Abolition of serfdom. Riots of the Evangelicals in Wallachia.","date_from_description":"1777"},"53111dfb-b9b9-5f55-9240-9b6e026d8d53":{"description":"Galileo is tried by the Inquisition for his scientific theories.","date_from_description":"1633"},"5327b6d4-3a65-5293-a606-ea64db46f1fb":{"description":"The Byzantine Emperor Justinianus (later Justinian) grants the ally of the Byzantines, al-Haritha ibn Jibla, the Arab-Christian ruler of the Ghassan tribe who settled in Syria and Jordan, the title ‘Baselues’ (king).","date_from_description":"528"},"535178d2-75c5-5c3e-a065-3ec6deee5020":{"description":"Pope Alexander III’s papal bull Manifestis Probatum recognises the king of Portugal.","date_from_description":"1179"},"536db52d-e1ff-5510-aa13-42211a295930":{"description":"Establishment of the Czech Engineering School in Prague. New patent against non-Catholics. Heresy declared a crime against the state, non-Catholics punishable by death.","date_from_description":"1717"},"53b21358-7f48-567e-9c5d-c206eeb896ca":{"description":"Major fire in Umayyad Mosque of Damascus, addressed by a major renovation endeavour by the Ottoman Empire. Thus the current hall is a late-Ottoman renovation with strong Western stylistic influences.","date_from_description":"1893"},"53e04a9b-0217-5a73-929c-4af490d49239":{"description":"Heracles (r. 610–41) reconquers Palestine and the Emperor brings back the Holy Cross to Jerusalem. Restoration projects begin all over Palestine and in Jerusalem in particular.","date_from_description":"628"},"53e2a473-6218-53e4-ae36-e9634dbb30b1":{"description":"Abolition of slavery.","date_from_description":"1846"},"53ea5d1e-6589-5473-abc2-37eb450a38d0":{"name":"Visit of Ottoman Sultan to France and Britain","description":"The 1850s and 1860s sees close political, commercial and cultural relations between the Ottoman Empire and Britain. The zenith of this relationship is the state visit of Ottoman Sultan ‘Abd al-‘Aziz to France and then Britain. The Prince of Wales then reciprocates with a visit to Constantinople, Damascus and Jerusalem in 1869.","date_from_description":"1867","date_to_description":"1867"},"54547a63-b6e6-52c9-be7a-11522e48f89e":{"description":"Start of the reign of Louis VI. Establishment and growth of the commune movement in France.","date_from_description":"1108"},"546c0371-e65e-5d2e-9627-942bfe0f2dea":{"description":"The Battle of Mohács: the 75–80 000 Turkish soldiers defeat the Hungarian army of 25,000 men. King Lajos II dies. Both János I (Szapolyai) and Ferdinand I became Hungarian kings.","date_from_description":"1526"},"546f4c69-4e94-55e6-bba7-ca5df34c3ff0":{"description":"Siege of Constantinople by the Muslim Arabs.","date_from_description":"674–678"},"547fd8d0-cdb7-50cf-813e-0a6d738ad687":{"description":"A Royal Navy fleet led by Admiral Lord Nelson in HMS Victory destroys the French and Spanish fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar; Nelson is killed in the battle.","date_from_description":"1805"},"5480a2e9-b3cf-5698-8812-798710f49173":{"name":"World War I","description":"On 25 July, at the onset of World War I, ‘Abbas Hilmi II is in Constantinople where he suffers wounds to his hands and cheeks during a failed assassination attempt. On 5 November of that same year, when Britain declares war on Turkey, ‘Abbas is accused of deserting his country because he did not return home forthwith. In addition, because the British believe that he has been plotting against their rule, when the Ottoman Empire joins the central powers in the war, Britain declares Egypt an independent Sultanate under British Protectorate on 18 December, and ‘Abbas is deposed.","date_from_description":"1914","date_to_description":"1914"},"551ebb0f-8760-5cad-a847-7b8053f88589":{"description":"Ottoman Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent orders the establishment of Ma’an pilgrimage station.","date_from_description":"1531"},"553de630-835e-58f5-9cb8-cf2c1f333d0b":{"name":"Setembrismo - Lower middle classes rebellion and fight against corruption and higher middle class privileges","description":"Period of Setembrismo: lower-middle-class rebellion against corruption and upper-middle-class privileges. An industrialisation process takes off to counteract foreign dominance. To overcome the loss of Brazilian revenues the colonisation of African possessions is boosted. The slave trade is prohibited in 1836 by abolitionist Marquis of Sá da Bandeira.","date_from_description":"1836","date_to_description":"1842"},"555365e0-aaa3-513b-bd8c-ebedd6fe2db2":{"description":"War with England returns. Establishment of the Continental System and collapse of French trade in the Mediterranean.","date_from_description":"1803"},"55695aa1-b0a9-5f4e-97b5-dea801f7d659":{"description":"Muhammad al-Ikhshid (r. 935–46) conquers Palestine and annexes it to Egypt.","date_from_description":"940"},"559148d2-07ca-5cb2-a72c-19fa7da07c0e":{"name":"Russian-Ottoman war","description":"After the Russian–Ottoman war of 1806–12 Russia annexes the eastern part of Moldavia (Bessarabia).","date_from_description":"1812","date_to_description":"1812"},"559f59cb-5ac1-5e93-9214-b9f88cac905d":{"description":"The Treaty of the Pyrenees ends the Franco-Spanish war and confirms French possession of Roussillon. The union between Louis XIV and Marie-Thérèse lays the foundation for a solid alliance, despite the King of France renouncing his and his successors’ right to the Spanish throne.","date_from_description":"1659"},"55a62e78-aeb7-50e8-85b5-4686d142ee47":{"description":"Victory of Charles Martel (688–741) of the Carolingian Dynasty at the battle of Tours and Poitiers (southern France) over Arab insurgents leads to their retreat to the southern valley of the Rhone.","date_from_description":"732"},"55b5ac77-fa3e-5cfe-b9a7-1ebaf09d93bb":{"description":"The Abbasid Caliph al-Ma’mun (r. 813–33) orders the restoration of the Dome of the Rock.","date_from_description":"831"},"5613686d-95e8-539a-9ddd-370f90efee48":{"description":"On 28 May the Transjordan Emirate is established, headed by Prince Abdullah I, son of Sharif Husayn, who later became King Abdullah the founder of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.","date_from_description":"1921"},"565254cf-3e05-59ae-a148-c24a6942fa18":{"description":"Código de las Siete Partidas, a return to Roman law with the unification of Castilian laws.","date_from_description":"1263"},"5678f5be-3e06-5d07-abad-a8670a5be0f1":{"description":"The German Templars establish their first settlement in Haifa, followed in 1873 in Sarona (near Jaffa) and Jerusalem.","date_from_description":"1869"},"568ecb10-6968-5ecc-8936-673c7480eaeb":{"name":"Italian Risorgimento","description":"Italian “Risorgimento” (movement for national unification).","date_from_description":"1815","date_to_description":"1860"},"56ad7d25-7c26-56a7-a9a4-c9f725bec018":{"description":"Vandal occupation and the Berber kingdom of the Djeddars.","date_from_description":"500"},"574c48c1-ec52-5fc7-9120-045bf9d0c20c":{"description":"Proclamation of the ‘Destour’ during the reign of Sadok Bey, the first modern constitution in the Muslim world.","date_from_description":"1861"},"57582bc6-4423-583c-942f-d77effb8e2f4":{"description":"Meeting at Mellalah (Béjaia) between the mahdi Ibn Tumart and ‘Abd al-Mu’min, founders of the Almohad dynasty.","date_from_description":"1117"},"578433d4-58b0-5d8e-a4fd-1cb6e7b3c05c":{"description":"Start of the First Crusade, preached by Pope Urban II at Clermont. The People’s Crusade is mostly annihilated, but the Princes’ Crusade reaches Palestine and takes Jerusalem in 1099, establishing the Frankish Kingdom in the east.","date_from_description":"1096"},"57abb70e-9dc2-5504-be1e-d548144147d9":{"description":"A new national law codex is published. It replaces the earlier medieval laws.","date_from_description":"1734"},"57e52823-8101-54ba-b97f-059ab665773c":{"description":"Foundation of the first German university in Prague by Emperor Charles IV.","date_from_description":"1348"},"58310e59-46aa-5b4e-bc32-362f0b4fed0a":{"name":"Jamal Pasha","description":"Turkish commander Jamal Pasha initiates a blockade of the entire eastern Mediterranean coast. Lebanon witnesses thousands of deaths from widespread famine and plague.","date_from_description":"1915","date_to_description":"1915"},"5845f393-ba6d-5c40-9ef1-3e6e4b3364fb":{"name":"British impose a peace treaty","description":"The British impose a Peace Treaty on the Qawasim and other sheikhs of the Arab littoral of the Gulf. The signing is preceded by a preliminary agreement forcing the sheikhs to turn over all remaining vessels, fortifications and weapons in exchange for the restoration of their fishing and pearling vessels. The Treaty enjoins all signatories to fly a specific red-and-white flag.","date_from_description":"1820","date_to_description":"1820"},"588f15d9-d644-513d-b9bf-aeca23c44bbd":{"name":"Muhammad Ali kills the Mamluks","description":"On 1 March, Muhammad ‘Ali invites some 470 Mamluk beys to the Citadel for a feast to celebrate his son’s imminent departure for Mecca. When the feasting is over the Mamluks mount their lavishly decorated horses and are led in procession down the narrow, high-sided defile, below what is now the Police Museum. As they approach Bab al-Azab, the great gates swing closed and gunfire rains down on them from above. After the fusillades, Muhammad ‘Ali’s soldiers wade in with swords and axes to finish the job. Legend relates that only one Mamluk escaped alive, leaping over the wall on his horse.","date_from_description":"1811","date_to_description":"1811"},"58905020-ab87-5e94-a3d4-66d653a6cbc1":{"description":"The first mosque in Egypt is built in Bilbis, east of the Delta, to honour the martyrs and 120 companions of the Prophet who died in battle there during the Arab invasion of Egypt. It followed the ground plan of the Prophet's mosque in Medina.","date_from_description":"639"},"58937cc9-8073-5f41-a01b-586172119fd1":{"description":"Four knights who believe they are working on the implicit orders of King Henry II murder Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury, in Canterbury Cathedral.","date_from_description":"1170"},"58e49658-5d56-5cee-a255-546c446b7c9c":{"description":"The discovery of the Cape of Good Hope has an adverse effect on trade in Egypt.","date_from_description":"1492"},"58f04dcc-14c3-570e-91a1-26058adc783d":{"description":"The reign of Henry II (1002–24) sees the establishment of a feudal system, particularly in Northern Italy, which will leave a lasting mark on Italy’s social and economic make-up.","date_from_description":"1002"},"58fd9645-d24f-5ff7-9e13-9e18a9a195d5":{"description":"Reforms under Emperor Joseph II: tolerance patent permitting non-Catholicism (Catholicism remains the official religion). Abolition of serfdom. Closure of monasteries not dedicated to publicly beneficial work.","date_from_description":"1781"},"5902e9f0-1f5e-58a0-a416-f603b26bff55":{"description":"Revolt of the Sicilian Vespers against Sicily’s French Angevin rulers. Aragon emerges victorious in Sicily, which is separated politically from Southern Italy.","date_from_description":"1282"},"592cecff-2d36-5a77-98f1-8da2b13b45fb":{"description":"Birth of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada.","date_from_description":"1238"},"592e7efc-8d9e-5819-bb5f-31a387a052cb":{"description":"Decisive victory of the Almohads over the nomads at Sétif. Widespread use of Almohad coinage as the industry and commerce of war flourishes. Political unity and religious dogmatism. The apogee of Almohad rule.","date_from_description":"1153"},"592ec00c-9384-51ec-9937-eace81147978":{"name":"Treaty Britain-Morocco","description":"In 1856 a treaty is signed, initiated by Britain in order to strengthen its influence over Morocco and to maintain its naval supremacy in the Mediterranean, which hugely undermines Moroccan sovereignty. This treaty wrested control over the extent of European penetration away from the governing institution of Morocco the Makhzen. The advantages gained by European traders, combined with their superior technique and the quantity of capital behind them, enabled then to monopolise most of the sea trade and to reduce Moroccan players to mere intermediaries.","date_from_description":"1856","date_to_description":"1856"},"59535ffd-671f-5e78-8f21-81f325d7570f":{"name":"Serbia became a Kingdom","description":"The first king of Serbia in the modern age is Milan Obrenović, Prince (1822–82) and King (1882–89). 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A decision by the Congress of Berlin in 1878 grants Serbia independence, while the Secret Convention (between Serbia and Austria-Hungary) binds Austria-Hungary into declaring Serbia a kingdom in 1882.","date_from_description":"1882","date_to_description":"1882"},"59b4bd4f-9dcb-5fa9-b511-3d234d9505d9":{"name":"Italian Socialist Party founded","description":"Italian Socialist Party founded.","date_from_description":"1892","date_to_description":"1892"},"5a1ea0bc-5eaa-51e5-ba81-3c6a7d87d08a":{"description":"Autocracy is introduced under King Charles XI (Karl XI).","date_from_description":"1680"},"5a220c3a-13cf-51aa-aa83-4ae726f3e068":{"description":"The Russian Nestor Chronicle tells of an agreement in this year, stating, among other things, that: If a Rus (Swede) kills a Christian or a Christian a Rus he has to die where he commits this manslaughter. This law is typical for regional Scandinavian jurisdiction. 