@framefields/node-compositor 0.0.0-stage → 2.0.3

package/src/renderers/webgpu-renderer.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,4038 @@
+/// <reference types="webgpu" />
+import { resolveMediaSourceUrl } from "@framefields/client-utils";
+import { decodeAudioSource } from "@framefields/compositions";
+import {
+	collectNodeOps,
+	computeLayout,
+	initLayout,
+	type LayoutNode,
+	type Rect,
+} from "@framefields/compositions/program";
+import type { MeshAudioDeformConfig } from "@framefields/core";
+import {
+	DEFAULT_DURATION_MS,
+	getActiveMediaMetadata,
+	type VirtualMediaData,
+} from "@framefields/core";
+import type { WebGPUNodeRenderer } from "@framefields/node-sdk";
+import { measureText } from "@framefields/renderers";
+import { TemporalDeflickerPipeline } from "@framefields/tensor-webgpu";
+import {
+	AudioLatentTrackCache,
+	type BlendMode,
+	Camera3D,
+	type Camera3DPose,
+	type Color,
+	type DrawMesh3DOpts,
+	type DrawQuad3DOpts,
+	type ExtrudedTextGeometryOptions,
+	type GPUMeshBuffers,
+	generateExtrudedTextGeometry,
+	jointMatrices,
+	type Light3DOptions,
+	type Mat4,
+	Matrix4Math,
+	type Mesh3DData,
+	type Model3DData,
+	measureMaxCaptionHeight,
+	parseColor,
+	poseNodes,
+	type RenderContextValue,
+	Renderer3D,
+	ScreenSpaceRelightPipeline,
+	type ShapeFillConfig,
+	type ShapeGeometryConfig,
+	SlugFontCache,
+	type SlugGlyphBatch,
+	srtLoader,
+	Vector3Math,
+} from "@framefields/webgpu-renderers";
+
+import { compileTimeline } from "../shared/compiler.js";
+import type { CompositorOperation } from "../shared/config.js";
+import { shouldPaintContainerBackground } from "./container-bg.js";
+import { buildLayerMatrix, toDOMMatrix } from "./transform.js";
+import {
+	has3DTransform,
+	type Quad2D,
+	solveHomography,
+	Transform3DMath,
+} from "./transform3d.js";
+
+// Layout depends on the document tree (whose `children` array keeps its
+// identity between frames), the viewport, media sizes and the few layout
+// props a timeline can animate. A film's tree holds every scene, so
+// re-running Yoga each frame is costly when none of those changed.
+const LAYOUT_PROPS = [
+	"width",
+	"height",
+	"gap",
+	"padding",
+	"fontSize",
+	"letterSpacing",
+] as const;
+const layoutMemo = new WeakMap<
+	object,
+	{ key: string; rects: Record<string, Rect> }
+>();
+
+function layoutKey(
+	width: number,
+	height: number,
+	targetsById: Record<string, any>,
+	mediaDims: Map<string, { width: number; height: number }>,
+): string {
+	const parts: unknown[] = [width, height];
+	for (const id in targetsById) {
+		const t = targetsById[id];
+		for (const k of LAYOUT_PROPS)
+			if (t[k] !== undefined) parts.push(id, k, t[k]);
+	}
+	for (const [id, d] of mediaDims) parts.push(id, d.width, d.height);
+	return JSON.stringify(parts);
+}
+
+const compositorHomographyWgsl = `
+struct HomographyUniforms {
+	matrix_row0 : vec4<f32>,
+	matrix_row1 : vec4<f32>,
+	matrix_row2 : vec4<f32>,
+	params      : vec4<f32>, // params.x = opacity
+};
+
+@group(0) @binding(0) var<uniform> u : HomographyUniforms;
+@group(1) @binding(0) var tex        : texture_2d<f32>;
+@group(1) @binding(1) var samp       : sampler;
+
+struct VSOut {
+	@builtin(position) pos : vec4<f32>,
+	@location(0) uv        : vec2<f32>,
+};
+
+@vertex fn vs(@builtin(vertex_index) vi: u32) -> VSOut {
+	var pos = array<vec2<f32>, 4>(
+		vec2<f32>(-1.0, 1.0),
+		vec2<f32>(1.0, 1.0),
+		vec2<f32>(-1.0, -1.0),
+		vec2<f32>(1.0, -1.0)
+	);
+	var uv = array<vec2<f32>, 4>(
+		vec2<f32>(0.0, 0.0),
+		vec2<f32>(1.0, 0.0),
+		vec2<f32>(0.0, 1.0),
+		vec2<f32>(1.0, 1.0)
+	);
+	return VSOut(vec4<f32>(pos[vi], 0.0, 1.0), uv[vi]);
+}
+
+@fragment fn fs(in : VSOut) -> @location(0) vec4<f32> {
+	let x = in.uv.x;
+	let y = in.uv.y;
+
+	let d = u.matrix_row2.x * x + u.matrix_row2.y * y + u.matrix_row2.z;
+	if (d <= 1e-6) {
+		return vec4<f32>(0.0);
+	}
+
+	let src_u = (u.matrix_row0.x * x + u.matrix_row0.y * y + u.matrix_row0.z) / d;
+	let src_v = (u.matrix_row1.x * x + u.matrix_row1.y * y + u.matrix_row1.z) / d;
+
+	if (src_u < 0.0 || src_u > 1.0 || src_v < 0.0 || src_v > 1.0) {
+		return vec4<f32>(0.0);
+	}
+
+	let color = textureSampleLevel(tex, samp, vec2<f32>(src_u, src_v), 0.0);
+	return color * u.params.x;
+}
+`;
+
+interface DeviceHomographyResources {
+	pipeline: GPURenderPipeline;
+	uniformLayout: GPUBindGroupLayout;
+	textureLayout: GPUBindGroupLayout;
+}
+
+const deviceHomographyCache = new WeakMap<
+	GPUDevice,
+	DeviceHomographyResources
+>();
+
+function getHomographyResources(
+	device: GPUDevice,
+	format: GPUTextureFormat,
+): DeviceHomographyResources {
+	let res = deviceHomographyCache.get(device);
+	if (!res) {
+		const uniformLayout = device.createBindGroupLayout({
+			entries: [
+				{
+					binding: 0,
+					visibility: GPUShaderStage.FRAGMENT,
+					buffer: { type: "uniform" },
+				},
+			],
+		});
+
+		const textureLayout = device.createBindGroupLayout({
+			entries: [
+				{
+					binding: 0,
+					visibility: GPUShaderStage.FRAGMENT,
+					texture: { sampleType: "float" },
+				},
+				{
+					binding: 1,
+					visibility: GPUShaderStage.FRAGMENT,
+					sampler: { type: "filtering" },
+				},
+			],
+		});
+
+		const module = device.createShaderModule({
+			label: "compositor_homography.wgsl",
+			code: compositorHomographyWgsl,
+		});
+
+		const pipeline = device.createRenderPipeline({
+			label: "CompositorHomographyPipeline",
+			layout: device.createPipelineLayout({
+				bindGroupLayouts: [uniformLayout, textureLayout],
+			}),
+			vertex: {
+				module,
+				entryPoint: "vs",
+			},
+			fragment: {
+				module,
+				entryPoint: "fs",
+				targets: [
+					{
+						format,
+						blend: {
+							color: {
+								srcFactor: "one",
+								dstFactor: "one-minus-src-alpha",
+								operation: "add",
+							},
+							alpha: {
+								srcFactor: "one",
+								dstFactor: "one-minus-src-alpha",
+								operation: "add",
+							},
+						},
+					},
+				],
+			},
+			primitive: {
+				topology: "triangle-strip",
+			},
+		});
+
+		res = { pipeline, uniformLayout, textureLayout };
+		deviceHomographyCache.set(device, res);
+	}
+	return res;
+}
+
+const audioTrackLatentCache = new Map<string, AudioLatentTrackCache>();
+const deviceRenderer3DCache = new WeakMap<GPUDevice, Map<string, Renderer3D>>();
+
+/** One Renderer3D per device, target format and MSAA sample count. */
+function getRenderer3D(
+	device: GPUDevice,
+	format: GPUTextureFormat,
+	sampleCount: number,
+): Renderer3D {
+	let byConfig = deviceRenderer3DCache.get(device);
+	if (!byConfig) {
+		byConfig = new Map();
+		deviceRenderer3DCache.set(device, byConfig);
+	}
+	const key = `${format}|${sampleCount}`;
+	let r3d = byConfig.get(key);
+	if (!r3d) {
+		r3d = new Renderer3D(device, format, sampleCount);
+		byConfig.set(key, r3d);
+	}
+	return r3d;
+}
+
+const deviceRelightPipelineCache = new WeakMap<
+	GPUDevice,
+	ScreenSpaceRelightPipeline
+>();
+
+function getScreenSpaceRelightPipeline(
+	device: GPUDevice,
+	format: GPUTextureFormat,
+): ScreenSpaceRelightPipeline {
+	let relight = deviceRelightPipelineCache.get(device);
+	if (!relight || relight.format !== format) {
+		relight = new ScreenSpaceRelightPipeline(device, format);
+		deviceRelightPipelineCache.set(device, relight);
+	}
+	return relight;
+}
+
+const deviceDeflickerPipelineCache = new WeakMap<
+	GPUDevice,
+	Map<string, TemporalDeflickerPipeline>
+>();
+
+function getTemporalDeflickerPipeline(
+	device: GPUDevice,
+	layerKey: string,
+): TemporalDeflickerPipeline {
+	let map = deviceDeflickerPipelineCache.get(device);
+	if (!map) {
+		map = new Map();
+		deviceDeflickerPipelineCache.set(device, map);
+	}
+	let pipe = map.get(layerKey);
+	if (!pipe) {
+		pipe = new TemporalDeflickerPipeline(device);
+		map.set(layerKey, pipe);
+	}
+	return pipe;
+}
+
+function resolveVal(
+	val: unknown,
+	fallback: number,
+	frame: number,
+	fps: number,
+): number {
+	if (val === undefined || val === null) return fallback;
+	if (typeof val === "number") return Number.isFinite(val) ? val : fallback;
+	if (typeof val === "object" && val !== null) {
+		if (
+			"get" in (val as Record<string, unknown>) &&
+			typeof (val as { get: unknown }).get === "function"
+		) {
+			try {
+				const res = (val as { get: (ctx?: unknown) => unknown }).get({
+					frame,
+					fps,
+					time: fps > 0 ? frame / fps : 0,
+					duration: 0,
+					durationMs: 0,
+					progress: 0,
+					deltaTime: fps > 0 ? 1 / fps : 0,
+				});
+				const n = Number(res);
+				if (Number.isFinite(n)) return n;
+			} catch {
+				// fallback
+			}
+		}
+		if ("value" in (val as Record<string, unknown>)) {
+			const n = Number((val as { value: unknown }).value);
+			if (Number.isFinite(n)) return n;
+		}
+	}
+	if (typeof val === "function") {
+		try {
+			const n = Number(val({ frame, fps, time: fps > 0 ? frame / fps : 0 }));
+			if (Number.isFinite(n)) return n;
+		} catch {
+			// fallback
+		}
+	}
+	const n = Number(val);
+	return Number.isFinite(n) ? n : fallback;
+}
+
+function synthesizeRelightLights(
+	relightOpts: Record<string, unknown>,
+	sceneLights: Light3DOptions[],
+	bounds: { x: number; y: number; width: number; height: number },
+	shiftedFrame: number,
+	fps: number,
+): Light3DOptions[] {
+	if (
+		sceneLights.length > 0 ||
+		(relightOpts.lightType === undefined &&
+			relightOpts.intensity === undefined &&
+			relightOpts.lightPosX === undefined)
+	) {
+		return sceneLights;
+	}
+
+	const lightTypeStr = String(relightOpts.lightType ?? "point").toLowerCase();
+	const lightKind: Light3DOptions["lightType"] =
+		lightTypeStr === "directional"
+			? "directional"
+			: lightTypeStr === "spot"
+				? "spot"
+				: "point";
+
+	const rawIntensity = relightOpts.intensity ?? 1.0;
+	const intensity = resolveVal(rawIntensity, 1.0, shiftedFrame, fps);
+
+	const normX = resolveVal(relightOpts.lightPosX, 0.5, shiftedFrame, fps);
+	const normY = resolveVal(relightOpts.lightPosY, 0.5, shiftedFrame, fps);
+	const normZ = resolveVal(relightOpts.lightPosZ, 0.25, shiftedFrame, fps);
+	const normRadius = resolveVal(
+		relightOpts.lightRadius,
+		0.75,
+		shiftedFrame,
+		fps,
+	);
+
+	const lightX = bounds.x + normX * bounds.width;
+	const lightY = bounds.y + normY * bounds.height;
+	const lightZ = normZ * Math.max(bounds.width, bounds.height);
+	const lightRadius = normRadius * Math.max(bounds.width, bounds.height);
+
+	const synthLight: Light3DOptions = {
+		lightType: lightKind,
+		color: (relightOpts.lightColor as string) ?? "#ffffff",
+		intensity,
+		x: lightX,
+		y: lightY,
+		z: lightZ,
+		radius: lightRadius,
+		decay: 1.0,
+	};
+
+	const ambientInt = resolveVal(
+		relightOpts.ambientIntensity,
+		0.15,
+		shiftedFrame,
+		fps,
+	);
+	const synthAmbient: Light3DOptions = {
+		lightType: "ambient",
+		color: (relightOpts.ambientColor as string) ?? "#ffffff",
+		intensity: ambientInt,
+	};
+
+	return [synthAmbient, synthLight];
+}
+
+function drawProjectedQuad(
+	ctx: RenderContextValue,
+	encoder: GPUCommandEncoder,
+	destView: GPUTextureView,
+	sourceTex: GPUTexture,
+	quad: Quad2D,
+	destWidth: number,
+	destHeight: number,
+	opacity: number,
+): void {
+	const area = Math.abs(Transform3DMath.computeSignedArea(quad));
+	if (area < 1e-4) {
+		return;
+	}
+
+	const minX = Math.max(
+		0,
+		Math.min(
+			destWidth,
+			Math.floor(
+				Math.min(
+					quad.topLeft.x,
+					quad.topRight.x,
+					quad.bottomLeft.x,
+					quad.bottomRight.x,
+				),
+			),
+		),
+	);
+	const minY = Math.max(
+		0,
+		Math.min(
+			destHeight,
+			Math.floor(
+				Math.min(
+					quad.topLeft.y,
+					quad.topRight.y,
+					quad.bottomLeft.y,
+					quad.bottomRight.y,
+				),
+			),
+		),
+	);
+	const maxX = Math.max(
+		0,
+		Math.min(
+			destWidth,
+			Math.ceil(
+				Math.max(
+					quad.topLeft.x,
+					quad.topRight.x,
+					quad.bottomLeft.x,
+					quad.bottomRight.x,
+				),
+			),
+		),
+	);
+	const maxY = Math.max(
+		0,
+		Math.min(
+			destHeight,
+			Math.ceil(
+				Math.max(
+					quad.topLeft.y,
+					quad.topRight.y,
+					quad.bottomLeft.y,
+					quad.bottomRight.y,
+				),
+			),
+		),
+	);
+
+	const scissorW = maxX - minX;
+	const scissorH = maxY - minY;
+	if (scissorW <= 0 || scissorH <= 0) {
+		return;
+	}
+
+	const dstPoints = [
+		{ x: quad.topLeft.x / destWidth, y: quad.topLeft.y / destHeight },
+		{ x: quad.topRight.x / destWidth, y: quad.topRight.y / destHeight },
+		{ x: quad.bottomLeft.x / destWidth, y: quad.bottomLeft.y / destHeight },
+		{ x: quad.bottomRight.x / destWidth, y: quad.bottomRight.y / destHeight },
+	];
+
+	const h = solveHomography(dstPoints);
+	for (const val of h) {
+		if (!Number.isFinite(val)) return;
+	}
+
+	const uniformData = new Float32Array(16);
+	uniformData[0] = h[0];
+	uniformData[1] = h[1];
+	uniformData[2] = h[2];
+	uniformData[3] = 0;
+
+	uniformData[4] = h[3];
+	uniformData[5] = h[4];
+	uniformData[6] = h[5];
+	uniformData[7] = 0;
+
+	uniformData[8] = h[6];
+	uniformData[9] = h[7];
+	uniformData[10] = h[8];
+	uniformData[11] = 0;
+
+	uniformData[12] = opacity;
+	uniformData[13] = 0;
+	uniformData[14] = 0;
+	uniformData[15] = 0;
+
+	const { pipeline, uniformLayout, textureLayout } = getHomographyResources(
+		ctx.device,
+		ctx.renderer.format,
+	);
+
+	const sampler = ctx.renderer.samplerCache.getSampler(ctx.device);
+	const uniformBuffer = ctx.renderer.getTemporaryBuffer(uniformData);
+
+	const uniformBindGroup = ctx.device.createBindGroup({
+		layout: uniformLayout,
+		entries: [{ binding: 0, resource: { buffer: uniformBuffer } }],
+	});
+
+	const textureBindGroup = ctx.renderer.bindGroupCache.getBindGroup(
+		ctx.device,
+		textureLayout,
+		sourceTex,
+		sampler,
+	);
+
+	const renderPass = encoder.beginRenderPass({
+		colorAttachments: [
+			{
+				view: destView,
+				loadOp: "load",
+				storeOp: "store",
+			},
+		],
+	});
+
+	renderPass.setPipeline(pipeline);
+	renderPass.setScissorRect(minX, minY, scissorW, scissorH);
+	renderPass.setBindGroup(0, uniformBindGroup);
+	renderPass.setBindGroup(1, textureBindGroup);
+	renderPass.draw(4);
+	renderPass.end();
+}
+
+function computeContainerScissor(
+	matrix: DOMMatrix,
+	width: number,
+	height: number,
+): Rect {
+	const corners = [
+		matrix.transformPoint(new DOMPoint(0, 0)),
+		matrix.transformPoint(new DOMPoint(width, 0)),
+		matrix.transformPoint(new DOMPoint(0, height)),
+		matrix.transformPoint(new DOMPoint(width, height)),
+	];
+	const xs = corners.map((p) => p.x);
+	const ys = corners.map((p) => p.y);
+	const minX = Math.min(...xs);
+	const minY = Math.min(...ys);
+	const maxX = Math.max(...xs);
+	const maxY = Math.max(...ys);
+	return {
+		x: Math.round(minX),
+		y: Math.round(minY),
+		width: Math.max(0, Math.round(maxX - minX)),
+		height: Math.max(0, Math.round(maxY - minY)),
+	};
+}
+
+export const CompositorWebGPURenderer: WebGPUNodeRenderer = async (args) => {
+	const {
+		ctx,
+		pass,
+		targetView,
+		targetTexture,
+		targetWidth,
+		targetHeight,
+		encoder,
+		props,
+		drawChild,
+	} = args;
+	const { virtualMedia, fps, frame } = props;
+	const op = virtualMedia.operation as any;
+
+	if (!op) return;
+
+	// Always end the incoming pass as we will be creating our own
+	pass.end();
+
+	if (op.op === "CompositorLayer") {
+		console.warn(
+			"CompositorWebGPURenderer called directly with legacy CompositorLayer operation. This is a bug.",
+		);
+		(args as any).pass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+			encoder,
+			targetView,
+			{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+			targetWidth,
+			targetHeight,
+			"load",
+		);
+		return;
+	}
+
+	if (op.op === "Compositor") {
+		const vop = op as CompositorOperation;
+		// 4x MSAA in the 3D pass unless the document opts out (antialias3d: false).
+		const sampleCount3d = vop.antialias3d === false ? 1 : 4;
+		const containerWidth = props.containerWidth ?? ctx.surface.width;
+		const containerHeight = props.containerHeight ?? ctx.surface.height;
+
+		const nativeWidth = vop.width ?? containerWidth;
+		const nativeHeight = vop.height ?? containerHeight;
+		const opacity =
+			typeof (vop as any).opacity === "number" ? (vop as any).opacity : 1;
+
+		const isVideoMode =
+			props.isVideoMode ??
+			(vop.mode === "Video" ||
+				vop.dataType === "Video" ||
+				virtualMedia?.metadata?.durationMs != null);
+
+		const inheritedSeekOffset = props.inheritedSeekOffset ?? 0;
+		const shiftedFrame = Math.max(
+			0,
+			frame != null && fps != null
+				? frame + Math.round(inheritedSeekOffset * fps)
+				: (frame ?? 0),
+		);
+
+		// 1. Create a temporary texture at native resolution
+		const compTex = ctx.renderer.getTemporaryTexture(
+			nativeWidth,
+			nativeHeight,
+			[...(props.excludeTextures || []), targetTexture],
+		);
+		const compView = compTex.createView();
+
+		const composeDuration =
+			virtualMedia?.metadata?.durationMs ?? DEFAULT_DURATION_MS;
+		const durationSec = composeDuration / 1000;
+		const { tl, targetsById } = compileTimeline(
+			props.renderId,
+			virtualMedia as any,
+			{ fps: fps ?? 24, durationSec },
+		);
+		tl.seek(shiftedFrame / (fps ?? 24));
+
+		const r3d = getRenderer3D(
+			ctx.device,
+			ctx.renderer.format ?? "rgba8unorm",
+			sampleCount3d,
+		);
+		r3d.resetPools();
+
+		const relightPipe = getScreenSpaceRelightPipeline(
+			ctx.device,
+			ctx.renderer.format ?? "rgba8unorm",
+		);
+		relightPipe.resetPools();
+
+		// 2. Initial clear
+		const clearColor = parseColor(vop.backgroundColor);
+		const clearPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+			encoder,
+			compView,
+			clearColor,
+			nativeWidth,
+			nativeHeight,
+			"clear",
+		);
+		clearPass.end();
+
+		// 3. Draw all children into the native texture
+		let currentCompTex = compTex;
+
+		ctx.renderer.pushScissor({
+			x: 0,
+			y: 0,
+			width: nativeWidth,
+			height: nativeHeight,
+		});
+		ctx.renderer.pushIdentity();
+		// 3. Layout pass — deterministic geometry from the document (v2).