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The Kings of France inherit the claims of the Angevins. Start of the Italian Wars.","date_from_description":"1481"},"66a8e1ca-4616-5f53-9872-84e0851682cf":{"description":"The Kharijites leave Tahert and take refuge at Sedrata.","date_from_description":"911"},"66e2c0cc-d8f8-5391-be7d-5738f2dfbd15":{"description":"King Charlemagne (768–814) is crowned as emperor in Rome by Pope Leo III (795–816).","date_from_description":"800"},"66fad516-8a22-5323-a257-6ffceec9710b":{"description":"Foundation of Oran.","date_from_description":"904"},"66fc6d34-d859-55c8-9fe1-3ecc6fa4011c":{"description":"Tunis taken by King Charles V of Spain.","date_from_description":"1535"},"67114bbc-bcc1-5ef7-89b5-bdf1410a7e63":{"description":"Foundation letter of the Benedictine abbey in Tihany by King András I (its Latin text contains the first Hungarian text fragment). 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After Matthias’s death (1490) Vladislav appointed King of Hungary.","date_from_description":"1478"},"68099065-5a0b-5db3-b89d-67cf2f079a0a":{"description":"Start of the Avignon Papacy: under the direct influence of the King of France, the popes set up the papal residence in Avignon.","date_from_description":"1309"},"6831e6f1-4837-50b1-abf4-e28f9350296d":{"description":"The death of poet Mevlana Rumi (born in Belh, Afghanistan, (1207?).","date_from_description":"1273"},"68514ab3-8233-519f-b8f9-c20abd15aff7":{"description":"At the Peace of Kiel Sweden and Norway are united under one monarch in a personal union.","date_from_description":"1814"},"6868d06f-73a3-5df8-ab72-5906914451c4":{"description":"In the church of Our Lady of Pirates in Komiža on the island of Vis Stjepan Killarevich from Krakow builds one of three preserved 17th-century organs in Croatia.","date_from_description":"1670"},"68cc7749-b76a-5b2a-8e4b-0fbb44ebc5d3":{"description":"The famous French philosopher René Descartes arrives in Sweden, invited by Queen Christina. He dies in Stockholm the following year.","date_from_description":"1649"},"69164915-60ac-5881-b75c-9d3dc8c8e62d":{"description":"Zadar rebels against Venice and allies with Hungary.","date_from_description":"1186"},"6a19443b-3afd-5ccb-88d6-3432a6f11e0e":{"description":"Defeat of the Moroccan army by the occupying French forces in Algeria at the Battle of Isly.","date_from_description":"1844"},"6a1fa53b-578d-5d8e-956d-417412847f45":{"description":"Consecration of the worship of the patron saint of Algiers Alger ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Thaalibi.","date_from_description":"1470/1471"},"6a3d1e30-1204-5b2c-b985-91771bd6d521":{"description":"The Croatian–Hungarian King Bela IV grants the Golden Bull to Gradec, as a token of appreciation for the citizens who provided him shelter during the Tatarian invasion.","date_from_description":"1242"},"6a4fe4b4-097b-5df9-9864-32aebc48c49f":{"description":"The Mirdasid dynasty takes control of Aleppo amidst numerous rivalling emirates, thanks to its skilful diplomacy, particularly with the court of Badr al-Din Lu’lu’ in Mosul.","date_from_description":"1023–1079"},"6a8e5a77-1843-5ea2-9525-f6305af2a714":{"description":"The papal residence moved back to Rome from Avignon during the pontificate of Gregory XI (1370–8).","date_from_description":"1377"},"6aa487ad-149e-585f-9b86-18ae6d154edd":{"description":"On 29 October the Croatian Parliament proclaims Croatia’s administrative relations with Austria and Hungary void. In December the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes is formed.","date_from_description":"1918"},"6abfc0a9-8e84-51e0-90a9-66ba1eba10dc":{"name":"Emperor Wilhelm II visits Tangiers","description":"Emperor Wilhelm II visits Tangiers on 3 March 1905, keen to prevent diplomatic isolation of his country and to safeguard Germany’s economic interests.","date_from_description":"1905","date_to_description":"1905"},"6ac1e7a4-0763-567a-9aab-392a58ec9f2a":{"description":"Promulgation of a charter during the reign of Muhammad Pasha Bey guaranteeing the rights of his Tunisian subjects and people living in Tunisia.","date_from_description":"1857"},"6b04af09-19b5-5457-868e-6f71c2bce7af":{"name":"Formation of Turkish National Assembly","description":"23 April: Formation of Turkish National Assembly in Ankara.","date_from_description":"1920","date_to_description":"1920"},"6c13c8ef-71f1-599b-a5c8-987c27675585":{"description":"Construction of the Great Mosque of Kairouan.","date_from_description":"836"},"6c1930cf-088a-5c20-9e5a-8bbd43461b7e":{"name":"Queen Maria II","description":"Queen Maria II (1819–53) regains the crown after her father’s death and the liberals’ victory. The Queen has to cope with the transition from absolutism to constitutionalism and disputes between opposing factions, conservatives on one side (Cartismo supporters of the 1826 Charter) and radicals on the other (Vintismo defenders of the Constitution of 1822).","date_from_description":"1834","date_to_description":"1836"},"6c2f1fa9-6204-570a-8919-6497aa052e19":{"description":"First maritime conquests of the Muslims, occupying Cyprus.","date_from_description":"649"},"6c42f919-7aa0-50cf-bc11-abfe289fbdff":{"description":"The town of Sedrata destroyed. Kharijite exodus to Mzab.","date_from_description":"1069"},"6c8c4543-b87f-530b-b89e-d308315a1d76":{"description":"The Abbasid Caliph al-Ma’mun issues a memorial golden coin carrying the name of ‘Jerusalem’.","date_from_description":"832"},"6c90399e-fd36-52e6-b726-fc34a75f04ca":{"name":"First Napoleonic invasion","description":"First Napoleonic invasion. Prince Regent João (1767–1826, crowned in 1816) transfers the court and the seat of political power to Brazil, avoiding being deposed and replaced by a Napoleonic nominee as in other European kingdoms. In Portugal, Beresford, the British governor, intervenes in Portuguese general politics disregarding national needs.","date_from_description":"1807","date_to_description":"1816"},"6cca5be6-d210-57c4-8fdc-8943c89de1f8":{"name":"Local governments in Ajlun, Balqa and Kerak","description":"The people of Transjordan, encouraged by the UK, establish local governments in Ajlun, Balqa and Karak. British advisers are assigned to help these governments.","date_from_description":"1920","date_to_description":"1921"},"6d0430be-e12b-542b-ba75-56e586778e2e":{"name":"The British government becomes effectively ruler of the Trucial Coast","description":"The British government effectively becomes the ruler of the Trucial Coast when the sheikhs are forced to pledge that neither they nor their descendants will enter agreements with or grant territorial rights to any government or their representatives other than Britain.","date_from_description":"1892","date_to_description":"1892"},"6d36b18e-248c-56d7-b27c-f1a061880805":{"description":"Death of Clovis, the Merovingian king who converted to Catholicism, won control of most of the Frankish kingdoms and took Aquitaine from the Visigoths.","date_from_description":"511"},"6d4f9ede-e846-50b7-b846-12f530be1e23":{"description":"It was around this time that the first Viking expeditions to the East, conducted by people who called themselves Svear (Swedes), are successful enough to bring home the first Arabic silver coins.","date_from_description":"800"},"6d539e15-d25c-57d0-9714-8ef44ea4c2e8":{"name":"Italy trying to annex Rome","description":"Uprising in Rome demanding unification with Italy. At the same time, Garibaldi leads an expedition of volunteers that enters the Papal States and tries to seize Rome. Roman rebels are defeated and executed. Garibaldi is defeated by Papal troops backed by a French expeditionary corps (France protects the Papal States).","date_from_description":"1867","date_to_description":"1867"},"6daae50a-b99b-511d-afe3-0ac78441af43":{"name":"Second Restoration","description":"Second Restoration: the reign of Louis XVIII and his brother Charles X. France experiences an economic boom (i.e. the development of the railways), but discontent grows over the king’s authoritarian policies.","date_from_description":"1815","date_to_description":"1830"},"6dd3eff4-4a18-552a-855d-86149b51f527":{"description":"Building of the Great Umayyad Mosque in Damascus proclaims the imperial status of the new religion and places Islam on an equal footing with the strong Christian heritage of the region.","date_from_description":"705–15"},"6dd7704e-28da-54cd-994e-31a3250028c9":{"description":"Declaration of the Papal Bull of the Dissolution of the Jesuit Order. Prince Miklós Esterházy entertains Queen Maria Theresia (Theresa) in Eszterháza with splendid festivities, including Haydn’s music.","date_from_description":"1773"},"6e35aa8a-5ab0-5618-93fc-9b29f41ba4d2":{"description":"The German polymath Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) is born. 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The last Pasha of Buda dies in the struggle.","date_from_description":"1686"},"6e671705-5538-5973-a1ce-3df4d6aef618":{"description":"Berber insurrections shake the country. Arab pacification puts an end to the insecurity and prompts economic growth.","date_from_description":"739–742"},"6e770689-ff4e-520a-a24f-e3cc1bfb4526":{"description":"Josef II dies in February shortly after withdrawning all of his reforms concerning Hungary except for three. The Holy Crown of Hungary is again in Buda. Farkas (Wolfgang) Kempelen builds a speech-imitating machine.","date_from_description":"1790"},"6f214a42-95c6-55f4-8215-4011610d81f1":{"description":"The Mamluks defeat the Crusaders in ‘Akka and the rest of the Palestine and Lebanon coastal cities, putting an end to the Crusader states in Palestine and Syria, which had lasted some two centuries.","date_from_description":"1291"},"6f340f5a-d8bf-599e-8d60-2909d33f5e45":{"description":"The Abbasid family left al-Humayma in Jordan for Kufa in Iraq in order to lead the revolt against the Umayyads. 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The Romanian countries remain under Russian occupation until 1834. Under the supervision of the Russian authorities in 1830–31 the Organic Regulations, considered to be the first Romanian constitutions, are drawn up and adopted.","date_from_description":"1829","date_to_description":"1829"},"7043adec-94a2-5cef-895e-898d5fc584f6":{"description":"The Abbasid Caliph al-Rashid appoints his brother Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi governor (wali) of Jordan. It was customary to appoint the brothers and family members of caliphs to administrative positions.","date_from_description":"796"},"7071890f-2726-5807-ac9f-372a7b4a1491":{"name":"Germany declares war to Portugal","description":"Germany declares war on Portugal. Portugal enters World War I, complying with international commitments in Europe and defending the Portuguese strategic possessions in Africa, mainly Angola and Mozambique. The Portuguese army fought on the western European Front and in the south of Angola (border with Namibia) and the north of Mozambique (Nevala).","date_from_description":"1916","date_to_description":"1916"},"70be0e76-4551-58e2-a3cc-a30ce4cf06fe":{"name":"The British destroy Al Qawasim hegemony","description":"The British put a stop to Qawasim hegemony in the Lower Gulf region by destroying their ports, strongholds, and fleets on both shores of the Arab Gulf.","date_from_description":"1819","date_to_description":"1819"},"71974b2e-4adf-51d8-8597-e04be4444a5b":{"name":"The English Admiral Edward Pellow","description":"The English Admiral Edward Pellow, 1st Viscount Exmouth imposes on the regencies of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli new recommendations to slow the race at sea. He inaugurates the so-called Gunboat diplomacy, which involves the threat of military force.","date_from_description":"1815","date_to_description":"1816"},"71de5983-ed40-5903-a03a-2487540de8d6":{"description":"Emperor Justinian I dies on 13/14 November. He was famous for his successful military campaigns and also for his reform of the legal code. He was also known as ‘the last Roman Emperor’.","date_from_description":"565"},"71e546a2-7016-560d-ab53-888d66bd85df":{"description":"Great hardship due to a very high flood preventing the sowing of new crops in season; a great rise in prices and the cost of living.","date_from_description":"1620"},"72048ead-8c65-5cac-9ef1-b76901da64ae":{"name":"The Restitution of Obrenovic Dynasty","description":"The *Hatišerif* (Turkish edict) is issued in 1838, allowing the *Sovjet* (Council) to limit the powers of Prince Miloš Obrenović. Unwilling to accept this however, Miloš abdicates and leaves Serbia in 1839. Prince Mihailo Obrenović reigns for a short time before the Karađorđević Dynasty regains the Serbian throne in 1842. The 1858 *Svetoandrejska skupština* (Assembly convened on St Andrew’s Day) decides on a change of dynasty, overthrowing Prince Aleksandar Karađorđević and reinstating Miloš Obrenović. A 37-strong deputation from the Assembly, with a massive, heavily armed entourage, leaves Belgrade for Bucharest to bring the newly elected prince back to the country, marking the beginning of Miloš’ second, but short-lived reign, which ends when he dies in 1860.","date_from_description":"1859","date_to_description":"1859"},"728da759-de05-5c27-bc42-0c6b3447d427":{"description":"Death of Louis IX at the gates of Carthage during the Eighth Crusade against the Kingdom of Tunis.","date_from_description":"1270"},"729ec165-6619-50b1-97b2-215c22bcac7b":{"description":"The Regency of Algiers founded by Khaïr-Eddine. Algiers becomes the first vassal town of the Ottoman Empire in Central Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1518"},"72da6f8a-03d8-51b9-8f7a-1411e201ef2f":{"description":"The Guelphs and Ghibellines, supporters of the Papacy and the Emperor respectively, clash in Florence.","date_from_description":"1280"},"72e976ab-7b9c-57b2-8a32-1cf00bc51a16":{"description":"Ali ibn Abi Talib, the Prophet's cousin and companion, isappointed wali (ruler) of Egypt by ‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan, the third Righteous Caliph.","date_from_description":"655"},"731d2825-34dc-5c1b-ad80-cce07481cbfe":{"name":"Austria and France concluded the peace of Campo Formio","description":"Austria and France conclude the Treaty of Campo Formio on 17 October. Austria then cedes to Belgium and Lombardy. To compensate, it gains the eastern part of the Venetian Republic up to the Adige, including Venice, Istria and Dalmatia.","date_from_description":"1797","date_to_description":"1797"},"7328c223-bab3-5b55-b0d2-7c00694cf788":{"description":"The Corpus Iuris Civilis is compiled under Justinian, collecting and organising Roman law. The work remains influential for centuries, becoming the cornerstone of legal studies.","date_from_description":"529"},"73577528-b383-5d4e-9249-7b67217c0f69":{"name":"Sultan Mehmed V","description":"27 April: Unseating of Sultan Abdülhamid II and accession of Sultan Mehmed V.","date_from_description":"1909","date_to_description":"1909"},"735fcfa4-79e8-5584-9768-c75fbe0f8cc5":{"description":"The Turkomans under the command of Utsuz, in the name of the Seljuqs, invade Palestine, defeating and ejecting the Fatimid army. 