+		//    Animated layout props (width/height/gap/padding) are sampled per
+		//    frame from the compiled timeline into the tree via targetsById.
+		await initLayout();
+		const mediaDims = new Map<string, { width: number; height: number }>();
+		for (const vm of collectNodeOps(virtualMedia.children)) {
+			const lop = vm.operation as any;
+			if (lop.kind === "media") {
+				const meta = getActiveMediaMetadata(vm.children?.[0] as any);
+				if (meta?.width && meta?.height) {
+					mediaDims.set(lop.id, { width: meta.width, height: meta.height });
+				} else if (
+					lop.dataType === "Caption" ||
+					(vm.children?.[0]?.operation as any)?.dataType === "Caption" ||
+					(vm.children?.[0]?.operation as any)?.srtText !== undefined
+				) {
+					const lopWidth = targetsById[lop.id]?.width ?? lop.width;
+					const autoWidth =
+						typeof lopWidth === "number"
+							? lopWidth
+							: Math.round(nativeWidth * 0.8);
+					const lopHeight = targetsById[lop.id]?.height ?? lop.height;
+					let autoHeight = typeof lopHeight === "number" ? lopHeight : 160;
+					const contentVM = vm.children?.[0];
+					const src =
+						resolveMediaSourceUrl(contentVM) ??
+						(contentVM?.operation as any)?.url ??
+						(contentVM?.operation as any)?.src ??
+						(contentVM?.operation as any)?.srtText ??
+						lop.src ??
+						lop.url;
+					if (typeof lopHeight !== "number" && src) {
+						try {
+							const captions = await srtLoader.load(src);
+							if (captions && captions.length > 0) {
+								autoHeight = measureMaxCaptionHeight(captions, lop, autoWidth);
+							}
+						} catch {}
+					}
+					mediaDims.set(lop.id, { width: autoWidth, height: autoHeight });
+				}
+			}
+		}
+		const frameResolveNode = (vm: any): LayoutNode => {
+			const lop = vm?.operation ?? {};
+			const target = targetsById[lop.id];
+			const pick = (k: string) =>
+				target && target[k] !== undefined ? target[k] : lop[k];
+			const node: any = {
+				...lop,
+				width: pick("width"),
+				height: pick("height"),
+				gap: pick("gap"),
+				padding: pick("padding"),
+				fontSize: pick("fontSize"),
+				letterSpacing: pick("letterSpacing"),
+			};
+			node.children = (vm?.children ?? []).map(frameResolveNode);
+			if (!node.children.length) node.children = undefined;
+			return node;
+		};
+		const layoutRoots = (): LayoutNode[] =>
+			(virtualMedia.children ?? [])
+				.map(frameResolveNode)
+				.filter(
+					(node: any) => node?.kind !== "camera" && node?.kind !== "light",
+				);
+		const memoTree = virtualMedia.children as object | undefined;
+		const memoKey = layoutKey(
+			nativeWidth,
+			nativeHeight,
+			targetsById,
+			mediaDims,
+		);
+		const memo = memoTree ? layoutMemo.get(memoTree) : undefined;
+		const { rects } =
+			memo?.key === memoKey
+				? memo
+				: await computeLayout({
+						layout: layoutRoots(),
+						viewport: { width: nativeWidth, height: nativeHeight },
+						measure: (node, constraintWidth) => {
+							if (node.kind === "text") {
+								const textStyle = {
+									fontSize: node.fontSize ?? 48,
+									fontWeight: node.fontWeight,
+									fontFamily: node.fontFamily,
+									letterSpacing: node.letterSpacing,
+									lineHeight: node.lineHeight,
+									padding: node.padding,
+								};
+
+								if (constraintWidth !== undefined) {
+									const isAuto = typeof node.width !== "number";
+									const wrapped = measureText(node.text ?? "", {
+										...textStyle,
+										width: isAuto ? undefined : constraintWidth,
+										keepNaturalWidth: true,
+									});
+									return {
+										width: isAuto
+											? Math.ceil(wrapped.width)
+											: Math.min(constraintWidth, Math.ceil(wrapped.width)),
+										height: Math.ceil(wrapped.height),
+									};
+								}
+
+								const natural = measureText(node.text ?? "", textStyle);
+								if (typeof node.width !== "number") {
+									return {
+										width: Math.ceil(natural.width),
+										height: Math.ceil(natural.height),
+									};
+								}
+								const wrapped = measureText(node.text ?? "", {
+									...textStyle,
+									width: node.width,
+								});
+								return {
+									width: Math.ceil(wrapped.width),
+									height: Math.ceil(wrapped.height),
+								};
+							}
+							if (node.kind === "media") return mediaDims.get(node.id) ?? null;
+							return null;
+						},
+					});
+		if (memoTree && memo?.key !== memoKey)
+			layoutMemo.set(memoTree, { key: memoKey, rects });
+		// 4. 3D Camera and Multiplane Setup
+		const allNodeOps = collectNodeOps(virtualMedia.children ?? []);
+		// A film can cut between cameras: the active one is the camera whose
+		// window holds this frame, and the latest to start wins (a cut list).
+		const cameraVMs = allNodeOps.filter(
+			(vm) => (vm.operation as any)?.kind === "camera",
+		);
+		const cameraVM = isVideoMode
+			? cameraVMs
+					.filter((vm) => {
+						const op = vm.operation as any;
+						const start = op.startFrame ?? 0;
+						const dur = op.durationFrames;
+						return (
+							shiftedFrame >= start &&
+							(dur === undefined || shiftedFrame < start + dur)
+						);
+					})
+					.sort(
+						(a, b) =>
+							((b.operation as any).startFrame ?? 0) -
+							((a.operation as any).startFrame ?? 0),
+					)[0]
+			: cameraVMs[0];
+		const lightVMs = allNodeOps.filter(
+			(vm) => (vm.operation as any)?.kind === "light",
+		);
+		const has3DLayer = allNodeOps.some((vm) => {
+			const lop = vm.operation as any;
+			const target = lop.id ? targetsById[lop.id] : undefined;
+			return (
+				lop.kind !== "camera" &&
+				lop.kind !== "light" &&
+				(Boolean(target?.is3D ?? lop.is3D) || (target?.z ?? lop.z ?? 0) !== 0)
+			);
+		});
+		const is3DScene = Boolean(cameraVM || has3DLayer || lightVMs.length > 0);
+
+		let camera: Camera3DPose | null = null;
+		let dofEnabled = false;
+		const sceneLights: Light3DOptions[] = [];
+
+		if (is3DScene) {
+			const camOp = cameraVM?.operation as any;
+			const camStub = camOp?.id ? targetsById[camOp.id] : undefined;
+			const fov = camStub?.cameraFov ?? camOp?.lens?.fov ?? 50;
+			camera = Camera3D.createDefaultCamera(nativeWidth, nativeHeight, fov);
+			camera.near = camOp?.lens?.near ?? 1.0;
+			camera.far = camOp?.lens?.far ?? 50000.0;
+			camera.zoom = camStub?.cameraZoom ?? camOp?.lens?.zoom ?? 1.0;
+
+			const defaultEye = camera.eye;
+			const defaultTarget = camera.target;
+
+			// Eye
+			const eyeX = camStub?.cameraX ?? camStub?.x ?? camOp?.x ?? defaultEye[0];
+			const eyeY = camStub?.cameraY ?? camStub?.y ?? camOp?.y ?? defaultEye[1];
+			const eyeZ = camStub?.cameraZ ?? camStub?.z ?? camOp?.z ?? defaultEye[2];
+			camera.eye = [eyeX, eyeY, eyeZ];
+
+			// Target
+			const hasCustomTarget =
+				camStub?.targetX !== undefined ||
+				camStub?.targetY !== undefined ||
+				camStub?.targetZ !== undefined ||
+				camOp?.targetX !== undefined ||
+				camOp?.targetY !== undefined ||
+				camOp?.targetZ !== undefined;
+			if (hasCustomTarget) {
+				camera.target = [
+					camStub?.targetX ?? camOp?.targetX ?? defaultTarget[0],
+					camStub?.targetY ?? camOp?.targetY ?? defaultTarget[1],
+					camStub?.targetZ ?? camOp?.targetZ ?? defaultTarget[2],
+				];
+			} else {
+				// Pure truck / pedestal shifts target along with eye
+				camera.target = [eyeX, eyeY, 0];
+			}
+
+			// Orientation (Pitch / Yaw / Roll)
+			const pitch = camStub?.cameraPitch ?? camOp?.pitch ?? 0;
+			const yaw = camStub?.cameraYaw ?? camOp?.yaw ?? 0;
+			const roll = camStub?.cameraRoll ?? camOp?.roll ?? 0;
+			if (pitch !== 0 || yaw !== 0 || roll !== 0) {
+				camera = Camera3D.applyOrientation(camera, pitch, yaw, roll);
+			}
+
+			// Orbit turntable
+			const orbitAzimuth = camStub?.orbitAzimuth;
+			const orbitElevation = camStub?.orbitElevation;
+			const orbitRadius = camStub?.orbitRadius;
+			if (
+				orbitAzimuth !== undefined ||
+				orbitElevation !== undefined ||
+				orbitRadius !== undefined
+			) {
+				const radius =
+					orbitRadius ?? Vector3Math.distance(camera.eye, camera.target);
+				camera.eye = Camera3D.orbit(
+					camera.target,
+					radius,
+					orbitAzimuth ?? 0,
+					orbitElevation ?? 0,
+				);
+			}
+
+			// Procedural Handheld Shake
+			const shakeTrans =
+				camStub?.shakeTranslation ??
+				(camOp?.shake?.enabled ? camOp?.shake?.translationAmplitude : 0) ??
+				0;
+			const shakeRot =
+				camStub?.shakeRotation ??
+				(camOp?.shake?.enabled ? camOp?.shake?.rotationAmplitude : 0) ??
+				0;
+			if (shakeTrans > 0 || shakeRot > 0) {
+				const t = shiftedFrame / (fps ?? 24);
+				camera = Camera3D.applyCameraShake(camera, t, {
+					translationAmplitude: shakeTrans,
+					rotationAmplitude: shakeRot,
+					frequency: camOp?.shake?.frequency ?? 1.5,
+					octaves: camOp?.shake?.octaves ?? 3,
+					seed: camOp?.shake?.seed ?? 42,
+				});
+			}
+
+			// Depth of Field
+			dofEnabled = Boolean(
+				camOp?.dof?.enabled || camStub?.focusDistance !== undefined,
+			);
+			if (dofEnabled) {
+				camera.focusDistance =
+					camStub?.focusDistance ??
+					camOp?.dof?.focusDistance ??