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It was the first time the country had lost a battle in more than two centuries, and it showed Mulay ‘Abd al-Rahman just how weak his army was.","date_from_description":"1844","date_to_description":"1844"},"73ce346b-a7ba-59c9-9d97-77f864f326b8":{"description":"Charles II lands in Scotland and is proclaimed King of Scotland, but two years later Scotland is occupied by Cromwellian forces, and incorporated into the Commonwealth.","date_from_description":"1650"},"7438e0cd-4c36-53ea-b973-6082a1b99195":{"description":"Muslim counter-revolution is thwarted. The sultan is deposed and constitutional monarchy is declared.","date_from_description":"1909"},"7461a583-5319-5d96-bc8b-835aeefb8505":{"description":"Emperor Wilhelm II (1888–1918) sacks Chancellor Otto von Bismark. 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War continues with both sides growing weak and weary, inadvertently easing the path for the upcoming Muslim conquerers.","date_from_description":"602"},"75265dcf-e309-5623-bb92-119872b38890":{"description":"Two peace treaties: Vienna ends Hungary’s fight against the Habsburgs led by István Bocskai, Transylvanian prince; Zsitvatorok (part of Dunaradvány, today: Žitava, Slovakia) ends the fight with the Turks. Bocskai dies.","date_from_description":"1606"},"7542ab53-207e-5790-ad12-9d6767a20507":{"description":"Saint Francis of Assisi writes his Rule, inspired by the principles of poverty, errant preaching and Christian charity. Frederick II (1211–50), already King of Sicily, is crowned emperor.","date_from_description":"1210"},"7560c725-f1f9-5ae3-b2fa-1cd004f0e19e":{"name":"Founding of first Serbian journal *Novine serbske*","description":"In Vienna in 1813 Dimitrije Davidović, politician, diplomat, author of the Candlemas Constitution and one of the founders of journalism in Serbia, launches *Novine Serbske*, Serbia’s first daily newspaper. The newspapers are printed in Serbia for the first time in 1834.","date_from_description":"1834","date_to_description":"1834"},"75ab6cf4-67be-510f-9810-3d8d239173a7":{"description":"Amir Ziri ibn Atiya of the Maghrawa takes Fez.","date_from_description":"991"},"75e243bd-3a5f-50f8-924c-eca0449cbd00":{"description":"Tanzimat Firman  (Reform) declared.","date_from_description":"1839"},"75ea8147-54e7-5866-ba9e-de354887a88e":{"name":"War declared on Morocco","description":"War declared on Morocco. Battles of Castillejos (Fnidq) and Wad-Ras. 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After different international talks and agreements – Spanish–French Agreement (1904), Algeciras Conference (1906), Cartagena Declarations (1907) – Spain and France sign in November 1912 the Treaty establishing the French and Spanish Protectorates in Morocco.","date_from_description":"1904","date_to_description":"1912"},"76612ecb-7de2-5f19-898c-9a0345125993":{"name":"San Remo Conference","description":"France takes control over Lebanese territory after the San Remo Conference.","date_from_description":"1920","date_to_description":"1920"},"767bf16a-6913-5b7b-8d3b-4f238e72b2eb":{"description":"Marco Polo, son of a Venetian merchant, departs for China with his father Nicolò and uncle Matteo. 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The Sublime Porte, itself threatened by the Western powers, limits the show of protest against the French occupation.","date_from_description":"1881","date_to_description":"1884"},"776b31da-3663-540a-af66-449903290122":{"description":"Al-Zahir Baybars defeats the Tartars in Asia Minor.","date_from_description":"1276"},"7775ae73-0164-5411-84ca-fb0a6ada7c1f":{"name":"Introduction of universal male suffrage and of an electoral system of proportional representation","description":"Introduction of universal male suffrage and of an electoral system of proportional representation. The Popular Party (antecedent to the Christian Democrats) is founded. Mussolini creates the first Fascio di combattimento (embryo of the Fascist Party).","date_from_description":"1919","date_to_description":"1919"},"77d1d8d4-47c4-5ddd-bc58-1a459d986cb7":{"description":"Khaïreddine, the prime minister of the bey, instigates a programme of reforms. Foundation of the Collège Sadiki, the first modern secondary school in Tunisia. Foundation of the Sadiki hospital.","date_from_description":"1870–1877"},"77e3d358-67fc-5942-839e-ff23d23e5cfa":{"description":"On 9 July Nikola Tesla is born in Croatia.","date_from_description":"1850"},"784d1ad4-879a-5143-a5ef-97e2854c39cb":{"description":"A Yellow Fever epidemic rages through Egypt.","date_from_description":"1348"},"7866aee2-15a3-5407-a06d-d0b5a4f48d9a":{"name":"Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim Ruler of Qatar","description":"Treaty with the UK. This recognises Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim as the ruler of Qatar, and places the sheikhdom under British maritime protection.","date_from_description":"1916","date_to_description":"1916"},"788dca06-e404-5193-be41-f794901f648b":{"description":"The land of Thuringia is conquered by rulers of the Merovingian Dynasty with the help of the Saxons.","date_from_description":"531"},"78b04146-1861-5327-afe3-d91348a8ad18":{"description":"Visigoths defeated by the Franks at the Battle of Vouillé; collapse of the Visigoth Kingdom of Tolosa and withdrawal to the Iberian Peninsula (Kingdom of Toledo).","date_from_description":"507"},"78dd4d35-d6b9-5942-ab3e-7fd0b98349b5":{"description":"The Ottoman Empire's military strength and imperial patronage of religious and commercial buildings, especially in Damascus, by Lala Mustafa Pasha (1570), Darwish Pasha (1574) and Sinan Pasha (1589).","date_from_description":"1570–1590"},"791d1021-9e23-57b9-a880-2a791e359eed":{"description":"Founding of Olomouc bishopric. Vratislav II made first Czech King (1085). The first Czech chronicle known as the *Chronicle of Cosmas*. Premonstratensian and Cistercian monasteries founded (1140).","date_from_description":"1063"},"792cc7e2-44f5-5a27-9343-72d72bcd1f52":{"description":"The *Law of Vinodol* is composed, one of the first juridical regulations in this part of Europe.","date_from_description":"1288"},"797a2cba-06d1-5dc9-8479-ff5914b1a90b":{"name":"Pedro as Regent returns to Portugal to defend his daughter’s rights","description":"Civil war. Pedro returns to Portugal as Regent to defend his daughter’s rights. He launches military operations from Azores and Porto against the absolutist faction of Prince Miguel favored by the Quadruple Alliance. After the Miguelists’ defeat, peace terms depend on the Évora-Monte Convention and Prince Miguel’s exile.","date_from_description":"1832","date_to_description":"1834"},"798257f6-1021-535f-9840-0aae074a5828":{"description":"Assembly of non-Catholic Estates. ’Prague Defenestration’ incident sparked a rising of the Czech Estates against the Habsburgs and the outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War. Czech Estates joined by Moravian and Austrian aristocracy and Frederick, Elector Palatine (Czech king 1619–20).","date_from_description":"1618"},"7986496d-f340-503e-897c-9134459abad3":{"name":"Most parts of Arabia become a part of the new state","description":"Most parts of Arabia become part of the new Saudi State. In 1803, The two holy cities of Mecca (Makkah) and Medina (Madinah), along with the rest of the Hijaz region, join the Saudi State.","date_from_description":"1800","date_to_description":"1803"},"79a18bd9-ece7-55a7-bf23-5fa46e37f311":{"description":"Creation of the United Kingdom of Portugal and Brazil.","date_from_description":"1815"},"79af730b-ca67-5371-a316-30f78c8396eb":{"description":"Catholicism becomes the official religion of the Visigoth Kingdom of Toledo.","date_from_description":"589"},"79bc71d9-b5e0-5bb5-986d-74dd7c28bdaa":{"name":"Young Turk Revolution","description":"4 July: Young Turk Revolution.","date_from_description":"1908","date_to_description":"1908"},"79c792fd-77c1-59f8-a733-cb0125a9752e":{"description":"Northern Morocco is shaken by the Kharijite revolt lead by Maysara al-Matghari.","date_from_description":"740"},"7a52fcdf-c442-5230-a24b-c51e8d8f749c":{"description":"On 23 August the Ottomans defeat the Mamluks in a decisive battle at Marj Dabiq, marking the end of the Mamluks’ rule in Egypt and Syria.","date_from_description":"1516"},"7a646070-4f51-53ee-a347-81ab80dd7b70":{"name":"Dawud Pasha","description":"Dawud Pasha (the *mutasarrif* \\[governor\\] of Lebanon, appointed by the Ottomans) restores to Lebanon a part of its lost territory, establishes for the Druze a school in Abayh that still bears his name and struggles against the feudal lords in the south and the clerical party in the north.","date_from_description":"1864","date_to_description":"1864"},"7a6c3010-26aa-5cf1-a20e-8c9f84d04c4d":{"description":"The Croatian People’s Peasants’ Party – from 7 December Republican Peasants’ Party – led by Stjepan Radić refuses to acknowledge the monarchy and leads Croats to ethnic and political emancipation.","date_from_description":"1920"},"7a77081e-dc50-5afc-ae5d-ed507acd1850":{"name":"the young King Alexander of Serbia murdered","description":"The young King Alexander of Serbia is brutally murdered in an officers’ conspiracy in June. The replacement of the pro-Austrian Obrenović Dynasty by the pro-Russian House of Karađorđević under Peter I, changes the balance of power in the Balkans.","date_from_description":"1903","date_to_description":"1903"},"7a79996f-5777-5cb7-ac04-407bc2249a9e":{"description":"Austria-Hungary reincorporates the military border into Croatia, increasing the number of ethnic Serbs in Croatia to about 25 per cent.","date_from_description":"1881"},"7aeb2f08-5d28-5ee1-a897-67339824e4f1":{"description":"The Porta Pia Breach: on 20 September, the Sardinian army liberates Rome, annexing the city and the Papal States to the Kingdom of Italy. 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The Djerba and Kerkennah islands, along with the towns of Gabès, Sfax, Mahdia and Sousse, are occupied by the Normans.","date_from_description":"1118–1156"},"7e0715c0-0290-5b4e-9499-96a9b018b319":{"description":"‘Abd al-Mu’min starts the construction of the Great Mosque of the Koutoubiya in Marrakesh.","date_from_description":"1158"},"7e173ce2-2de4-553a-a41d-5b61fcf1b23f":{"description":"The establishment of Great Moravia (Moravia, western Slovakia, parts of Hungary, Austria, Bohemia and Poland).","date_from_description":"Around 833"},"7e4629f7-3d09-583b-a56a-de70f453b63a":{"description":"In October a peace treaty is made between Prophet Muhammad and the Bishop of Ayla, John bin Ru’ba in exchange for the payment of 300 dinars a year as poll tax for protection.","date_from_description":"630"},"7eb302aa-f081-538b-a781-b0bc915391de":{"name":"Franco prussian war","description":"The Franco-Prussian War: France's defeat to Prussia results in the abdication of Napoleon III. Proclamation of the Third Republic.","date_from_description":"1870","date_to_description":"1870"},"7eb8ac05-861b-5f54-869d-e7795df9ca02":{"description":"The rule of the Azem family, lasting nearly a century, indicates the rise of local urban notables into the leadership of Syria as Ottoman strength in the Arab provinces begins to weaken.","date_from_description":"1725–1820"},"7f0247de-f0bf-5359-855d-9d7d6cfdb6e5":{"description":"Birth of the illustrious scholar Ibn Arfa.","date_from_description":"1316"},"7f434184-ddcb-5c28-8d42-ab2dbdfab6d0":{"description":"Issa ibn Yazid al-Assouad founds the town of Sijilmassa at Tafilalet, the great desert port on the gold route.","date_from_description":"757"},"7fb75a2a-174f-5889-a93a-01a999249076":{"description":"A ruinous earthquake destroys Jerusalem and most of the cities of Jordan at the end of Umayyad rule.","date_from_description":"747"},"7fc0134c-7298-5017-9f07-a34afb66a915":{"description":"At the Peace Treaty of Fredrikshamn Sweden loses its eastern half (today’s Finland) to Russia.","date_from_description":"1809"},"80f48147-44c1-557b-95d4-cf83058e2aea":{"description":"Publication of the Fuero Juzgo, a summary of Visigothic law.","date_from_description":"654"},"80f8fda0-8020-5c16-a9df-253be322a36f":{"description":"The Tours Congress sees the rise of revolutionary ideas in France. Nonetheless, France and England seem stronger than ever, and ready to share out the remains of the Ottoman Empire. But they have been severely affected by the war, and nationalist movements are beginning to make themselves heard in Mashriq and Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1920"},"8128be6c-e252-53df-a192-523926903235":{"description":"Establishment of the first public museums (Opava). The first long-distance railway in Europe (České Budějovice–Linz, 1825). J. E. Purkyně introduces cell theory. Disturbances among workers and peasants.","date_from_description":"1814"},"8135c904-16ed-5812-bc23-049b451af18c":{"name":"Temporary peace accord","description":"A temporary Peace Accord is achieved between the British East India Company, represented by Captain David Seton the Resident at Muscat, and Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr. 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The Treaty is renewed regularly until 1853, when a Perpetual Treaty is put into place.","date_from_description":"1835","date_to_description":"1835"},"82db517a-d0cf-575c-a7fc-b9d9df7924c6":{"description":"Charlemagne dies in Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) on 28 January 814 and is buried in the palatine chapel of Aachen.","date_from_description":"814"},"83240809-1a96-5e43-8888-b1f6994c8383":{"description":"Start of the Muladi revolts against their Umayyad rulers in the west of the peninsular.","date_from_description":"868"},"835c65e2-a28f-5ff2-8926-18707e76dd0d":{"description":"Treaty of Tordesillas between the Catholic Kings and John II, dividing the world into two spheres of influence: the Portuguese part and the Spanish part.","date_from_description":"1494"},"83c1de4a-980e-5ee6-bd25-691ec17566f0":{"name":"Republic of Weimar","description":"The Weimar Republic.","date_from_description":"1918","date_to_description":"1933"},"83fe8d06-b6f3-5524-b5c3-50a778e3389f":{"description":"Black death.","date_from_description":"1348"},"843e7b93-9382-5fb6-aa15-d508ca13de58":{"description":"Birth of Leonardo da Vinci, artist, scientist and inventor who will enrich Italian culture with works of great renown, such as the Mona Lisa and Lady with an Ermine.","date_from_description":"1452"},"844ea8e6-3c36-57a2-a6e7-503cea5c081d":{"description":"Prussia, Austria and Russia gain a decisive battle against Napoleon I (1769–1821) near Leipzig. This is seen as the peak of the German freedom movement.","date_from_description":"1813"},"84a32f77-9f95-5c58-8100-9528d44554ec":{"description":"The Ayyubid king al-Nasir Dawud establishes an emirate at Karak; he erects a hospital (bimaristan) to treat the sick and to teach medicine.","date_from_description":"1229–49"},"84d3dd3f-6827-5068-b1ee-08874ea54a76":{"name":"Inspired by Cadiz Constitution members of Parliament authored the first liberal Constitution","description":"1 October: Inspired by Cadiz Constitution members of Parliament authored the first liberal Constitution. King João VI (1767-1826) promulgated the document on 1 October 1822, in Lisbon. 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Koloman Arpadović crowned as Croatian king in Biograd and the personal union established.","date_from_description":"1102"},"85909fbb-7bcf-5aa6-953e-747d6abe0b07":{"description":"Basil II, also known as Bulgar-Slayer, ascends the throne of the Byzantine Empire.","date_from_description":"976"},"85bb72ad-6896-53fc-a4fa-1ef72f9b232d":{"name":"Promulgation of the first Ottoman constitution","description":"23 December: Promulgation of the first Ottoman constitution.","date_from_description":"1876","date_to_description":"1876"},"85c74932-11fc-5818-a400-b53441f61a78":{"name":"Beginning of reforms in the empire","description":"3 November: Mustafa Reşid Paşa declares the Imperial Rescript of Gülhane (the beginning of the Tanzimat reforms), granting basic rights to Ottoman subjects and declaring a policy of state reform. These reforms included the \"fair and public trial[s] of all accused regardless of religion”, the creation of a system of \"separate competences, religious and civil”, and the validity of non-Muslim testimony.","date_from_description":"1839","date_to_description":"1839"},"85cf5d5d-54b1-5413-ba10-cbbc7349d7c6":{"name":"the heir apparent Archduke Francis Ferdinand was shot in Sarajevo by a Bosnian youth of Serb origin","description":"On 28 June the heir-apparent Archduke Francis Ferdinand is shot in Sarajevo by a Bosnian youth of Serb origin.","date_from_description":"1914","date_to_description":"1914"},"85d90573-8eac-5412-b1c7-11162616f0a0":{"description":"Foundation of Budapest with the unification of Buda, Pest and Óbuda. Plans by architect Miklós Ybl for the opera house in Budapest. Celebration of the 50th annniversary of Liszt’s musical career.","date_from_description":"1873"},"85fab7c6-cee6-502d-9260-f863a373d82e":{"description":"Second Arab expedition. Victory at Hadrumetum (Sousse).","date_from_description":"665"},"86240532-f224-5c3b-b019-d55fbe08f618":{"description":"Birth of Albrecht von Wallenstein (1583–1634), Duke of Friedland, who became the foremost general of emperor Ferdinand II (1619–37) of the Habsburg Dynasty in the Thirty Years’ War.","date_from_description":"1583"},"86e30989-9055-5bf2-8f35-bdbe3e9d818a":{"description":"In Bardo, on 12 May, Sadok Bey is forced to sign the treaty establishing the French protectorate in Tunisia. French colonial occupation begins.","date_from_description":"1881"},"8730568c-7f23-51cb-9249-3768d718584b":{"name":"The mutasarrifiyya","description":"In the aftermath of the Lebanese civil war in 1860, the Ottoman authorities impose a new system of government for the mountain districts of Lebanon. Formerly, the region had been divided into two districts, one with a Maronite Christian administrator and the other with a Druze. The Ottomans combine them into a single district, known as the *mutasarrifiyya*.","date_from_description":"1861","date_to_description":"1861"},"87651cd0-1b60-5e82-8132-362fb7bb320c":{"name":"Austria cooperated in the settlement","description":"Austria cooperates in a settlement to the Turkish–Egyptian crisis of 1840, sending intervention forces to conquer the Ottoman fortresses of Saida (Sidon) and St Jean d’Acre, and concluding with the Dardanelles Treaty signed at the London Straits Convention of 1841.","date_from_description":"1840","date_to_description":"1841"},"877dafd0-9f60-5864-acb2-b560bc71880d":{"name":"Foundation of the NSDAP","description":"Foundation of the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP); the party’s first selection for the German *Reichstag* is on 6 July.","date_from_description":"1920","date_to_description":"1920"},"87a43f83-013e-52ab-97a5-e7971a3d8fa8":{"description":"The Peace Treaty of Drinápoly (Adrianapolis). Bálint Bakfark (Valentin Greff Bakfark) whose lute pieces were published in Lyon (1552) lives at the Transylvanian princely court (in 1572 moves to Padua).","date_from_description":"1568"},"87ad1534-a5ce-5b9b-95cd-2736a922d99f":{"name":"Hammuda Pasha Bey","description":"During the reign of Hammuda Pasha Bey, known as the “Founder” of modern Tunisia, the Regency of Tunis enjoys a thriving economy and an overall sense of security.","date_from_description":"1782","date_to_description":"1813"},"87c22453-97fc-510d-8609-c93ccb1d12bb":{"description":"The first Normans arrive in Southern Italy.","date_from_description":"1009"},"87f39b39-b595-532d-8cd5-f7ca02ce520c":{"name":"Defensive Treaty of Hunkar Iskelesi","description":"8 July: Defensive Treaty of Hünkar İskelesi with Russia establishes Russian naval superiority in the Black Sea.","date_from_description":"1833","date_to_description":"1833"},"884b6c52-4854-57c3-9a84-362a8b9c7571":{"description":"Salah al-Din Ayyub (Saladin) takes control of Egypt.","date_from_description":"1169"},"8891679f-0bca-5f7b-9db7-13f48ca6dba5":{"name":"London Treaty","description":"The London Treaty: England, Russia and France suggest to the Ottoman Sultan that he should recognise Greek independence. This is the first step towards foundation of the Greek State.","date_from_description":"1827","date_to_description":"1827"},"8912b1e8-696f-5773-90f9-c9937abd4248":{"description":"The Hungarian King Ladislas establishes the Zagreb Diocese.","date_from_description":"1094"},"891e3bca-a1af-59b5-8bad-f06a6570abb5":{"description":"Sultan Barquq seizes power, establishing the Circassian Mamluk dynasty.Ibn Khaldun arrives in Egypt, where he lectures at al-Azhar and is appointed head of the Hanafite court of justice.","date_from_description":"1383"},"896804f5-0b98-5218-8da0-0a8feeff05d8":{"description":"In the peace treaty of Roskilde Denmark loses most of its territory to Sweden.","date_from_description":"1658"},"8975e916-f26f-5445-af2e-f433857c7b3a":{"description":"Third Arab expedition led by ‘Uqba (Okba) ibn Nafi, who founds the town of Kairouan.","date_from_description":"670"},"8989e4df-ee57-5979-ade0-7a8544768efb":{"description":"Spanish occupation of the Kingdom of Tunis and fall of the Hafsid princes.","date_from_description":"1535–1574"},"89921c7a-6c88-55fb-8491-e1a4a127f6c8":{"name":"Signing of the Treaty of Versailles","description":"On signature of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany must face up to its responsibility to make reparation payments, abandon territory and let go of its colonies. The League of Nations is founded.","date_from_description":"1919","date_to_description":"1919"},"89a5bc65-0567-5c38-865f-1a8185e9a31e":{"description":"After writing the Summa de paenintentia Paulus Hungarus, a canon lawyer, returns from Bologna and organises the Dominican order in Hungary. French architect Villard de Honnecourt visits Hungary.","date_from_description":"1221"},"89b3b259-caa1-5021-80b7-ebc9ba9afb10":{"name":"The Paris Treaty","description":"30 March: The Paris Treaty marks the end of the Crimean War (1853–56); the Ottoman Empire is admitted into the Concert of Europe.","date_from_description":"1856","date_to_description":"1856"},"89db1804-533f-5192-a876-220a9f594541":{"name":"Mohammad bin Saud established the first Saudi state","description":"In 1765 Imam Muhammad bin Saud establishes the First Saudi State in Arabia, starting with the Najd region, and making its capital the city of Dir‘iyya.","date_from_description":"1765","date_to_description":"1800"},"89f7da91-c373-5f3d-be38-70971584f56f":{"name":"Treaty of Sevres","description":"10 August: Treaty of Sévres, which divides Anatolia between the Allies, Greeks, Armenians and Kurds.","date_from_description":"1920","date_to_description":"1920"},"8a0da1ea-cb8c-588f-af93-21ad12e921dd":{"description":"The city of Jerash is discovered by the German explorer Seetzen; Jerash is one of the best preserved Roman cities in the East and was also an Umayyad city minting its own coins.","date_from_description":"1806"},"8a0dbd3b-c7ab-5cb0-9f80-bfd50d6c4a40":{"description":"Birth of the painter, wood carver and engraver Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528). During this period Renaissance art flourished in Germany and Dürer travelled to Italy twice.","date_from_description":"1471"},"8adc9778-a6d1-53d4-b4dc-bdfa8f45a902":{"name":"Imperial Rescript of Reforms","description":"28 February: Under diplomatic pressure, the Sublime Porte is forced to declare the Imperial Rescript of Reforms (Islahat Fermanı), giving the empire admission to the Concert of Europe. The Rescript states the equality of Muslims and non-Muslims before law, the right of non-Muslims to be admitted to government and military service, and abolition of the poll tax and freedom in education for non-Muslims.","date_from_description":"1856","date_to_description":"1856"},"8ae3414f-1a18-5e0e-9e99-e6b89b13d3d9":{"description":"The death of Sinan, the master architect of the Ottoman Empire.","date_from_description":"1588"},"8b047a14-4113-55b1-aa73-6fc91cfdba22":{"description":"The first golden coin is minted by Mehmet II.","date_from_description":"1478"},"8b2181da-e6d7-56c0-8fd9-a5101b4879eb":{"description":"Issue of the Charter of Felicianus mentioning the founder of the Diocese, King Ladislas, the first bishop of Zagreb, Bishop Duh, and other clergy.","date_from_description":"1134"},"8b2697d2-dfa5-56b4-bf1b-b92a400f86da":{"description":"The beginning of a long period of cultural revival under Sultan Qaytbay.","date_from_description":"1468"},"8b321ee6-41d9-5afe-ac80-5a5d90a4c313":{"description":"Sack of Rome: the imperial forces of Charles V (1520–56) made up of mercenaries (lanzichenecchi) sack Rome. This event is considered to mark the end of the Renaissance.","date_from_description":"1527"},"8b366f79-f1db-5df1-9d61-2f466087069d":{"name":"Foundation of the secret organisation Filiki