+					Vector3Math.distance(camera.eye, camera.target);
+				camera.fStop = camStub?.fStop ?? camOp?.dof?.fStop ?? 2.8;
+				camera.maxBlurRadius =
+					camStub?.maxBlurRadius ?? camOp?.dof?.maxBlurRadius ?? 24;
+			}
+
+			// Collect Active Lights
+			for (const lvm of lightVMs) {
+				const lop = lvm.operation as any;
+				const targetId = lop.id || lop.inputHandleId;
+				const target = targetId ? targetsById[targetId] : undefined;
+				if (target?.hidden || lop.hidden) continue;
+
+				if (isVideoMode) {
+					const startFrame = lop.startFrame ?? 0;
+					const durationFrames = lop.durationFrames;
+					if (shiftedFrame < startFrame) continue;
+					if (
+						durationFrames !== undefined &&
+						shiftedFrame >= startFrame + durationFrames
+					) {
+						continue;
+					}
+				}
+
+				const lightType = (target?.lightType ?? lop.lightType ?? "point") as
+					| "ambient"
+					| "directional"
+					| "point"
+					| "spot";
+				const rawColor = target?.color ?? lop.color ?? "#ffffff";
+				const color = parseColor(rawColor);
+				const intensity = target?.intensity ?? lop.intensity ?? 1.0;
+				const x = target?.x ?? lop.x ?? 0;
+				const y = target?.y ?? lop.y ?? 0;
+				const z = target?.z ?? lop.z ?? 0;
+				const targetX = target?.targetX ?? lop.targetX ?? 0;
+				const targetY = target?.targetY ?? lop.targetY ?? 0;
+				const targetZ = target?.targetZ ?? lop.targetZ ?? 0;
+				const radius = target?.radius ?? lop.radius ?? 1000;
+				const angle = target?.angle ?? lop.angle ?? 45;
+				const penumbra = target?.penumbra ?? lop.penumbra ?? 0.2;
+				const decay = target?.decay ?? lop.decay ?? 1;
+
+				sceneLights.push({
+					type: lightType,
+					color,
+					intensity,
+					position: [x, y, z],
+					target: [targetX, targetY, targetZ],
+					radius,
+					angle,
+					penumbra,
+					decay,
+				});
+			}
+		}
+
+		type Pending3DItem =
+			| { kind: "quad"; texture: GPUTexture; opts: DrawQuad3DOpts }
+			| {
+					// A text layer's glyphs, drawn natively on its plane.
+					kind: "slug";
+					texture?: undefined;
+					batches: SlugGlyphBatch[];
+					opts: DrawQuad3DOpts;
+					/** Passes already on this plane (its backdrop quad) */
+					stackBase: number;
+			  }
+			| {
+					kind: "mesh";
+					mesh: Mesh3DData;
+					texture?: GPUTexture;
+					opts: DrawMesh3DOpts;
+					meshBuffers?: GPUMeshBuffers;
+			  };
+		const pending3DItems: Pending3DItem[] = [];
+
+		const flush3DPass = (
+			curTex: GPUTexture,
+			curView: GPUTextureView,
+			curExcludes: GPUTexture[],
+		): { finalTex: GPUTexture; finalView: GPUTextureView } => {
+			if (pending3DItems.length === 0 || !camera) {
+				return { finalTex: curTex, finalView: curView };
+			}
+
+			const r3d = getRenderer3D(
+				ctx.device,
+				ctx.renderer.format ?? "rgba8unorm",
+				sampleCount3d,
+			);
+
+			// Execute audio mesh deformation compute passes before beginning render pass
+			for (const item of pending3DItems) {
+				if (item.kind === "mesh" && item.opts.audioDeform) {
+					item.meshBuffers = r3d.deformMesh(
+						encoder,
+						item.mesh,
+						item.opts.audioDeform,
+					);
+				}
+			}
+
+			const itemTextures = pending3DItems
+				.map((q) => (q.kind === "quad" ? q.texture : q.texture))
+				.filter((t): t is GPUTexture => Boolean(t));
+
+			const scene3dTex = ctx.renderer.getTemporaryTexture(
+				nativeWidth,
+				nativeHeight,
+				[curTex, targetTexture, ...curExcludes, ...itemTextures],
+			);
+			const scene3dView = scene3dTex.createView();
+
+			let linearDepthTex: GPUTexture | undefined;
+			let linearDepthView: GPUTextureView | undefined;
+			if (dofEnabled) {
+				linearDepthTex = r3d.getOrCreateLinearDepthTexture(
+					nativeWidth,
+					nativeHeight,
+				);
+				linearDepthView = linearDepthTex.createView();
+			}
+
+			const {
+				pass: pass3d,
+				cameraBindGroup,
+				cameraBuffer,
+				lightsBindGroup,
+			} = r3d.beginPass(
+				encoder,
+				scene3dView,
+				nativeWidth,
+				nativeHeight,
+				camera,
+				"clear",
+				{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+				linearDepthView,
+				sceneLights,
+			);
+
+			for (const item of pending3DItems) {
+				if (item.kind === "quad") {
+					r3d.drawTextureQuad(
+						pass3d,
+						cameraBindGroup,
+						lightsBindGroup,
+						item.texture,
+						item.opts,
+						dofEnabled,
+					);
+				} else if (item.kind === "slug") {
+					r3d.drawSlugText(
+						pass3d,
+						cameraBindGroup,
+						lightsBindGroup,
+						item.batches,
+						item.opts,
+						item.stackBase,
+						dofEnabled,
+					);
+				} else if (item.kind === "mesh") {
+					r3d.drawMesh3D(
+						pass3d,
+						cameraBindGroup,
+						lightsBindGroup,
+						item.meshBuffers ?? item.mesh,
+						item.texture,
+						item.opts,
+						dofEnabled,
+					);
+				}
+			}
+
+			pass3d.end();
+
+			let final3dTex = scene3dTex;
+			if (dofEnabled && linearDepthTex) {
+				const dofResultTex = ctx.renderer.getTemporaryTexture(
+					nativeWidth,
+					nativeHeight,
+					[curTex, targetTexture, scene3dTex, ...curExcludes],
+				);
+				r3d.applyDepthOfField(
+					encoder,
+					scene3dTex,
+					linearDepthTex,
+					dofResultTex.createView(),
+					cameraBuffer,
+				);
+				final3dTex = dofResultTex;
+			}
+
+			const nextTex = ctx.renderer.composite(
+				encoder,
+				curTex,
+				final3dTex,
+				"normal",
+				[targetTexture, ...curExcludes],
+			);
+			pending3DItems.length = 0;
+			return { finalTex: nextTex, finalView: nextTex.createView() };
+		};
+
+		// 5. Draw the node tree into the native texture (z-sorted per level).
+		let nodeIndex = 0;
+
+		const renderNodeTree = async (
+			vms: VirtualMediaData[],
+			initialTex: GPUTexture,
+			initialView: GPUTextureView,
+			excludes: GPUTexture[],
+			accumulatedOpacity = 1.0,
+			parentMatrix = new DOMMatrix(),
+			parentRect: Rect | null = null,
+			targetW: number = nativeWidth,
+			targetH: number = nativeHeight,
+			parent3DMatrix: Mat4 | null = null,
+			isRootScene = false,
+		): Promise<{ finalTex: GPUTexture; finalView: GPUTextureView }> => {
+			const sorted = [...vms].sort((a, b) => {
+				const za = (a.operation as any)?.zIndex ?? 0;
+				const zb = (b.operation as any)?.zIndex ?? 0;
+				return za - zb;
+			});
+			let activeTex = initialTex;
+			let activeView = initialView;
+			let activeExcludes = excludes;
+			for (const child of sorted) {
+				const lop = child.operation as any;
+				if (lop.kind === "camera" || lop.kind === "light") continue;
+				const targetId = lop.id || lop.inputHandleId;
+				const target = targetId ? targetsById[targetId] : undefined;
+				const isChild3D =
+					Boolean(target?.is3D ?? lop.is3D) ||
+					Boolean(camera && ((target?.z ?? lop.z ?? 0) !== 0 || lop.is3D)) ||
+					Boolean(parent3DMatrix);
+
+				if (isRootScene && !isChild3D && pending3DItems.length > 0) {
+					const flushed = flush3DPass(activeTex, activeView, activeExcludes);
+					if (flushed.finalTex !== activeTex) {
+						activeExcludes = [...activeExcludes, flushed.finalTex];
+					}
+					activeTex = flushed.finalTex;
+					activeView = flushed.finalView;
+				}
+
+				if (lop.op !== "CompositorLayer") {
+					await drawChild(
+						child,
+						{
+							containerWidth: targetW,
+							containerHeight: targetH,
+							renderId: `${props.renderId}-c${nodeIndex}-${lop.op}`,
+							fps,
+							isVideoMode,
+							frame: shiftedFrame,
+							// The child's effect passes must not borrow textures still in use here.
+							excludeTextures: [targetTexture, ...activeExcludes],
+						},
+						activeView,
+						activeTex,
+						targetW,
+						targetH,
+					);
+					continue;
+				}
+				nodeIndex += 1;
+				const res = await renderLayerVM(
+					child,
+					nodeIndex,
+					activeTex,
+					activeView,
+					activeExcludes,
+					accumulatedOpacity,
+					parentMatrix,
+					parentRect,
+					targetW,
+					targetH,
+					parent3DMatrix,
+					isRootScene,
+				);
+				if (res) {
+					if (res.finalTex !== activeTex) {
+						activeExcludes = [...activeExcludes, res.finalTex];
+					}
+					activeTex = res.finalTex;
+					activeView = res.finalView;
+				}
+			}
+
+			if (isRootScene && pending3DItems.length > 0) {
+				const flushed = flush3DPass(activeTex, activeView, activeExcludes);
+				if (flushed.finalTex !== activeTex) {
+					activeExcludes = [...activeExcludes, flushed.finalTex];
+				}
+				activeTex = flushed.finalTex;
+				activeView = flushed.finalView;
+			}
+			return { finalTex: activeTex, finalView: activeView };
+		};
+
+		const renderLayerVM = async (
+			nodeVM: VirtualMediaData,
+			i: number,
+			destTex: GPUTexture,
+			destView: GPUTextureView,
+			baseExcludes: GPUTexture[],
+			accumulatedOpacity: number,
+			parentMatrix: DOMMatrix,
+			parentRect: Rect | null,
+			targetW: number = nativeWidth,
+			targetH: number = nativeHeight,
+			parent3DMatrix: Mat4 | null = null,
+			isRootScene = false,
+		): Promise<
+			{ finalTex: GPUTexture; finalView: GPUTextureView } | undefined
+		> => {
+			// Textures queued for the pending 3D flush are still live: a later
+			// layer of the same size must not be handed one from the pool.
+			const excludes = [
+				...baseExcludes,
+				...pending3DItems
+					.map((q) => q.texture)
+					.filter((t): t is GPUTexture => Boolean(t)),
+			];
+			const lop = nodeVM.operation as any;
+			if (lop.kind === "camera" || lop.kind === "light") return;
+			const targetId = lop.id || lop.inputHandleId;
+			const target = targetId ? targetsById[targetId] : undefined;
+			if (target?.hidden || lop.hidden) return;
+
+			const kind = lop.kind;
+			const isContainer = kind === "flex" || kind === "block" || kind === "box";
+
+			// Temporal gate (video mode): clip-relative duration.