Etaireia","description":"Foundation of the secret organisation Filiki Etaireia (Friendly Society) prepares the ground for the Greek Revolution.","date_from_description":"1814","date_to_description":"1814"},"8b4c0768-7ef5-5e1c-bc82-4a770beaeecf":{"description":"The Swedish King Olaf establishes a mint in his town Sigtuna, which he probably calls Sigtune Dei (God’s Sigtuna), and strikes his first coins.","date_from_description":"995"},"8b58cb7e-f6dc-5dda-b4a1-5d3a58fe7482":{"description":"J. Janský publishes his discovery of four blood groups. Introduction of the right to vote. Workers’ strikes. The first permanent cinema.","date_from_description":"1907"},"8ba2e24d-8a08-5ff1-9d43-aaccb9084a29":{"name":"Hambacher Fest","description":"From 27 to 30 May an apparently non-political country fair, the “Hambacher Fest”, was held by a German national democratic assembly, demanding freedom, national entity and popular sovereignty.","date_from_description":"1832","date_to_description":"1832"},"8bcd27f3-c0ad-5d38-8347-1971bca6fcd5":{"name":"Bankruptcy of Greece","description":"Prime Minister Charilaos Trikoupis declares that Greece is bankrupt.","date_from_description":"1895","date_to_description":"1895"},"8c073e9f-3803-583b-8313-d568691e42c0":{"name":"Death of Emperor Francis Joseph","description":"Death of Emperor Francis Joseph and accession of Emperor Charles I to the Austro-Hungarian throne.","date_from_description":"1916","date_to_description":"1916"},"8c0ca8b9-fbea-5d31-a1a5-403cace11fd7":{"description":"Enlightenment leads to the creation, under the Grand Duke of Tuscany Pietro Leopoldo (1765–90), of a new penal code. The death penalty and torture are abolished for the first time in Europe.","date_from_description":"1787"},"8c321b63-6e09-5e87-90a9-24d28ee25683":{"description":"The Aghlabids begin the conquest of Sicily.","date_from_description":"827"},"8c33a51c-477e-542d-ba24-ba0c468b29fe":{"description":"Peter Forsskål, in his dissertation De libertate civili (On Civil Freedom), advocates for complete freedom of print.","date_from_description":"1759"},"8c86ef04-ea21-5362-a81f-96e5cdc55dca":{"description":"Birth of the ‘Abd al-Wadid Dynasty in Tlemcen and the long reign of Abu Yahya I ibn Zayyan, making Tlemcen an important commercial, cultural and spiritual centre in Central Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1236"},"8daf36ae-da19-51be-8431-78d4430c8364":{"name":"Army mutiny led by Rafael del Riego","description":"In 1820, the army mutiny led by Rafael del Riego leads to King Fernando VII accepting the Constitution, in spite of his former opposition to constitutional monarchy, bringing in the Trienio Liberal period of popular rule. The Congress of Verona in 1822 gives France a mandate to restore Fernando as absolute monarch. In 1823 the French army invades Spain to restore absolutism, ending the Trienio Liberal.","date_from_description":"1820","date_to_description":"1823"},"8dc1e066-b0ca-50ae-a67d-ad6cb9504c69":{"name":"Prince Pedro, Duke of Braganza and royal heir","description":"King João VI asks his heir Prince Pedro, Duke of Braganza (1798–1834) to remain in Brazil. Part of the court decides to stay there. Facing revolt against the anti-Brazilian policy of Portugal, Pedro proclaims the independence of Brazil on 7 September (Grito do Ipiranga). In October he is acclaimed as the first Brazilian Emperor, Pedro I.","date_from_description":"1822","date_to_description":"1822"},"8de2de38-0008-5470-854c-c8741ae77ba8":{"description":"Johannes Bureus’ Rvna-ABC is published. It was a reading book with parallel texts in runic and contemporary Swedish writing.","date_from_description":"1611"},"8e713a24-daae-5f44-8cda-86a8f557f7a3":{"description":"On the initiative of Charles VI the Karolina road from Karlovac to Bosilje, Vrbovsko, Mrkopalj, Bakar and Rijeka is built.","date_from_description":"1726"},"8f17df9c-3af3-55db-ba92-cc38b1e7b7c8":{"description":"Mua’yyad Shaykh retakes Syria and rules until his death in 824 / 1421.","date_from_description":"1412"},"8f4bc9d4-1925-5635-bb1e-d9e967d6babb":{"name":"Revolution in Austria","description":"Revolution in Austria-Hungary and northern Italy.","date_from_description":"1848","date_to_description":"1849"},"8f4f638d-7dc8-5b7a-ab9d-c40c130ab513":{"description":"Charles V stops at Algiers, bringing the town great international prestige.","date_from_description":"1541"},"8f8ae31e-110e-547d-b690-cacfe10effcf":{"description":"One of the greatest Sufis of Islam, Ibn al-Arabi (b. 1156), travels all around the Muslim lands and finally settles in Damascus where, under Ayyubid patronage, he composes many works.","date_from_description":"1230–1240"},"8fcec683-d1c6-572d-b49b-de8829a1ce4a":{"description":"The Synod of Whitby establishes the date of Easter in Britain and consequently the supremacy of Roman Christianity over Celtic Christianity.","date_from_description":"664"},"900be75a-9ad3-5cbe-a28d-b01531cf470d":{"description":"After the defeat of France at the hands of Prussia, the Commune proclaimed in Paris is crushed by the Thiers government sitting in Versailles. The repression is brutal, with thousands deported to join some of the victims of the Kabyle insurrection of the same year.","date_from_description":"1871"},"900cd715-30bd-5aa2-a41c-89b6ad4b1a55":{"description":"‘Abd al-Mu’min restores Tlemcen.","date_from_description":"1131"},"908a57c7-e383-5113-b9a9-1597ded072c1":{"description":"The declaration of Firman of Islahat (Reform).","date_from_description":"1856"},"90bfa0dd-40ce-568a-9055-6506205b8c6f":{"description":"Ifriqiya is invaded by Hilalian tribes from Egypt. Split into several different kingdoms, Ifriqiya falls to the invaders.","date_from_description":"1050–1052"},"9174a4b4-0d7f-50c2-b352-98b3ff8d8dd5":{"description":"Battle of Sarmada, between the Crusader Principality of Antioch and the Artuqid Atabeg ruler of Aleppo, witnessing the success of the local Muslim forces even without assistance from the Seljuq sultanate.","date_from_description":"1119"},"9196c837-d2b4-55fd-9eef-0cb25ebf46e9":{"description":"Vitterhetsakademien (The Royal Academy of Letters, History and Antiquities) is founded by Lovisa Ulrika, inspired by the Académie Francaise.","date_from_description":"1753"},"91ccf893-db26-5e21-8dd8-2baffc8ff692":{"description":"The War of Independence culminates in the creation of the modern Republic of Turkey in 1923.","date_from_description":"1919–1922"},"9230f9be-daa6-5e9e-a9d7-86214e177c16":{"description":"Mu’awiya Ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of Greater Syria begins to build the seaport of ‘Akka and to establish the first Islamic shipyard, where the first Muslim fleet is built.","date_from_description":"643"},"926714b9-3c86-5caf-94f9-53fc3832be91":{"description":"Bede, a priest, monk and the first English historian, publishes the Ecclesiastical History of the English People.","date_from_description":"731"},"92857bdd-10d7-55e6-b625-792029009380":{"description":"Around 30,000 Croatian soldiers, mainly cavalry, participate in the Thirty Years’ War. Croatian troops fight against Miklós Bethlen (1642–1716) in Bohemia and Hungary.","date_from_description":"1618–48"},"92bb47f6-e25d-5b2c-8c90-6cce1133f7fd":{"description":"The first Western musical instrument in the Ottoman Palace: .an organ sent by Elizabeth I of England to Mehmet III.","date_from_description":"1595"},"92f84a88-32ed-5c5a-b607-90c4a056aca6":{"description":"Mustafa Kemal Ataturk is born in Salonika.","date_from_description":"1881"},"92f9c3ca-d9e4-5e70-8dcc-3e2214584a58":{"description":"Start of the Catastro de Ensenada, an attempt to organise state taxation.","date_from_description":"1749"},"939fe8a0-ff23-51bf-afdb-adca5baef228":{"description":"Khedive Ismail orders the construction of European-style districts of Cairo in anticipation of the opening of the Suez Canal and builds Abdin Palace to become the new seat of rule.","date_from_description":"1863"},"93d189cb-ae36-5e54-9295-ea87ce356a14":{"name":"Construction of the Tour Eiffel","description":"The World Fair in Paris showcases the development of the latest industrial processes, and the Eiffel Tower is constructed for it.","date_from_description":"1889","date_to_description":"1889"},"93eeb569-6e0c-523e-a5aa-5b5d8226c6c2":{"description":"Beginning of Entente Cordiale between France and England, resulting in the division of the Mediterranean and recognition of England’s influence in Egypt and France’s influence in Morocco. The 1912 Franco-Moroccan Agreement establishes a French protectorate in Morocco.","date_from_description":"1904"},"940a5973-8f4e-5448-b47e-26a4a83bd6c9":{"description":"Battle of Maysalun, on the outskirts of Damascus, between the Syrians and the French. Yusuf Al-Azmeh, leader of the Syrian army, is killed in battle and considered a nationalist hero. Beginning of the French Mandate.","date_from_description":"1920"},"944f02a1-5497-571d-9cc3-b752a0d8b752":{"description":"Alliance between Portugal and England.","date_from_description":"1386"},"945e7d97-47be-56f7-ad31-1b918b2899d1":{"name":"Shaikh Sultan bin Saqr succeeds his father","description":"Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr succeeds his father as leader of the Qawasim. He expands the Qawasim Empire to the east to encompass the areas now known as Khor Fakkan and Kalba. He delegates the administration of key strongholds to his brothers and later to his sons. His half-brother Salih bin Saqr rules Sharjah from 1803 to 1838, followed by his son Saqr bin Sultan (until 1846), and then his son Abdallah bin Sultan (until 1855).","date_from_description":"1803","date_to_description":"1866"},"94e43014-84ba-5a4e-b222-f019edb670f4":{"description":"The beginning of the Baroque city of Vukovar, building of the city centre, Franciscan monastery, parish church and the Palace of the Counts Eltz.","date_from_description":"1720"},"94efe63f-8d9d-537b-b4d9-8311051449b2":{"description":"Origination of the Moravian Margraviate as part of the Czech state, with main centres Znojmo, Brno and Olomouc.","date_from_description":"1031"},"95007fc3-33aa-5012-b4ec-50e62f916c01":{"description":"Movement of nations – invasions of nomadic tribes, arrival of western Slavs from the Danube and Vistula basins. Agrarian-pastoral culture, cremation burials. The empire of Samo – the first tribal union of the Slavs.","date_from_description":"Around 400"},"951b13fd-8e49-5fd2-8d19-51539db2f274":{"description":"The Edict of Nantes ends the Wars of Religion, affording protestants considerable rights in the Kingdom of France.","date_from_description":"1598"},"954e1c59-b97f-5337-a0d4-24b34d77b952":{"description":"The Duke of Medina-Sidonia takes the town of Melilla.","date_from_description":"1497"},"95f0662b-6346-53a0-b075-a65fc7dbd1ef":{"description":"A devastating outbreak of the plague compounds the misery of renewed famine and a disastrous war with England.","date_from_description":"1348"},"962f6a76-8ff2-573e-963e-d54a0fb7fe5f":{"description":"Hugh Capet, son of Odo Count of Paris, takes the crown of France and starts a new dynasty.","date_from_description":"987"},"963e3689-f49e-516d-953b-972e7f9e5da2":{"description":"A professorial chair of Semitic languages is established at Uppsala University. It is the oldest chair of Semitic languages in Sweden.","date_from_description":"1605"},"963e88b5-a317-516e-8a30-94670f4673de":{"name":"Conference of San Remo","description":"The Conference of San Remo was an international meeting convened to decide which parts of its territories the Ottoman Empire would lose, to become the mandated territory under the League of Nations. For example, France received mandated territory for Syria and Lebanon (and King Faysal of Iraq goes into exile after losing Greater Syria to the French).","date_from_description":"1920","date_to_description":"1920"},"963f1a66-1273-5c8e-bb5a-0e563c684af7":{"description":"The Royal Academy at Åbo is founded by Queen Christina. The town Åbo (Turku) is today in Finland. The Academy was moved to the new capital Helsingfors (Helsinki) in the 19th century, and became the Imperial Alexander’s University.","date_from_description":"1640"},"969a9bfc-7bcf-53fd-b3a5-8951c39a7a47":{"description":"Massacre of the Janissaries by Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II.","date_from_description":"1826"},"96e250c2-84c2-5e5b-b6e8-9bff94cc60cd":{"description":"On 13 May Karamanoğlu Mehmed Bey declares that only the Turkish language is to be used for daily and official use.","date_from_description":"1277"},"96e5e4b5-aa64-5511-b1ec-329efd627e19":{"name":"The Ottomans abandon Doha","description":"The Ottomans suddenly abandon Doha, leaving behind guns, shells and ammunition.","date_from_description":"1915","date_to_description":"1915"},"9710722e-3904-53dd-95fe-25256ccdb433":{"name":"Liberal ideas emergence since 1817","description":"The emergence of liberal ideas. In Porto a Provisional Ruling Council is created (1820) and pursues the rebellion against British rule that started in Lisbon. Liberal revolution breaks out in Porto (August 1820), spreads to Lisbon, beginning the radical cycle known as Vintismo. King João VI is forced to return to Portugal from Brazil in 1821.","date_from_description":"1817","date_to_description":"1821"},"9712f917-16c8-5108-980f-45c135da3741":{"description":"Having conquered all of North Africa and established Arab rule, ‘Uqba (Okba) ibn Nafi is killed. His mausoleum and mosque are erected near Biskra at Sidi Okba.","date_from_description":"682"},"973c6b8b-7a18-5ba3-8988-dd148f9de463":{"description":"King James IV of Scotland is killed, along with much of the Scottish aristocracy and thousands of Highlanders and Lowlanders, by the English forces of Henry VIII at Flodden Field in Northumberland.","date_from_description":"1513"},"976ca7cb-265a-5998-8ae5-7250fc2ed750":{"name":"Carlist party rises three times in three dynastic wars against the State","description":"As a consequence of political instability and of a woman taking over the rule of Spain, the deeply conservative and ultra-Catholic Carlist party rises three times in three dynastic wars against the State (1836–39, 1846–49 and 1872–76).","date_from_description":"1836","date_to_description":"1876"},"977b1c25-67c0-5e7f-88f4-033570cb4b2e":{"name":"Carol de Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen ruler of the United Principalities","description":"14–20 April: plebiscite leading to German Prince Carol de Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen being elected ruler of the United Principalities and recognised by the Ottoman Empire in October. On 13 July a new constitution is adopted, based on the Belgian one from 1835.","date_from_description":"1866","date_to_description":"1866"},"979d710a-1ec4-5981-837d-41ab03d27893":{"name":"Italy annexes Venice","description":"Italy participates in the Austro-Prussian War on the side of Prussia and annexes Venice.","date_from_description":"1866","date_to_description":"1866"},"97c12ea3-4f56-58fe-b558-e863ea2f0570":{"name":"Alliance of the three Emperors","description":"The alliance of the three Emperors of Germany, Russia and Austria recognise the Habsburg Empire’s predominance in the western Balkans. In June, Austria reaches an agreement with King Milan I of Serbia, whereby Austria promises to support an eventual Serbian expansion in the south, while Serbia agrees to exclude any agreement with other powers without Austria’s prior approval.","date_from_description":"1881","date_to_description":"1881"},"97ced9b9-f2a0-5c4d-aa0d-9fa4accd95ef":{"description":"The Portuguese found the fortress of Santa Cruz de Aguer near to the village of Founti.","date_from_description":"1505"},"97f3fb7e-3209-5e2c-a5bb-df21a46512a1":{"description":"At the synod (church assembly) at Uppsala this year it is decided to keep Sweden in the Lutheran faith, banning foreign religions in the country.","date_from_description":"1593"},"984730ec-78ba-562d-aaa2-0a7e7716b621":{"description":"Manfred, son of Frederick II, becomes King of Sicily (1258–66).","date_from_description":"1258"},"9859ec0a-bd29-51ca-98b9-98dad01d443d":{"description":"The Ninth Symphony of the composer Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827) is seen as the peak of Viennese classical music.","date_from_description":"1823"},"98c09fd6-7c7b-560e-aa74-dda1e43a65d6":{"description":"The poet, historian and philosopher Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805) finishes his drama Die Räuber, a great success in the Sturm und Drang Period.","date_from_description":"1782"},"9906c450-0cbb-5e4d-bc59-287aac1ff9d7":{"description":"Beginning of the reign of Francis I. Continuation of the Italian Wars, marked by victory at Marignano and defeat at Pavia (1526). The King of France effects a reconciliation with the Turks, creating a scandal in the Christian world.","date_from_description":"1515"},"990fa704-5564-53e4-9cd8-586641a9d33a":{"description":"Death of John II and ascension of Manuel I.","date_from_description":"1495"},"9920fb8a-96c7-5363-9af9-de70d2143d3e":{"name":"Formation of Serbian Duchy Vojvodina","description":"The Serbian uprising against the Austrian monarchy sees the formation of *Srpsko Vojvodstvo* (the Serbian Duchy). Stevan Knićanin-Vojvoda (military commander) commands Serbian volunteers during the Hungarian Revolution (1848–49).","date_from_description":"1848","date_to_description":"1848"},"9954217a-4406-5abd-b1f8-a0d807e80755":{"description":"Ahmad Ibn Tulun (r. 868–84) conquers Palestine and annexes it to Egypt.","date_from_description":"877"},"999699a8-1c62-57f7-adcb-0797447fb6b5":{"description":"Crac des Chevaliers, a critical Crusader stronghold in the Syrian coastal mountains, falls to the Mamluk Sultan al-Zahir Baybars (r. 1260–77).","date_from_description":"1271"},"99a83377-13c3-5bb1-a766-d812bb727188":{"name":"Karlsbader Beschlüsse","description":"The Karlsbader Beschlüsse (Carlsbad Decrees) was intended to suppress liberal and national movements through censorship of the press and political persecution.","date_from_description":"1819","date_to_description":"1819"},"99becd50-e409-5a29-94d2-6492740e8dfc":{"description":"An organised National Archive is established, with a Director of Antiquities.","date_from_description":"1618"},"9a3916ce-d256-5c92-a102-e3cc2179fc41":{"description":"Carl von Linné’s Systema naturae, a pioneering work on plant classification, is published.","date_from_description":"1735"},"9a6eeb77-3ff6-50d4-8a8a-9ef27b11a1d9":{"name":"Spain's first Constitution of 1812","description":"Spain's first Constitution of 1812, influenced by the French Revolution, is revolutionary because it declares the Spanish American colonies to be provinces and all their inhabitants citizens. The constitution reduces some of the powers and privileges of the monarchy, aristocracy and church and will influence future post-independence South American constitutions. Up to 1876 Spain will change its constitution four times (1837, 1845, 1869, 1876).","date_from_description":"1812","date_to_description":"1812"},"9aaaeb56-9081-5d5f-b3f9-350631115f35":{"description":"Christopher Polhem is asked to construct a new kind of steam engine, which is later used successfully in the copper mines at Stora Kopparberg in Sweden.","date_from_description":"1690"},"9b04f760-70ba-559c-9c4c-f93f7ee2e7af":{"name":"Congress of Berlin","description":"Uprisings in the Balkan Ottoman territories lead to disproportionate reprisals. Popular protests in Britain oppose support for the Ottoman Empire. In contrast to the Crimean War, Britain provides no military aid to the Ottomans in their war with Russia. Diplomatic support is rewarded however, with Britain’s occupation of Cyprus confirmed at the Congress of Berlin.","date_from_description":"1878","date_to_description":"1878"},"9b0e0347-84a3-5ad6-90de-36ebb5db81fe":{"description":"The battle of Marj Dabiq, north of Aleppo, between the Ottoman and Mamluk armies, leads to the collapse of the Mamluk empire and the beginning of the Ottomans’ rule in Greater Syria including Palestine.","date_from_description":"1516"},"9b2b1358-8caf-5edd-9920-05860f764130":{"name":"Alexandru Ioan Cuza","description":"14 May: coup d’état of Alexandru Ioan Cuza, who dissolves parliament and proposes a new constitutional project, which is voted the same month and ratified by the Ottoman Empire and the guaranteeing Powers in June 1864. The *Statute Expanding the Paris Convention* assigned greater power to the prince and the government.","date_from_description":"1864","date_to_description":"1864"},"9bb23d04-4eb9-5a0b-99fb-b6e49c6ba414":{"description":"Almohad victory over the Christians at the Battle of Alarcos (Ciudad Real).","date_from_description":"1195"},"9c525427-19e0-5584-b3b5-a004e74c6cf3":{"description":"Fatima al-Fihriya, daughter of a Kairouanese man living in Morocco, founds the Qarawiyin Mosque in Fez.","date_from_description":"857"},"9c72d77d-ee4c-53b9-8f71-7f9d509dbc4f":{"description":"Spread of Christianity, arrival of missionaries Constantine (Cyril) and Methodius; establishment of Old Slavonic language, Glagolitic script. Archbishopric established. Conflicts with Frankish empire, invasions of Hungarian tribes. The foundation of Prague Castle.","date_from_description":"863"},"9c76674a-4fbb-556b-b357-81a0dc29adaf":{"description":"Albigensian Crusade against Cathars established in southern France triggers the conquest of the Languedoc by barons from the north of France. The Kingdom of France experiences an unprecedented period of economic and cultural expansion.","date_from_description":"1208"},"9c8f81a8-ece3-5b44-97ed-f41a573fec3c":{"name":"Isabel II comes of age in 1843","description":"Isabel II comes of age in 1843. During her reign the political parties are divided into liberals and conservatives. The Church regains its privileges under the 2nd Concordat signed in 1851. The Queen's rule ends in 1868 with the revolution known as La Gloriosa (the Glorious Revolution).","date_from_description":"1843","date_to_description":"1868"},"9ce42dd2-e07d-5c4d-b205-ea3001c4d47d":{"description":"Al-Zahir Baybars defeats the Mongols at Ain Jalut and reinstates the Abbasid caliph in Cairo.","date_from_description":"1260"},"9d0ebea9-7fda-5072-bc7f-ab89cdcadf2c":{"description":"The Battle of Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade): János Hunyadi defeats the attacking Turks led by Sultan Mehmed II. After his victory Hunyadi dies from plague in the military camp.","date_from_description":"1456"},"9d14244d-f574-5f1a-b777-9363a577d9c6":{"description":"The Hammadids and the Zirids reach an agreement to share Central Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1042"},"9d2cc5fc-65e4-5c8d-af9d-46ffb111b571":{"description":"Prussian–Austrian War. Establishment of workers’ associations. J. G. Mendel pioneers genetics. The foundation stone of the National Theatre, Prague laid (1868).","date_from_description":"1866"},"9d566a6f-e45e-5d52-9f49-fc632c7d95bc":{"description":"Italy joins the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria: Italian colonial policy begins.","date_from_description":"1882"},"9d57cf87-4c8a-51e0-897c-26c2ca365e63":{"description":"Inauguration of the Suez Canal for international shipping in a great celebration hosted by Khedive Ismail.Founding of Dar al-Kuttub, the first public library in Egypt.Opening of the first opera house in the Middle East.","date_from_description":"1869"},"9d779759-50b4-5c34-ab66-dc66330efe01":{"description":"Croatia forms a state union with Austria. By a decision of the Croatian Assembly, the dynasty of Habsburg comes to the Croatian throne.","date_from_description":"1527"},"9d8a7c8f-ad81-5516-b2bb-658af1cfc977":{"name":"September revolution known as La Gloriosa","description":"Carlist wars, economic crisis (1866–68) and disgruntlement with Queen Isabel II and the government explode in the September revolution known as La Gloriosa. The revolution is followed by six years of democratic government under Amadeo I, from the Italian Saboya family, (1870–73) and then under the first Spanish Republic (1873–74), causing the 3rd Carlist war.","date_from_description":"1868","date_to_description":"1868"},"9dbe88be-fa1c-5e79-b79f-e51460222b58":{"description":"The Tulunid dynasty collapses and Egypt reverts to direct Abbasid control.","date_from_description":"905"},"9df246be-7e24-59fd-98ca-5d56643eb083":{"description":"‘Abd al-Mu’min conquers Ifriqiya and unifies the three countries of the Maghreb (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia).","date_from_description":"1159"},"9e4585bb-151b-5ced-a846-8ee7434d9791":{"description":"Salah al-Din recaptures Jerusalem.","date_from_description":"1193"},"9eae650a-ec2f-593b-8811-0ba66ad6f62a":{"description":"Edward I defeats William Wallace at the Battle of Falkirk and reconquers Scotland. Wallace goes into hiding but is captured in 1305 and executed in London for treason.","date_from_description":"1298"},"9ed781be-d34c-590a-9e80-16be57da95ea":{"description":"Croatian king Stjepan I (1030–58) focused on rebuilding Croatia’s military strength and in 1032 he sent his naval fleet to assist Byzantium in its war against the Arabs.","date_from_description":"1032"},"9f214dfe-dd30-5976-9274-7ea677e01a05":{"description":"Muhammad ibn Tughj, governor of Amman under the Tulunids, defeats the Bedouins and bandits who attack pilgrim caravans; this gives him celebrity in Baghdad.","date_from_description":"918"},"9f26fc26-dd73-5f23-a28d-5e2b9b09238f":{"description":"Renovation of al Azhar riwaq (portico) screens, restoration of the mosque's ceilings and rationing of a daily meal of lentils for the poor by the wali al-Sharif Muhammad Pasha.","date_from_description":"1595"},"9f2a2dc7-8cb0-5ca4-bfd1-8386e901add6":{"description":"Sultan Abu Inan founds the library of the Qarawiyin Mosque in Fez.","date_from_description":"1349"},"9f56d2ae-5739-575f-afdc-e4ba165c8fc6":{"description":"King Gustav Vasa made Sweden a Protestant country. 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The 1829 Treaty of Andrianople recognises Greece’s independence.","date_from_description":"1827"},"a1f37412-001d-5ec1-a3f4-4c56a7a20c56":{"description":"Msila founded by the Fatimids.","date_from_description":"925"},"a2226042-3ebf-5828-b710-7252e6703035":{"description":"The forestry department is introduced in Ajlun (Orman) to protect the woods from being collected by the inhabitants.","date_from_description":"1888"},"a243ad19-d20c-5f94-b415-81b04e7a6c36":{"name":"Jordan was a part of the Ottoman Syria","description":"Jordan is a part of Ottoman Syria. 