+			if (isVideoMode) {
+				const startFrame = lop.startFrame ?? 0;
+				const durationFrames = lop.durationFrames;
+				if (shiftedFrame < startFrame) {
+					return;
+				}
+				if (
+					durationFrames !== undefined &&
+					shiftedFrame >= startFrame + durationFrames
+				) {
+					return;
+				}
+			}
+			if (kind === "model3d") {
+				const r3d = getRenderer3D(
+					ctx.device,
+					ctx.renderer.format ?? "rgba8unorm",
+					sampleCount3d,
+				);
+				let modelSrc = lop.modelData ?? lop.src;
+
+				if (!modelSrc && lop.text3dOptions) {
+					// The node's Layer3D.extrudedText options: geometry options plus a family name.
+					const tOpts = lop.text3dOptions as Omit<
+						ExtrudedTextGeometryOptions,
+						"font"
+					> & { fontFamily?: string };
+					const font =
+						(tOpts.fontFamily
+							? SlugFontCache.getParsed(tOpts.fontFamily)
+							: null) ??
+						SlugFontCache.getParsed("Inter") ??
+						SlugFontCache.getParsed("Unbounded") ??
+						SlugFontCache.getFirstParsed();
+					if (font) {
+						const res = generateExtrudedTextGeometry({
+							...tOpts,
+							// SlugFontCache holds fontkit fonts under a narrower type.
+							font: font as unknown as ExtrudedTextGeometryOptions["font"],
+						});
+						modelSrc = res.modelData;
+						lop.modelData = modelSrc;
+					}
+				}
+
+				if (!modelSrc) return;
+
+				let model: Model3DData | undefined;
+				try {
+					model =
+						typeof modelSrc === "object" &&
+						modelSrc !== null &&
+						"meshes" in modelSrc
+							? (modelSrc as Model3DData)
+							: r3d.loadModel(modelSrc, lop.modelFormat ?? "auto", {
+									center: lop.center,
+									normalizeSize: lop.normalizeSize,
+								});
+				} catch (err) {
+					console.error("Failed to load 3D model:", err);
+					return;
+				}
+
+				if (!model || model.meshes.length === 0) return;
+
+				const posX = target?.x ?? lop.x ?? 0;
+				const posY = target?.y ?? lop.y ?? 0;
+				const posZ = target?.z ?? lop.z ?? 0;
+
+				const rotX = target?.rotateX ?? lop.rotateX ?? 0;
+				const rotY = target?.rotateY ?? lop.rotateY ?? 0;
+				const rotZ =
+					(target?.rotateZ ?? lop.rotateZ ?? 0) !== 0
+						? (target?.rotateZ ?? lop.rotateZ ?? 0)
+						: (target?.rotation ?? lop.rotation ?? 0);
+
+				const sc = target?.scale ?? lop.scale ?? 1;
+				const scX = (target?.scaleX ?? lop.scaleX ?? 1) * sc;
+				const scY = (target?.scaleY ?? lop.scaleY ?? 1) * sc;
+				const scZ = (target?.scaleZ ?? lop.scaleZ ?? 1) * sc;
+
+				let localM = Matrix4Math.identity();
+				localM = Matrix4Math.multiply(
+					localM,
+					Matrix4Math.translate(posX, posY, posZ),
+				);
+
+				const rxRad = (rotX * Math.PI) / 180;
+				const ryRad = (rotY * Math.PI) / 180;
+				const rzRad = (rotZ * Math.PI) / 180;
+
+				if (rzRad !== 0)
+					localM = Matrix4Math.multiply(localM, Matrix4Math.rotateZ(rzRad));
+				if (ryRad !== 0)
+					localM = Matrix4Math.multiply(localM, Matrix4Math.rotateY(ryRad));
+				if (rxRad !== 0)
+					localM = Matrix4Math.multiply(localM, Matrix4Math.rotateX(rxRad));
+
+				localM = Matrix4Math.multiply(localM, Matrix4Math.scale(scX, scY, scZ));
+
+				const finalModelMatrix = parent3DMatrix
+					? Matrix4Math.multiply(parent3DMatrix, localM)
+					: localM;
+
+				const colorParsed =
+					target?.colorTint || target?.color || lop.colorTint || lop.color
+						? parseColor(
+								target?.colorTint ??
+									target?.color ??
+									lop.colorTint ??
+									lop.color,
+							)
+						: undefined;
+
+				const colorTint: [number, number, number, number] = colorParsed
+					? [colorParsed.r, colorParsed.g, colorParsed.b, colorParsed.a]
+					: [1, 1, 1, 1];
+
+				const modelOpacity =
+					(target?.opacity ?? lop.opacity ?? 1) * accumulatedOpacity;
+
+				// Animation evaluation
+				let skinningMatrices: Float32Array | undefined;
+				const animProgress =
+					target?.animationProgress ?? lop.animationProgress ?? 0;
+				const animTime = target?.animationTime ?? lop.animationTime ?? 0;
+				const animSpeed = target?.animationSpeed ?? lop.animationSpeed ?? 1.0;
+				const clip =
+					(lop.animationName
+						? model.animations.find((a) => a.name === lop.animationName)
+						: undefined) ?? model.animations[0];
+				let clipSec = 0;
+				if (clip && clip.duration > 0) {
+					clipSec =
+						animProgress > 0
+							? animProgress * clip.duration
+							: animTime + ((shiftedFrame ?? 0) / (fps || 30)) * animSpeed;
+					if (lop.loop ?? true) clipSec %= clip.duration;
+				}
+
+				// A scene graph (glTF) is posed node by node: unskinned meshes ride
+				// their node, skinned ones take their skin's joint matrices.
+				const sceneRoot = Matrix4Math.multiply(
+					finalModelMatrix,
+					model.rootTransform ?? Matrix4Math.identity(),
+				);
+				const posed = model.nodes ? poseNodes(model, clip, clipSec) : undefined;
+				const skinCache = new Map<number, Float32Array>();
+				const placeMesh = (
+					mesh: Mesh3DData,
+				): { matrix: Mat4; joints?: Float32Array } => {
+					if (!posed) return { matrix: sceneRoot };
+					if (mesh.skin !== undefined) {
+						let joints = skinCache.get(mesh.skin);
+						if (!joints) {
+							joints = jointMatrices(model, mesh.skin, posed);
+							skinCache.set(mesh.skin, joints);
+						}
+						return { matrix: sceneRoot, joints };
+					}
+					if (mesh.node !== undefined)
+						return {
+							matrix: Matrix4Math.multiply(sceneRoot, posed[mesh.node]!),
+						};
+					return { matrix: sceneRoot };
+				};
+
+				if (!posed && clip && clip.duration > 0) {
+					const currentSec = clipSec;
+					if (model.skeleton && model.skeleton.bones.length > 0) {
+						const numBones = Math.min(128, model.skeleton.bones.length);
+						skinningMatrices = new Float32Array(128 * 16);
+						for (let b = 0; b < 128; b++) {
+							skinningMatrices[b * 16] = 1;
+							skinningMatrices[b * 16 + 5] = 1;
+							skinningMatrices[b * 16 + 10] = 1;
+							skinningMatrices[b * 16 + 15] = 1;
+						}
+
+						for (const track of clip.tracks) {
+							const boneIdx = model.skeleton.boneIndicesByName[track.nodeName];
+							if (boneIdx !== undefined && boneIdx < numBones) {
+								const times = track.times;
+								let sampleIdx = 0;
+								for (let k = 0; k < times.length - 1; k++) {
+									if (currentSec >= times[k]! && currentSec <= times[k + 1]!) {
+										sampleIdx = k;
+										break;
+									}
+								}
+								const t0 = times[sampleIdx] ?? 0;
+								const t1 = times[sampleIdx + 1] ?? t0;
+								const alpha = t1 > t0 ? (currentSec - t0) / (t1 - t0) : 0;
+
+								if (track.translations) {
+									const x0 = track.translations[sampleIdx * 3] ?? 0;
+									const y0 = track.translations[sampleIdx * 3 + 1] ?? 0;
+									const z0 = track.translations[sampleIdx * 3 + 2] ?? 0;
+									const x1 = track.translations[(sampleIdx + 1) * 3] ?? x0;
+									const y1 = track.translations[(sampleIdx + 1) * 3 + 1] ?? y0;
+									const z1 = track.translations[(sampleIdx + 1) * 3 + 2] ?? z0;
+									const curX = x0 + (x1 - x0) * alpha;
+									const curY = y0 + (y1 - y0) * alpha;
+									const curZ = z0 + (z1 - z0) * alpha;
+
+									const boneMat = Matrix4Math.translate(curX, curY, curZ);
+									const bone = model.skeleton.bones[boneIdx];
+									const skinMat = bone
+										? Matrix4Math.multiply(boneMat, bone.inverseBindMatrix)
+										: boneMat;
+									skinningMatrices.set(skinMat, boneIdx * 16);
+								}
+							}
+						}
+					}
+				}
+
+				// Blended materials draw after everything opaque behind them.