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Institution of a regular army kitted out like its European counterparts.","date_from_description":"1846"},"a2d5c3bb-ba69-5544-a238-47e55a8cf383":{"description":"Sulayman the Magnificent takes the throne.","date_from_description":"1520"},"a2d7fd9a-de9f-53a2-8ead-7daca1751e64":{"description":"The Almoravid Sanhaja set out the conquer the Maghreb under the leadership of ‘Abdallah ibn Yassine.","date_from_description":"1054"},"a2e6c462-06ac-5f27-823f-2545854c8bd3":{"description":"Germany is proclaimed a Republic and on 11 August the Weimar Constitution comes into effect with Friedrich Ebert as its first president.","date_from_description":"1919"},"a2e963ba-eae3-5033-a6c3-46c4d3cd62d9":{"description":"Foundation of princely town of Sabra-al Mansuriya.","date_from_description":"947"},"a30b5d58-c0a4-577e-b94e-de7261f9f627":{"description":"Byzantine reconquest of Africa led by the Byzantine general Belisarius. 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Compulsory preventive injection against pox introduced in Szabolcs County by Dr Frigyes Korányi.","date_from_description":"1861"},"aedb2eeb-e5a0-59d2-947d-9d0e59dca69e":{"name":"Reorganization of the bureaucracy","description":"Reorganisation of the bureaucracy and introduction of a new system of rank.","date_from_description":"1835","date_to_description":"1835"},"aee55dcb-e64d-56d6-8d37-339110aa7cff":{"description":"The Venetians install Krešimir III (1000–30) as king of Croatia; he ruled with his brother Gojislav. They attempted to restore rule over the Dalmatian cities that were under Venetian control.","date_from_description":"1000"},"af28fca7-bb8c-5944-b735-7537a932742b":{"name":"Foundation of Jerusalem Bishopric","description":"Evangelists in Britain and Germany found the Jerusalem Protestant bishopric. There is an idea of converting Jews – the first bishop is a converted Jew – and the bishopric establishes a British cultural and educational interest in the Levant. 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Nikola Šubić Zrinski holds out against the army of the Sultan Sulayman I and falls during the last attack.","date_from_description":"1566"},"dbdc55cf-cbdc-57f4-92f4-24bcbfdb2f84":{"description":"Anders Celsius presents his thermometer, which shows the temperature on a scale of 100 degrees.","date_from_description":"1742"},"dbe59a55-2cd7-53ec-b4b2-afb589fe96bd":{"description":"Jesuit mathematician Ruđer Bošković publishes his work *De natura et usu infinitorum et infinite parvorum* in Rome.","date_from_description":"1741"},"dbfb208e-9ef7-5de2-80cf-cbb2915bc41d":{"description":"The Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amrillah (r. 996–1021) orders the destruction of the Holy Sepulchre Church. 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Damascus is definitively occupied and the Islamic conquest of Syria begins.","date_from_description":"636"},"dd5c065d-477f-5ea9-8e11-662a99b5b09c":{"description":"According to some, the Croatian kingdom was established and Duke Tomislav became its first king.  \nThe first Church Synod is held in Split.","date_from_description":"925"},"de28ed00-1d01-5505-a1e9-e174ff172b66":{"description":"Decisive encounter between the armies of ‘Abd al-Mu’min and Tashufin ibn Ali near Oran. Death throes of the Almoravid dynasty.","date_from_description":"1145"},"de2f000c-cfaa-5bfa-b2e4-3ec80a893998":{"name":"The first Tunisian political party","description":"The first Tunisian political party is established as the Constitutional Liberal Party of Tunisia: “Le destour’’. 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Independent Hungarian government (Prime Minister: Count Lajos Batthyány). Hungarian victory in the battle of Pákozd.","date_from_description":"1848"},"dec2255f-859a-5ea4-b21c-046b469c315e":{"description":"Umberto I (1878–1900) is assassinated by the anarchist Gaetano Bresci. He is succeeded by his son Victor Emanuel III (1900–46).","date_from_description":"1900"},"dec494c3-1b67-5083-9f8f-22fe01a9c778":{"name":"USA declaration of war on the German Empire","description":"The United States declares war on the German Empire.","date_from_description":"1917","date_to_description":"1917"},"ded926c2-f3e7-596b-bc2f-c6569f079b40":{"name":"Bab-i Ali coup","description":"23 January: Bab-ı Ali coup d'état in the empire (Turkish: Bâb-ı Âlî Baskını) results in Grand Vizier Kamil Paşa being driven from power and replacement of Minister of War Nazım Paşa by İsmail Enver. Effectively ending the London Peace Conference, it marks a significant point in the Ottoman government's progress towards centralisation, giving de facto power to the triumvirate known as the Three Pashas.","date_from_description":"1913","date_to_description":"1913"},"df10ab15-72a2-575f-aaea-0e1c635a99fd":{"description":"Peace of Augsburg: failure of the imperial policies of Charles V.","date_from_description":"1555"},"df480296-e505-5591-b42e-51a9b97477e7":{"description":"The completion of the Great Mosque of Ahmad ibn Tulun, which features many innovative elements in Islamic architecture. Annexed to it was a bimaristan (hospital) to treat the poor and it also served as a shelter for the disabled.","date_from_description":"877"},"df91e41a-78ac-53b4-93f5-9d311ce78485":{"description":"The Battle of Varna: Sultan Murad II defeats the Hungarian army. King Ulaslo I dies but commander-in-chief János Hunyadi survives. Stripes and a double cross first appear together in Hungary’s coat of arms.","date_from_description":"1444"},"df995303-878c-5e40-99d7-ef78b6593a65":{"description":"Around this time the emporium Birka is founded. This community or small town was situated on a small island in the Lake Mälaren, not far from today’s Stockholm.","date_from_description":"750"},"dfe631ee-5cdf-519b-9900-189432eb9818":{"description":"The victory of the Byzantine army over the Persian army in the Battle of Nineveh on 12 December, which breaks the power of the Sassanid dynasty.","date_from_description":"627"},"dff5d537-8122-5251-9a1f-7c0a00f69ebb":{"description":"Founding of the Ottoman governing unit in Middle Slavonia with the centre in Požega. 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In the same year, Barbarossa is crowned King of Italy in Pavia.","date_from_description":"1154"},"e205bea0-1c2b-5928-8567-a7336452f9c5":{"description":"Birth of Saint Fructuosus of Braga.","date_from_description":"c. 610"},"e21b4827-ea94-5fb0-8cf5-de9a45f8e87b":{"description":"Merchants from Amalfi (Italy) construct a huge social institution including a hospital in Jerusalem.","date_from_description":"1048"},"e26c8990-cb4c-5264-a88c-9d3bcba1d94c":{"description":"Olof Rudbeck the Elder publishes his Nova exercitatio anatomica, a pioneering work on the lymphatic vascular systems.","date_from_description":"1653"},"e2787654-cd49-577d-8bc9-13e2b3bd8ef4":{"description":"Sultan Sulyman the Magnificent (r. 1520-66) orders the construction of Jerusalem’s city wall, the citadel and the restoration of the Haram al-Sharif and the water system. His wife establishes a famous foundation","date_from_description":"1538"},"e2946e30-19c8-53fb-8154-96405aa99d19":{"description":"Law separating the Church and the State.","date_from_description":"1911"},"e2a32726-d1a6-571a-bc0b-a8d154f9fead":{"description":"Ibn Khaldun teaches at Béjaia.","date_from_description":"1365"},"e2a693dd-d5c5-5158-870a-fd111cd2e0a5":{"name":"British support of Greek independence","description":"The poet Lord Byron epitomises Romantic support for Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire. Over the next century, British opinion wavers between seeing the Ottoman Empire as a force for stability or one oppressing Christian populations – the Armenians and Balkan Christians.","date_from_description":"1829","date_to_description":"1829"},"e2ae8c52-993f-523b-8536-a6032f1dfc1d":{"description":"The Marinids annex the Kingdom of Tlemcen, and renovate Mansurah and the Sidi Boumediene mausoleum.","date_from_description":"1337"},"e2c660af-cf37-5e43-bdf9-58206070e022":{"description":"A great famine strikes the country due to the low Nile flood, during the rule of Amir Yazid ibn Hakim al-Mahdi, ruler of the Abbasids.","date_from_description":"764"},"e2c6e0ff-23b6-51fa-ada1-bc426edb793d":{"description":"Entry of Miklós Horthy (governor of Hungary from 1920) to Budapest as head of the national army ends the 133 days’ rule of a communist regime (Tanácsköztársaság) led by Béla Kun.","date_from_description":"1919"},"e3639455-9b9f-5abe-95de-b7e69fe3fc26":{"description":"On 20 August the Muslim armies overrun the Transjordan highlands. They go on to win a decisive battle against the Byzantines on the banks of the Yarmouk River, which opens the way to the conquest of Syria.","date_from_description":"636"},"e38eb7bb-c5e8-5f3d-99ac-8bd7b8098123":{"description":"Süleyman Bey, conquering Iznik, declares it the capital of the Anatolian Seljuqs.","date_from_description":"1080"},"e3a06506-4e7a-5b7d-b91d-26b97ef9dd36":{"description":"Charlemagne (r. 768–814) inherits the Frankish crown and becomes king of a large part of Europe and the founder of a Roman, Christian and Germanic empire.","date_from_description":"768"},"e3a13cad-baca-54cf-8177-5f05cdb89109":{"description":"Several Umayyad palaces are built in Jordan, notably Mushatta Palace with its fantastic façade.","date_from_description":"743/744"},"e3a9688d-05ef-5df2-ae69-f916aefdc9f9":{"name":"The Congress of Vienna decides the restoration of pre-Napoleonic monarchies","description":"The Congress of Vienna decides the restoration of pre-Napoleonic monarchies: Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont, Genoa, Sardinia); Kingdom of Two Sicilies (Southern Italy and Sicily), the Papal States (part of Central Italy), Grand Duchy of Tuscany and other smaller states. Much of northern Italy (Milan, Venice, Trieste etc.) is under the Austrian empire.","date_from_description":"1815","date_to_description":"1815"},"e41722a0-a639-58a4-abf5-46e09f85eb27":{"description":"Ottoman Empire enters World War I on the German side.","date_from_description":"1914"},"e41e5dce-6445-59c9-bb41-416730136680":{"description":"In February mediation between ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib and Mu’awiya is held at Udhruh in southern Jordan after the battle of Siffin to decide who will be the caliph of Muslims. Mu’awiya wins by trickery.","date_from_description":"658"},"e450d568-2f2e-5dca-b923-c611fabdfc18":{"description":"In January the inhabitants of Pella sign a covenant with the new Muslim rulers after the battle of Fihl (Pella) agreeing to pay poll and land taxes; the transition from Byzantine to Islamic rule at Pella was peaceful and uninterrupted.","date_from_description":"635"},"e46b969c-0f8a-501d-a790-8a27a09b62ee":{"description":"The end of Ahmad al-Jazzar, who is succeeded by Sulayman Pasha (1804–19) and then with ‘Abdallah Pasha (1819–31).","date_from_description":"1804"},"e47cdabf-08c6-59c7-ba21-0ad6dba27cc6":{"description":"Szatmár Peace Treaty ends the unsuccessful freedom fight of Prince Ferenc Rákóczi II. Publication of *Harmonia Coelestis* composed by Prince Pál Esterházy, Palatine of Hungary.","date_from_description":"1711"},"e4b020eb-e1db-5203-bd29-56d67c4a279f":{"name":"Freedom of commerce","description":"The intention of the trade treaty signed with France in August 1863 is to curb the damaging effects of protectionism and to limit the extent of European penetration but, subverted from its original purpose, it becomes one of the causes of the protectionism problem. The *Dahir* of June 1864 then proclaimed freedom of trade throughout the Sharifian Empire. The conventions of 1856, 1860–1 and 1863 established the legal bases for relations between Morocco and Europe. Europe’s influence then began to grow.","date_from_description":"1863","date_to_description":"1863"},"e4b3dde1-a78c-56cf-8875-f0ac737c666c":{"description":"The Armada defeated by England.","date_from_description":"1588"},"e4cdfafb-b68e-5c59-8c43-f8edc69206b1":{"name":"Parliament dissolved","description":"13 March: Abdülhamid II dissolves parliament.","date_from_description":"1878","date_to_description":"1878"},"e4df6026-d90b-5d19-9f62-9e85843131a4":{"description":"Publication of El Quijote, by Miguel de Cervantes.","date_from_description":"1605"},"e5124ae0-a507-5d8b-b230-3b31d8a62c50":{"description":"The Scottish Wars of Independence begin following annexation of Scotland (and seizure of the symbolic stone of Scone) by England. Scottish victory at Stirling Bridge is led by William Wallace.","date_from_description":"1297"},"e51306f9-7ebc-5fb3-a8bf-4084a48f8bf0":{"name":"pre-March Revolution","description":"The Pre-March Revolution involves a series of protests, gatherings and disturbances, but by July 1849 the Bundes troops are victorious and the revolution fails.","date_from_description":"1848","date_to_description":"1849"},"e52dc1da-d1a9-58d1-bbb9-c3306a1ddfe4":{"description":"Abbasid Caliph al-Mu’tazz appoints Bakbak as governor to Egypt, but Bakbak sends Ahmad Ibn Tulun instead.","date_from_description":"867"},"e582ada5-0a13-5c75-993f-a679ea3bdad8":{"name":"Uprisings in different parts of Italy for constitutional rule and national unification","description":"Uprisings in different parts of Italy demand constitutional rule and national unification. In Rome and Venice, short-lived republics are proclaimed. King Carlo Alberto (Kingdom of Sardinia) grants a constitution and wages war against the Austrian Empire, but he is defeated.","date_from_description":"1848","date_to_description":"1849"},"e59d2a50-6c31-57a5-9d6d-2c1277d26e98":{"description":"Treaty of Almizra by means of which Castile and Aragon divided