+				const isBlend = (m: Mesh3DData) =>
+					m.materialName
+						? model.materials[m.materialName]?.alphaMode === "blend"
+						: false;
+				const drawOrder = [...model.meshes].sort(
+					(a, b) => Number(isBlend(a)) - Number(isBlend(b)),
+				);
+				for (const mesh of drawOrder) {
+					const mat = mesh.materialName
+						? model.materials[mesh.materialName]
+						: undefined;
+					const placed = placeMesh(mesh);
+					const meshSkin = placed.joints ?? skinningMatrices;
+
+					let meshColorTint: [number, number, number, number];
+					if (colorParsed) {
+						if (mat?.diffuseColor) {
+							meshColorTint = [
+								mat.diffuseColor[0] * colorTint[0],
+								mat.diffuseColor[1] * colorTint[1],
+								mat.diffuseColor[2] * colorTint[2],
+								(mat.diffuseColor[3] ?? 1.0) * colorTint[3],
+							];
+						} else {
+							meshColorTint = colorTint;
+						}
+					} else if (mat?.diffuseColor) {
+						meshColorTint = mat.diffuseColor;
+					} else {
+						meshColorTint = [0.8, 0.8, 0.85, 1.0];
+					}
+
+					// Audio latent 3D mesh deformation
+					const audioDeformConfig = (target?.audioDeform ?? lop.audioDeform) as
+						| MeshAudioDeformConfig
+						| undefined;
+
+					let meshAudioDeform: DrawMesh3DOpts["audioDeform"];
+					if (audioDeformConfig) {
+						const currentSec = (shiftedFrame ?? 0) / (fps || 30);
+						const timeMs = currentSec * 1000;
+
+						let latentBuffer = (audioDeformConfig as any).latentBuffer as
+							| GPUBuffer
+							| undefined;
+						if (!latentBuffer && (audioDeformConfig as any).audioBuffer) {
+							latentBuffer = (audioDeformConfig as any)
+								.audioBuffer as GPUBuffer;
+						}
+
+						if (!latentBuffer) {
+							const directAudio = (audioDeformConfig as any).audioData as
+								| Float32Array[]
+								| { channels: Float32Array[]; sampleRate: number }
+								| undefined;
+
+							if (directAudio) {
+								const cacheKey = (lop.id ?? "audio-mesh") + "-direct-audio";
+								let trackCache = audioTrackLatentCache.get(cacheKey);
+								if (!trackCache) {
+									const chs = Array.isArray(directAudio)
+										? directAudio
+										: directAudio.channels;
+									const sRate = Array.isArray(directAudio)
+										? 48000
+										: directAudio.sampleRate;
+									const totalF = Math.max(
+										10,
+										Math.ceil(((chs[0]?.length ?? 0) / sRate) * (fps || 30)) +
+											10,
+									);
+									trackCache = new AudioLatentTrackCache(
+										chs,
+										sRate,
+										fps || 30,
+										totalF,
+									);
+									audioTrackLatentCache.set(cacheKey, trackCache);
+								}
+								latentBuffer = trackCache.getGpuBuffer(
+									ctx.device,
+									shiftedFrame ?? 0,
+								);
+							}
+						}
+
+						if (!latentBuffer && audioDeformConfig.audioTrackId) {
+							const trackId = audioDeformConfig.audioTrackId;
+							let foundAudioUrl: string | undefined;
+							const searchVms = (list: VirtualMediaData[]) => {
+								for (const v of list) {
+									const op = v.operation as Record<string, unknown> | undefined;
+									if (op) {
+										if (op.id === trackId || op.inputHandleId === trackId) {
+											foundAudioUrl =
+												(op.inputHandleId as string) ||
+												(op.src as string) ||
+												(op.url as string);
+											return;
+										}
+										if (v.children) searchVms(v.children);
+									}
+								}
+							};
+							if (virtualMedia.children) searchVms(virtualMedia.children);
+							if (
+								!foundAudioUrl &&
+								(trackId.endsWith(".mp3") ||
+									trackId.endsWith(".wav") ||
+									trackId.endsWith(".ogg"))
+							) {
+								foundAudioUrl = trackId;
+							}
+
+							if (foundAudioUrl) {
+								try {
+									let trackCache = audioTrackLatentCache.get(foundAudioUrl);
+									if (!trackCache) {
+										const decoded = await decodeAudioSource(foundAudioUrl);
+										if (decoded && decoded.channels.length > 0) {
+											const sRate = decoded.sampleRate || 48000;
+											const ch0Len = decoded.channels[0]?.length ?? 0;
+											const durationSec =
+												(decoded as any).durationSec ?? ch0Len / sRate;
+											const totalF = Math.max(
+												10,
+												Math.ceil(durationSec * (fps || 30)) + 10,
+											);
+											trackCache = new AudioLatentTrackCache(
+												decoded.channels,
+												sRate,
+												fps || 30,
+												totalF,
+											);
+											audioTrackLatentCache.set(foundAudioUrl, trackCache);
+										}
+									}
+									if (trackCache) {
+										latentBuffer = trackCache.getGpuBuffer(
+											ctx.device,
+											shiftedFrame ?? 0,
+										);
+									}
+								} catch (err) {
+									console.warn(
+										"[webgpu-renderer] Failed to decode audio for deformWithAudio:",
+										err,
+									);
+								}
+							}
+						}
+
+						if (latentBuffer) {
+							let amplitudeMultiplier =
+								audioDeformConfig.amplitudeMultiplier ?? 1.0;
+							if (
+								typeof amplitudeMultiplier !== "number" &&
+								typeof (amplitudeMultiplier as any)?.get === "function"
+							) {
+								const frameCtx = {
+									frame: shiftedFrame ?? 0,
+									fps: fps || 30,
+									time: currentSec,
+									duration: 0,
+									durationMs: 0,
+									progress: 0,
+									deltaTime: 1 / (fps || 30),
+								};
+								amplitudeMultiplier = Number(
+									(amplitudeMultiplier as any).get(frameCtx),
+								);
+							} else if (
+								typeof amplitudeMultiplier !== "number" &&
+								typeof (amplitudeMultiplier as any)?.value === "number"
+							) {
+								amplitudeMultiplier = (amplitudeMultiplier as any).value;
+							}
+
+							meshAudioDeform = {
+								config: {
+									...audioDeformConfig,
+									amplitudeMultiplier: Number.isFinite(
+										amplitudeMultiplier as number,
+									)
+										? (amplitudeMultiplier as number)
+										: 1.0,
+								},
+								latentBuffer,
+								timeMs,
+								sampleRate: 48000,
+							};
+						}
+					}
+
+					const meshOpts: DrawMesh3DOpts = {
+						modelMatrix: placed.matrix,
+						opacity: modelOpacity * (mat?.opacity ?? 1.0),
+						colorTint: meshColorTint,
+						twoSided: target?.twoSided ?? lop.twoSided ?? mat?.twoSided ?? true,
+						wireframe: Boolean(target?.wireframe ?? lop.wireframe),
+						isSkinned: Boolean(
+							meshSkin || (mesh.jointIndices && mesh.jointWeights),
+						),
+						skinningMatrices: meshSkin,
+						material: target?.material ?? lop.material ?? mat?.shading ?? "lit",
+						shadeColor: mat?.shadeColor,
+						alphaCutoff: mat?.alphaCutoff,
+						textureWrap: mat?.textureWrap,
+						shininess:
+							target?.shininess ?? lop.shininess ?? mat?.shininess ?? 32,
+						roughness: target?.roughness ?? lop.roughness ?? mat?.roughness,
+						specularIntensity:
+							target?.specularIntensity ?? lop.specularIntensity ?? 0.5,
+						ambientIntensity:
+							target?.ambientIntensity ?? lop.ambientIntensity ?? 1.0,
+						metallic: target?.metallic ?? lop.metallic ?? mat?.metallic,
+						audioDeform: meshAudioDeform,
+					};
+
+					pending3DItems.push({
+						kind: "mesh",
+						mesh,
+						texture: mat ? await r3d.materialTexture(mat) : undefined,
+						opts: meshOpts,
+					});
+				}
+
+				return { finalTex: destTex, finalView: destView };
+			}
+
+			const rect = rects[lop.id];
+			if (!rect) {
+				if (isContainer) {
+					return await renderNodeTree(
+						nodeVM.children ?? [],
+						destTex,
+						destView,
+						excludes,
+						accumulatedOpacity,
+						parentMatrix,
+						parentRect,
+						targetW,
+						targetH,
+						parent3DMatrix,
+						isRootScene,
+					);
+				}
+				return;
+			}
+
+			// Affine = layout rect + animated delta (CSS-transform semantics: a
+			// track on x/y translates the node within/out of its laid-out slot).
+			const baseX = lop.x ?? 0;
+			const baseY = lop.y ?? 0;
+			const sampledX = target?.x ?? baseX;
+			const sampledY = target?.y ?? baseY;
+
+			let localX = 0;
+			let localY = 0;
+			if (parentRect) {
+				const localLayoutX = rect.x - parentRect.x;
+				const localLayoutY = rect.y - parentRect.y;
+				localX = localLayoutX + (sampledX - baseX);
+				localY = localLayoutY + (sampledY - baseY);
+			} else {
+				localX = rect.x + (sampledX - baseX);
+				localY = rect.y + (sampledY - baseY);
+			}
+
+			const scale = target?.scale ?? lop.scale ?? 1;
+			const rotation = target?.rotation ?? lop.rotation ?? 0;
+			const layerOpacity =
+				(target?.opacity ?? lop.opacity ?? 1) * accumulatedOpacity;
+
+			const rawAnimators = target?.animators ?? lop.animators;
+			const isPathText =
+				kind === "text" && Boolean(lop.pathOptions || target?.pathOptions);
+			const hasKineticAnimators =
+				kind === "text" &&
+				Array.isArray(rawAnimators) &&
+				rawAnimators.length > 0;
+			const hasFormation =
+				kind === "text" &&
+				Array.isArray(rawAnimators) &&
+				rawAnimators.some((a: unknown) => {
+					const anim = a as
+						| {
+								props?: { formation?: unknown };
+								formation?: unknown;
+						  }
+						| null
+						| undefined;
+					return (
+						anim?.props?.formation !== undefined ||
+						anim?.formation !== undefined
+					);
+				});
+			let padX = 0;
+			let padY = 0;
+			if (hasFormation) {
+				let formationRadius = 0;
+				let formationPitch = 0;
+				for (const a of rawAnimators as unknown[]) {
+					const anim = a as
+						| {
+								props?: { formation?: { radius?: number; pitch?: number } };
+								formation?: { radius?: number; pitch?: number };
+						  }
+						| null
+						| undefined;
+					const f = anim?.props?.formation ?? anim?.formation;
+					if (f) {
+						if (typeof f.radius === "number") {
+							formationRadius = Math.max(formationRadius, f.radius);
+						}
+						if (typeof f.pitch === "number") {
+							formationPitch = Math.max(formationPitch, f.pitch);
+						}
+					}
+				}
+				padX = Math.max(160, Math.ceil(formationRadius + 100));
+				padY = Math.max(
+					100,
+					Math.ceil(formationRadius + formationPitch * 15 + 100),
+				);
+			} else if (!isPathText && hasKineticAnimators) {
+				padX = Math.max(80, Math.ceil(rect.width * 0.2));
+				padY = Math.max(50, Math.ceil(rect.height * 0.5));
+			}
+			// Path text draws into a canvas-sized layer so glyphs following a path
+			// beyond the node box aren't clipped. Path coordinates stay local to
+			// the node (like every other child), so the layer still sits at the
+			// node's layout position.
+			const layerW = isPathText ? targetW : rect.width + padX * 2;
+			const layerH = isPathText ? targetH : rect.height + padY * 2;
+			if (!isPathText && hasKineticAnimators) {
+				localX -= padX;
+				localY -= padY;
+			}
+			// Anchor-aware pivot (H2): scale/rotation happen AROUND the node's
+			// anchor point (0.5/0.5 = center) instead of its top-left corner.
+			// For path text the anchor is a point of the node box, not of the
+			// oversized layer, so a badge spins around its own centre.
+			const anchorX = lop.anchorX ?? 0.5;
+			const anchorY = lop.anchorY ?? 0.5;
+			const localMatrix = toDOMMatrix(
+				buildLayerMatrix({
+					x: localX,
+					y: localY,
+					width: layerW,
+					height: layerH,
+					rotation,
+					scale,
+					anchorX: isPathText ? (anchorX * rect.width) / layerW : anchorX,
+					anchorY: isPathText ? (anchorY * rect.height) / layerH : anchorY,
+				}),
+			);
+			const layerMatrix = parentMatrix.multiply(localMatrix);
+			const blendMode = (lop.blendMode as BlendMode) || "normal";
+
+			let activeTex = destTex;
+			let activeView = destView;
+
+			const is3D = has3DTransform(target, lop);
+			const rotateX = target?.rotateX ?? lop.rotateX ?? 0;
+			const rotateY = target?.rotateY ?? lop.rotateY ?? 0;
+			const rotateZ = target?.rotateZ ?? lop.rotateZ ?? 0;
+			const translateZ = target?.translateZ ?? lop.translateZ ?? 0;
+			const perspective = target?.perspective ?? lop.perspective ?? 0;
+			const perspectiveOriginX =
+				target?.perspectiveOriginX ??
+				lop.perspectiveOriginX ??
+				lop.anchorX ??
+				0.5;
+			const perspectiveOriginY =
+				target?.perspectiveOriginY ??
+				lop.perspectiveOriginY ??
+				lop.anchorY ??
+				0.5;
+			const backfaceVisibility =
+				target?.backfaceVisibility ?? lop.backfaceVisibility ?? "visible";
+
+			let quad3D: Quad2D | null = null;
+			if (is3D) {
+				const m3d = Transform3DMath.buildLayer3DMatrix({
+					x: localX,
+					y: localY,
+					width: layerW,
+					height: layerH,
+					rotateXDeg: rotateX,
+					rotateYDeg: rotateY,
+					rotateZDeg: rotateZ !== 0 ? rotateZ : rotation,
+					scaleX: scale,
+					scaleY: scale,
+					perspectivePx: perspective,
+					originXRatio: perspectiveOriginX,
+					originYRatio: perspectiveOriginY,
+					translateZPx: translateZ,
+				});
+
+				let q = Transform3DMath.projectRectangleCorners(m3d, layerW, layerH);
+				if (!parentMatrix.isIdentity) {
+					q = {
+						topLeft: parentMatrix.transformPoint(
+							new DOMPoint(q.topLeft.x, q.topLeft.y),
+						),
+						topRight: parentMatrix.transformPoint(
+							new DOMPoint(q.topRight.x, q.topRight.y),
+						),
+						bottomLeft: parentMatrix.transformPoint(
+							new DOMPoint(q.bottomLeft.x, q.bottomLeft.y),
+						),
+						bottomRight: parentMatrix.transformPoint(
+							new DOMPoint(q.bottomRight.x, q.bottomRight.y),
+						),
+					};
+				}
+
+				if (
+					backfaceVisibility === "hidden" &&
+					Transform3DMath.computeSignedArea(q) < 0
+				) {
+					return; // Culled by backface visibility
+				}
+
+				quad3D = q;
+			}
+
+			const isTrue3D =
+				Boolean(target?.is3D ?? lop.is3D) ||
+				Boolean(camera && ((target?.z ?? lop.z ?? 0) !== 0 || lop.is3D));
+
+			// Container rendering
+			if (isContainer) {
+				if (lop.transformStyle === "preserve-3d" && isTrue3D) {
+					let current3DMatrix: Mat4 = Matrix4Math.identity();
+					const containerX =
+						parent3DMatrix !== null
+							? (target?.x ?? lop.x ?? 0)
+							: (target?.x ?? lop.x ?? localX + layerW * 0.5);
+					const containerY =
+						parent3DMatrix !== null
+							? (target?.y ?? lop.y ?? 0)
+							: (target?.y ?? lop.y ?? localY + layerH * 0.5);
+					const containerZ = target?.z ?? lop.z ?? 0;
+					current3DMatrix = Matrix4Math.multiply(
+						current3DMatrix,
+						Matrix4Math.translate(containerX, containerY, containerZ),
+					);
+					const rxRad = ((target?.rotateX ?? lop.rotateX ?? 0) * Math.PI) / 180;
+					const ryRad = ((target?.rotateY ?? lop.rotateY ?? 0) * Math.PI) / 180;
+					const rzRad =
+						((target?.rotateZ ?? lop.rotateZ ?? 0) !== 0
+							? (target?.rotateZ ?? lop.rotateZ ?? 0)
+							: rotation) *
+						(Math.PI / 180);
+					if (rzRad !== 0)
+						current3DMatrix = Matrix4Math.multiply(
+							current3DMatrix,
+							Matrix4Math.rotateZ(rzRad),
+						);
+					if (ryRad !== 0)
+						current3DMatrix = Matrix4Math.multiply(
+							current3DMatrix,
+							Matrix4Math.rotateY(ryRad),
+						);
+					if (rxRad !== 0)
+						current3DMatrix = Matrix4Math.multiply(
+							current3DMatrix,
+							Matrix4Math.rotateX(rxRad),
+						);
+					const csX = (target?.scaleX ?? lop.scaleX ?? 1) * scale;
+					const csY = (target?.scaleY ?? lop.scaleY ?? 1) * scale;
+					const csZ = (target?.scaleZ ?? lop.scaleZ ?? 1) * scale;
+					if (csX !== 1 || csY !== 1 || csZ !== 1)
+						current3DMatrix = Matrix4Math.multiply(
+							current3DMatrix,
+							Matrix4Math.scale(csX, csY, csZ),
+						);
+
+					if (parent3DMatrix) {
+						current3DMatrix = Matrix4Math.multiply(
+							parent3DMatrix,
+							current3DMatrix,
+						);
+					}
+
+					if (nodeVM.children && nodeVM.children.length > 0) {
+						const res = await renderNodeTree(
+							nodeVM.children,
+							activeTex,
+							activeView,
+							excludes,
+							layerOpacity,
+							new DOMMatrix(),
+							null,
+							layerW,
+							layerH,
+							current3DMatrix,
+							false,
+						);
+						activeTex = res.finalTex;
+						activeView = res.finalView;
+					}
+					return { finalTex: activeTex, finalView: activeView };
+				}
+
+				if (isTrue3D) {
+					const texW = Math.max(1, Math.ceil(layerW));
+					const texH = Math.max(1, Math.ceil(layerH));
+					const groupExcludes = [
+						activeTex,
+						targetTexture,
+						...excludes,
+						...pending3DItems
+							.map((q) => q.texture)
+							.filter((t): t is GPUTexture => Boolean(t)),
+					];
+					const groupTex = ctx.renderer.getTemporaryTexture(
+						texW,
+						texH,
+						groupExcludes,
+					);
+					const groupView = groupTex.createView();
+
+					const groupClearPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+						encoder,
+						groupView,
+						{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+						texW,
+						texH,
+						"clear",
+					);
+					groupClearPass.end();
+
+					const br = Math.min(
+						lop.borderRadius ?? lop.strokeRadius ?? 0,
+						layerW / 2,
+						layerH / 2,
+					);
+
+					if (shouldPaintContainerBackground(kind, lop.background)) {
+						const bgPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+							encoder,
+							groupView,
+							{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+							texW,
+							texH,
+							"load",
+						);
+						ctx.renderer.drawRect(
+							bgPass,
+							{ x: 0, y: 0, width: layerW, height: layerH },
+							lop.background,
+							0,
+							{ opacity: 1 },
+						);
+						bgPass.end();
+					}
+
+					let activeGroupTex = groupTex;
+					let activeGroupView = groupView;
+					if (nodeVM.children && nodeVM.children.length > 0) {
+						const res = await renderNodeTree(
+							nodeVM.children,
+							groupTex,
+							groupView,
+							[groupTex, ...groupExcludes],
+							1.0,
+							new DOMMatrix(),
+							rect,
+							texW,
+							texH,
+							null,
+							false,
+						);
+						activeGroupTex = res.finalTex;
+						activeGroupView = res.finalView;
+					}
+
+					const borderResult =
+						!isTrue3D && lop.borderWidth !== undefined && lop.borderColor
+							? createBorderTexture(
+									ctx,
+									encoder,
+									layerW,
+									layerH,
+									br,
+									lop.borderWidth,
+									lop.borderColor,
+									lop.strokeAlign ?? "inside",
+									[activeGroupTex, ...groupExcludes],
+								)
+							: null;
+
+					if (borderResult) {
+						const borderPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+							encoder,
+							activeGroupView,
+							{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+							texW,
+							texH,
+							"load",
+						);
+						ctx.renderer.drawTexture(
+							borderPass,
+							borderResult.borderTex,
+							{
+								x: borderResult.ox,
+								y: borderResult.oy,
+								width: borderResult.ow,
+								height: borderResult.oh,
+							},
+							{ opacity: 1 },
+						);
+						borderPass.end();
+					}
+
+					let modelMatrix: Mat4 | undefined;
+					if (parent3DMatrix) {
+						let localM = Matrix4Math.identity();
+						const childX = target?.x ?? lop.x ?? 0;
+						const childY = target?.y ?? lop.y ?? 0;
+						const childZ = target?.z ?? lop.z ?? 0;
+						localM = Matrix4Math.multiply(
+							localM,
+							Matrix4Math.translate(childX, childY, childZ),
+						);
+						const rxRad =
+							((target?.rotateX ?? lop.rotateX ?? 0) * Math.PI) / 180;
+						const ryRad =
+							((target?.rotateY ?? lop.rotateY ?? 0) * Math.PI) / 180;
+						const rzRad =
+							((target?.rotateZ ?? lop.rotateZ ?? 0) !== 0
+								? (target?.rotateZ ?? lop.rotateZ ?? 0)
+								: rotation) *
+							(Math.PI / 180);
+						if (rzRad !== 0)
+							localM = Matrix4Math.multiply(localM, Matrix4Math.rotateZ(rzRad));
+						if (ryRad !== 0)
+							localM = Matrix4Math.multiply(localM, Matrix4Math.rotateY(ryRad));
+						if (rxRad !== 0)
+							localM = Matrix4Math.multiply(localM, Matrix4Math.rotateX(rxRad));
+
+						const sx = layerW * scale;
+						const sy = layerH * scale;
+						const sz = target?.scaleZ ?? lop.scaleZ ?? 1;
+						localM = Matrix4Math.multiply(
+							localM,
+							Matrix4Math.scale(sx, sy, sz),
+						);
+
+						const ax = lop.anchorX ?? 0.5;
+						const ay = lop.anchorY ?? 0.5;
+						const pivotX = 0.5 - ax;
+						const pivotY = 0.5 - ay;
+						if (pivotX !== 0 || pivotY !== 0) {
+							localM = Matrix4Math.multiply(
+								localM,
+								Matrix4Math.translate(pivotX, pivotY, 0),
+							);
+						}
+
+						modelMatrix = Matrix4Math.multiply(parent3DMatrix, localM);
+					}
+
+					const quadOpts: DrawQuad3DOpts = {
+						position: [
+							localX + layerW * 0.5,
+							localY + layerH * 0.5,
+							target?.z ?? lop.z ?? 0,
+						],
+						width: layerW,
+						height: layerH,
+						textureExtent: [
+							layerW / activeGroupTex.width,
+							layerH / activeGroupTex.height,
+						],
+						rotation: [
+							target?.rotateX ?? lop.rotateX ?? 0,
+							target?.rotateY ?? lop.rotateY ?? 0,
+							(target?.rotateZ ?? lop.rotateZ ?? 0) !== 0
+								? (target?.rotateZ ?? lop.rotateZ ?? 0)
+								: rotation,
+						],
+						scale: [scale, scale, target?.scaleZ ?? lop.scaleZ ?? 1],
+						anchor: [lop.anchorX ?? 0.5, lop.anchorY ?? 0.5],
+						borderRadius: br,
+						borderWidth: lop.borderWidth,
+						borderColor: lop.borderColor,
+						opacity: layerOpacity,
+						twoSided: target?.twoSided ?? lop.twoSided ?? true,
+						material: target?.material ?? lop.material,
+						shininess: target?.shininess ?? lop.shininess,
+						roughness: target?.roughness ?? lop.roughness,
+						specularIntensity:
+							target?.specularIntensity ?? lop.specularIntensity,
+						ambientIntensity: target?.ambientIntensity ?? lop.ambientIntensity,
+						metallic: target?.metallic ?? lop.metallic,
+						...(modelMatrix && { modelMatrix }),
+					};
+
+					pending3DItems.push({
+						kind: "quad",
+						texture: activeGroupTex,
+						opts: quadOpts,
+					});
+					return { finalTex: activeTex, finalView: activeView };
+				}
+
+				if (is3D && quad3D) {
+					const texW = Math.max(1, Math.ceil(layerW));
+					const texH = Math.max(1, Math.ceil(layerH));
+					const groupExcludes = [activeTex, targetTexture, ...excludes];
+					const groupTex = ctx.renderer.getTemporaryTexture(
+						texW,
+						texH,
+						groupExcludes,
+					);
+					const groupView = groupTex.createView();
+