al-Andalus.","date_from_description":"1244"},"e5e3cc5c-5c18-54c0-8aa7-b65207704ff5":{"description":"Queen Christina abdicates at Uppsala castle.","date_from_description":"1654"},"e5ec69f1-3f2a-58a8-9d89-34296fd7ca61":{"description":"Rumour has it that in this year King Hugleikr, possibly from what is Sweden today, was slain with all his men in Friesland by the Frankish, i.e. Merovingian, Prince Theodebert.","date_from_description":"521"},"e61f57cc-61e7-58bc-afa0-1987b218d783":{"description":"Jordan and Syria submit to the Ikhshidids under Muhammad bin Tughj, the founder of this dynasty in Egypt.","date_from_description":"935"},"e628c68b-7d57-5eae-8bd7-d5c088e26ac0":{"description":"Foundation of the kingdom of al-Mu‘izz ibn Badis, which splits from the Fatimid Caliphate of Cairo.","date_from_description":"1016–1062"},"e63aeb47-1ac7-53bc-8730-89d528ec45ae":{"name":"The Cent Jours","description":"March–July, the *Cent Jours* (Hundred Days) between which Napoleon I returns to power and then finally abdicates after defeat at Waterloo.","date_from_description":"1815","date_to_description":"1815"},"e68564b0-bee0-50d6-9a4d-a76ce24c91d1":{"name":"Kingdom of Sardinia, backed by France, wages war against Austrian Empire and annexes Milan","description":"The Kingdom of Sardinia, backed by France, wages war against the Austrian Empire and annexes Milan. Pro-unification insurrections in central Italy; Garibaldi leads an  expedition of 1,000 volunteers in Southern Italy. Italy is unified under King Victor Emanuel II (formerly King of Sardinia) as a constitutional monarchy.","date_from_description":"1859","date_to_description":"1861"},"e69b3932-a14b-593e-a264-9dfa6ce7d609":{"description":"The monk Stefan becomes the first Swedish Archbishop. The ceremony was in Lund, which was then Danish but is now a town in southern Sweden. Stefan was ordained by the Danish archbishop Eskil on 5 August and Pope Alexander III was among the participants. Stefan’s see was in Uppsala. He went to work immediately and one of his letters from 1165 still exists. This is the oldest preserved letter in Sweden. 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King Louis VII returns defeated to France, and Jerusalem is taken back by the Muslims in 1187.","date_from_description":"1146"},"ed9398cd-7bbd-55a8-8d39-00c64c1b5ccb":{"name":"Coronation of King Carlos I on 10 October","description":"10 October: Coronation of King Carlos I (28 September 1863 – 1 February 1908) Despite the King’s attempt to reform the political system, the growing urban influence of the Republican Party and the people´s discontent were fostered by cash payments made to the Royal House.","date_from_description":"1889","date_to_description":"1889"},"ed94200b-ec0d-532a-bae6-046ab22f6779":{"description":"Dante Alighieri begins his masterpiece of universal literature, the Divine Comedy, completed in 1313.","date_from_description":"1307"},"eda3d98c-b6d5-5d0b-8725-8080aa800a97":{"description":"Liturgical unification of Hispania.","date_from_description":"633"},"edb31114-c3db-5d7c-a717-ca3d34a50f9f":{"description":"Afonso de Albuquerque conquers Goa.","date_from_description":"1510"},"ee1529ff-b7df-5539-a5a7-a7ac6bfcf20c":{"description":"‘Abd al-Rahman III lays siege to Beja and Faro. 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To end the occupation of Tétouan, the Moroccan state was obliged to pay a significant sum (20 million douros), which it was unable to do. As a result, it was forced to seek a foreign loan that it was able to pay back using customs revenues.","date_from_description":"1859","date_to_description":"1860"},"efc21828-9124-5e11-9771-508147e2ab25":{"name":"Death of King Alfonso XII","description":"Death of King Alfonso XII. Alfonso XIII born posthumously. Pacto de El Pardo: agreement between liberals and conservatives to rule the country by turns. Regency of Queen María Cristina until 1902 when King Alfonso XIII comes of age.","date_from_description":"1885","date_to_description":"1885"},"efddb048-fe19-5c4d-92af-28eb7b156ac6":{"description":"Fire causes great damage to the Holy Sepulchre Church.","date_from_description":"938"},"efec963a-5aea-52ab-a72c-094cdb7eac97":{"name":"Crimean War","description":"Russia’s expansion to the Black Sea and the Caucasus encroach on, seize and annex Ottoman possessions. Britain and France support Ottoman resistance, targeting the Russian naval base in Crimea. Britain provides military and naval support to the Ottoman armed force.","date_from_description":"1854","date_to_description":"1854"},"f015da88-e24f-5276-a062-4dd49d86cc3e":{"description":"The Almohads take Algiers and Constantine, overcoming the last heir of the Bani Hammad, Yahia ibn ‘Abd al-Aziz (515–47/1121–52) and unifying Morocco and the Central Maghreb.","date_from_description":"1152"},"f0378c93-047e-5f8a-bb0e-8b8246245a72":{"name":"Austrians were defeated by a French and Sardinian Army","description":"Defeat of the Austrians by a French and Sardinian Army at the Battle of Solferino on 24 June sees terrible losses on both sides.","date_from_description":"1859","date_to_description":"1859"},"f09fa1bf-bd44-53e8-8b1f-61e8de9ab1d1":{"name":"Peace congress of Paris","description":"At the Congress of Paris peace conference, Wallachia and Moldavia are put under the collective guarantee of the Great Powers (Austria, Russia, Prussia, Piedmont, the UK and France), while remaining under Ottoman sovereignty. The Russian protectorate over the Romanian countries is ended. Moldavia receives the southeast of Bessarabia.","date_from_description":"1856","date_to_description":"1856"},"f15b3998-59b7-5b52-a7ce-1a2847f2d9d3":{"description":"Parliament passes the Act of Supremacy declaring the monarch (Henry VIII) the supreme head of the Church of England, and outlawing any act of allegiance to the Pope.","date_from_description":"1534"},"f165063a-aa20-5646-b298-4a2c2325198e":{"description":"The entire Umayyad court is massacred by the ‘Abbasids, except for ‘Abd al-Rahman bin Mu‘awiya who escapes from Syria to al-Andalus (Spain) and founds there a line continuing the Umayyad dynasty.","date_from_description":"750"},"f195491d-369a-5107-b22f-925f5752f876":{"description":"Construction of the Djama’a al-Djedid mosque in Algiers, the first Hanafite mosque, inspired by Byzantine architecture.","date_from_description":"1660"},"f1bf9f5a-062f-5064-8b4b-e29fcdbc77ad":{"description":"Turks occupy several Hungarian fortresses in the new Turkish wars. At the siege of Eger fewer than 2,000 Hungarians led by István Dobó triumph over the attacking 60–70,000 Turks.","date_from_description":"1552"},"f1eef633-b025-530e-9f24-58caef33da93":{"description":"Establishment of the Czech Academy of Science. K. V. Klíč invents photogravure. The first automobile with a combustion engine in the monarchy (1897); first Czech motorbike and cinema (1898). Widespread emigration to the USA due to the economic depression.","date_from_description":"1891"},"f209ded8-b80a-51ad-ba20-d1c2ab088ec1":{"description":"The Damascene theologian ‘Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi, from Sufi order called al-Naqshabandiyya, influenced by Ibn al-Arabi, writes many works on religion and mystical philosophy.","date_from_description":"1670"},"f258c162-5afa-53dc-97a2-1a65f298faba":{"name":"Austria declared war against Serbia","description":"Austria declares war on Serbia in July: she is supported by Russia, France and Britain. Turkey and Bulgaria enter the war on the side of the German–Austrian Alliance.","date_from_description":"1914","date_to_description":"1914"},"f2a72779-7feb-5a74-a2f5-dc6daf7807fb":{"name":"The Arab Revolt","description":"The Arab Revolt begins on 10 June 1916 led by the Governor of Mecca (Makkah), Sharif Husayn ibn ‘Ali, and his sons, the amirs ‘Ali and Faisal. His forces seize the city of Riyad and force the small Ottoman garrison to seek refuge in the local fortress. Another of Husayn’s sons, Amir Abdallah, manages to surround and then take the town of Ta’if.","date_from_description":"1916","date_to_description":"1917"},"f2bb5e9a-aa69-5950-869b-6a56797e20ae":{"description":"Last Mongol invasion of Damascus, by Timur i-Lang (Tamerlane).  \nIbn Khaldun, Tunisian historian in Damascus at the time, pleads with Tamerlane on behalf of the city, but the Citadel is breached and the city sacked.","date_from_description":"1400-1"},"f2daefe4-d4c9-500f-ad40-e0a5f07b9b17":{"description":"Abolition of slavery.","date_from_description":"1869"},"f2dbfd4a-2937-5639-9f38-c6e1fa8367c4":{"name":"War and status of Mount Lebanon","description":"The privileged position enjoyed by Lebanon is ended by the Ottomans in World War I: Lebanon’s semi-automous status is abolished and Mount Lebanon, an important territory at the international level, is put under martial law by the Ottomans. The Turkish commander Jamal Pasha occupies Lebanon militarily.","date_from_description":"1914","date_to_description":"1914"},"f2e97bee-ecc2-5dd8-9315-3224384abab6":{"name":"The Austrian republic is founded in Vienna","description":"Emperor Charles I renounces his participation to the government of Germany-Austria (Deutsch Österreich). The Austrian republic is founded in Vienna.","date_from_description":"1918","date_to_description":"1918"},"f2ea8421-d374-5b7a-8b01-218f5ed21b02":{"name":"Transilvania integrated into the Hungarian kingdom","description":"The centre of present-day Transylvania is integrated into the Hungarian kingdom after the creation of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Partium and Banat had already been included in Hungary.","date_from_description":"1867","date_to_description":"1867"},"f2eece35-36f2-5ec7-953c-7b250d1a46de":{"description":"Following the Oran earthquake, the Spanish restore the ruined town, which becomes the capital of the beylik of Western Algeria.","date_from_description":"1790"},"f308d5db-d4d9-5f21-bcf6-ac477b078299":{"description":"The architectural features of a new capital founded in Samarra have a strong impact on the decorative repertoire all across the Islamic empire and particularly in Egypt and Syria, as seen in Kharab al-Sayyar and al-Raqqa.","date_from_description":"836"},"f3489c6a-6edf-534e-9008-63e90c67aa09":{"description":"The old castle Tre Kronor (Three Crowns) in Stockholm burns down.","date_from_description":"1697"},"f36b3e3b-8c78-5b05-b1df-4601084030aa":{"description":"The Treaties of Westfalia end the wars between the King of France and the Emperor of Germany waged since 1636.","date_from_description":"1648"},"f3a4f4dc-7de1-542e-9814-56c1610cb575":{"description":"The English fleet under Lord Howard of Effingham, Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Hawkins defeats the Spanish Armada; war between Spain and England continues until 1603.","date_from_description":"1588"},"f436f770-aaad-5d98-b58f-8a0d4fe080ae":{"description":"On the death of King András III the Árpád house dies out in the male line. Fights for the Hungarian throne ensue. The coronation of Károly I Róbert of Anjou (Caroberto), descended from the Árpád female line.","date_from_description":"1301"},"f44c9645-723a-5045-86ba-4f19c1d7284a":{"name":"Ottoman and Egyptian navy destroyed at Navarino","description":"20 October: A joint British, French and Russian fleet destroys the Ottoman and Egyptian navy at Navarino as the Sublime Porte did not accept the declaration of the UK, France and Russia for an autonomous Greece (in the Protocol of London, 6 July 1827).","date_from_description":"1827","date_to_description":"1827"},"f4651af3-bcb4-5c95-994b-774c069af48e":{"description":"Roger I of Hautville (1072–1101) begins the conquest of Sicily against the Arabs, which is completed in 1091.","date_from_description":"1061"},"f51633b9-d8de-5098-8516-badfbf827e61":{"name":"Uprisings in different parts of Italy in favour of national unification","description":"In 1820–21 and 1830–31, uprisings in different parts of Italy in favour of national unification and constitutional rule. They meet harsh repression.","date_from_description":"1820","date_to_description":"1831"},"f562c18f-4d48-50be-8456-fd2d224e24b7":{"name":"The second Saudi state","description":"Following the events of 1818, the Hijaz returns to Ottoman rule. Then in 1824 the Second Saudi State emerges, led by Imam Turki bin Abdullah, and with its capital now in Riyad following the destruction of Dir‘iyya. Imam Turki is then succeeded by the sons Imam Abdallah and ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Faisal. In ‘Abd al-Rahman’s reign, in 1891, the Second Saudi State falls into the hands of his enemy al-Rashid. 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The war is initially fought in Northern Italy.","date_from_description":"1859"},"fbea5e27-1a9d-5d68-b467-1d18b4d4ee21":{"description":"Tunisia becomes an Ottoman province administered by a pasha appointed by the sultan in Istanbul and assisted by political-military leaders.","date_from_description":"1587"},"fc0145f9-4901-5066-af76-09df98b21db9":{"description":"Belvoir citadel (Kawkab al-Hawa) is built in a wave of citadel-building all over Palestine.","date_from_description":"1141"},"fc28a94e-ec36-535b-af73-640343430467":{"description":"Bobastro taken and the rebel ‘Umar ibn Hafsun defeated.","date_from_description":"928"},"fc7da7f1-b6bf-500a-8a58-2f899e4344d5":{"description":"The geographer al-Sharif al-Idrissi is born in Sebta. 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