+					const groupClearPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+						encoder,
+						groupView,
+						{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+						texW,
+						texH,
+						"clear",
+					);
+					groupClearPass.end();
+
+					const br = Math.min(
+						lop.borderRadius ?? lop.strokeRadius ?? 0,
+						layerW / 2,
+						layerH / 2,
+					);
+
+					if (shouldPaintContainerBackground(kind, lop.background)) {
+						const bgPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+							encoder,
+							groupView,
+							{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+							texW,
+							texH,
+							"load",
+						);
+						ctx.renderer.drawRect(
+							bgPass,
+							{ x: 0, y: 0, width: layerW, height: layerH },
+							lop.background,
+							br,
+							{ opacity: 1 },
+						);
+						bgPass.end();
+					}
+
+					let activeGroupTex = groupTex;
+					let activeGroupView = groupView;
+					if (nodeVM.children && nodeVM.children.length > 0) {
+						const res = await renderNodeTree(
+							nodeVM.children,
+							groupTex,
+							groupView,
+							[groupTex, ...groupExcludes],
+							1.0,
+							new DOMMatrix(),
+							rect,
+							texW,
+							texH,
+							null,
+							false,
+						);
+						activeGroupTex = res.finalTex;
+						activeGroupView = res.finalView;
+					}
+
+					const borderResult =
+						lop.borderWidth !== undefined && lop.borderColor
+							? createBorderTexture(
+									ctx,
+									encoder,
+									layerW,
+									layerH,
+									br,
+									lop.borderWidth,
+									lop.borderColor,
+									lop.strokeAlign ?? "inside",
+									[activeGroupTex, ...groupExcludes],
+								)
+							: null;
+
+					if (borderResult) {
+						const borderPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+							encoder,
+							activeGroupView,
+							{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+							texW,
+							texH,
+							"load",
+						);
+						ctx.renderer.drawTexture(
+							borderPass,
+							borderResult.borderTex,
+							{
+								x: borderResult.ox,
+								y: borderResult.oy,
+								width: borderResult.ow,
+								height: borderResult.oh,
+							},
+							{ opacity: 1 },
+						);
+						borderPass.end();
+					}
+
+					const container3DShutter =
+						target?.motionBlurShutter ?? lop.motionBlurShutter ?? 0;
+					if (container3DShutter > 0 && fps && shiftedFrame !== undefined) {
+						const currentT = shiftedFrame / fps;
+						const prevT = (shiftedFrame - 1) / fps;
+						tl.seek(prevT);
+						const prevTarget = targetId ? targetsById[targetId] : undefined;
+						const prevX = prevTarget?.x ?? baseX;
+						const prevY = prevTarget?.y ?? baseY;
+						tl.seek(currentT);
+
+						const vx = sampledX - prevX;
+						const vy = sampledY - prevY;
+
+						if (Math.hypot(vx, vy) > 0.5) {
+							activeGroupTex = ctx.renderer.applyMotionBlur(
+								encoder,
+								activeGroupTex,
+								vx,
+								vy,
+								container3DShutter,
+								16,
+								[activeTex, targetTexture, ...excludes],
+							);
+							activeGroupView = activeGroupTex.createView();
+						}
+					}
+
+					if (blendMode === "normal" || blendMode === "source-over") {
+						drawProjectedQuad(
+							ctx,
+							encoder,
+							activeView,
+							activeGroupTex,
+							quad3D,
+							targetW,
+							targetH,
+							layerOpacity,
+						);
+					} else {
+						const compositeExcludes = [
+							activeTex,
+							targetTexture,
+							activeGroupTex,
+							...excludes,
+						];
+						if (borderResult) compositeExcludes.push(borderResult.borderTex);
+						const layerTex = ctx.renderer.getTemporaryTexture(
+							targetW,
+							targetH,
+							compositeExcludes,
+						);
+						const layerView = layerTex.createView();
+						const layerClearPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+							encoder,
+							layerView,
+							{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+							targetW,
+							targetH,
+							"clear",
+						);
+						layerClearPass.end();
+
+						drawProjectedQuad(
+							ctx,
+							encoder,
+							layerView,
+							activeGroupTex,
+							quad3D,
+							targetW,
+							targetH,
+							layerOpacity,
+						);
+
+						activeTex = ctx.renderer.composite(
+							encoder,
+							activeTex,
+							layerTex,
+							blendMode,
+							[targetTexture, ...excludes],
+						);
+						activeView = activeTex.createView();
+					}
+
+					return { finalTex: activeTex, finalView: activeView };
+				}
+				const shouldClip = lop.overflow !== "visible";
+				const scissorRect = shouldClip
+					? computeContainerScissor(layerMatrix, layerW, layerH)
+					: null;
+				// A scissor clips to the box; rounded corners need a mask pass.
+				const clipRadius = shouldClip
+					? Math.min(
+							target?.borderRadius ?? lop.borderRadius ?? 0,
+							layerW / 2,
+							layerH / 2,
+						)
+					: 0;
+
+				// Transparent optimized flex/block — only when there is no
+				// background to paint (a flex/block with a background takes the
+				// group-texture path below).
+				if (
+					(kind === "flex" || kind === "block") &&
+					clipRadius <= 0 &&
+					!shouldPaintContainerBackground(kind, lop.background) &&
+					layerOpacity === 1 &&
+					blendMode === "normal" &&
+					!lop.borderWidth &&
+					!lop.borderColor &&
+					(typeof lop.relighting !== "object" || !lop.relighting) &&
+					(typeof lop.relight !== "object" || !lop.relight) &&
+					(typeof target?.relighting !== "object" || !target?.relighting) &&
+					(typeof target?.relight !== "object" || !target?.relight) &&
+					(typeof lop.deflicker !== "object" || !lop.deflicker) &&
+					(typeof target?.deflicker !== "object" || !target?.deflicker)
+				) {
+					if (scissorRect) {
+						ctx.renderer.pushScissor(scissorRect);
+					}
+					const res = await renderNodeTree(
+						nodeVM.children ?? [],
+						activeTex,
+						activeView,
+						excludes,
+						accumulatedOpacity,
+						layerMatrix,
+						rect,
+						targetW,
+						targetH,
+						null,
+						isRootScene,
+					);
+					if (scissorRect) {
+						ctx.renderer.popScissor();
+					}
+					return res;
+				}
+
+				// Otherwise, draw container background + children + border onto a temporary group texture,
+				// and composite/blend the group texture onto destTex.
+				const groupExcludes = [activeTex, targetTexture, ...excludes];
+				const groupTex = ctx.renderer.getTemporaryTexture(
+					targetW,
+					targetH,
+					groupExcludes,
+				);
+				const groupView = groupTex.createView();
+
+				const groupClearPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+					encoder,
+					groupView,
+					{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+					targetW,
+					targetH,
+					"clear",
+				);
+				groupClearPass.end();
+
+				const br = Math.min(
+					target?.borderRadius ?? lop.borderRadius ?? lop.strokeRadius ?? 0,
+					layerW / 2,
+					layerH / 2,
+				);
+
+				// Background fill pass — any container kind (flex/block/box).
+				if (shouldPaintContainerBackground(kind, lop.background)) {
+					const bgPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+						encoder,
+						groupView,
+						{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+						targetW,
+						targetH,
+						"load",
+					);
+					ctx.renderer.pushTransform(layerMatrix);
+					ctx.renderer.drawRect(
+						bgPass,
+						{ x: 0, y: 0, width: layerW, height: layerH },
+						lop.background,
+						br,
+						{ opacity: layerOpacity },
+					);
+					ctx.renderer.popTransform();
+					bgPass.end();
+				}
+
+				let activeGroupTex = groupTex;
+				let activeGroupView = groupView;
+				if (nodeVM.children && nodeVM.children.length > 0) {
+					if (scissorRect) {
+						ctx.renderer.pushScissor(scissorRect);
+					}
+					const res = await renderNodeTree(
+						nodeVM.children,
+						groupTex,
+						groupView,
+						[groupTex, ...groupExcludes],
+						layerOpacity,
+						layerMatrix,
+						rect,
+						targetW,
+						targetH,
+						null,
+						false,
+					);
+					if (scissorRect) {
+						ctx.renderer.popScissor();
+					}
+					activeGroupTex = res.finalTex;
+					activeGroupView = res.finalView;
+				}
+
+				// overflow: hidden with a border radius: keep only what falls
+				// inside the rounded box (background and children alike).
+				if (clipRadius > 0) {
+					const maskTex = ctx.renderer.getTemporaryTexture(targetW, targetH, [
+						activeGroupTex,
+						...groupExcludes,
+					]);
+					const maskPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+						encoder,
+						maskTex.createView(),
+						{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+						targetW,
+						targetH,
+						"clear",
+					);
+					ctx.renderer.pushTransform(layerMatrix);
+					ctx.renderer.drawRect(
+						maskPass,
+						{ x: 0, y: 0, width: layerW, height: layerH },
+						"#ffffff",
+						clipRadius,
+					);
+					ctx.renderer.popTransform();
+					maskPass.end();
+					activeGroupTex = ctx.renderer.composite(
+						encoder,
+						activeGroupTex,
+						maskTex,
+						"mask-in",
+						[activeGroupTex, maskTex, ...groupExcludes],
+					);
+					activeGroupView = activeGroupTex.createView();
+				}
+
+				const borderResult =
+					lop.borderWidth !== undefined && lop.borderColor
+						? createBorderTexture(
+								ctx,
+								encoder,
+								layerW,
+								layerH,
+								br,
+								lop.borderWidth,
+								lop.borderColor,
+								lop.strokeAlign ?? "inside",
+								[activeGroupTex, ...groupExcludes],
+							)
+						: null;
+
+				if (borderResult) {
+					const borderPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+						encoder,
+						activeGroupView,
+						{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+						targetW,
+						targetH,
+						"load",
+					);
+					ctx.renderer.pushTransform(layerMatrix);
+					ctx.renderer.drawTexture(
+						borderPass,
+						borderResult.borderTex,
+						{
+							x: borderResult.ox,
+							y: borderResult.oy,
+							width: borderResult.ow,
+							height: borderResult.oh,
+						},
+						{ opacity: layerOpacity },
+					);
+					ctx.renderer.popTransform();
+					borderPass.end();
+				}
+
+				const containerShutter =
+					target?.motionBlurShutter ?? lop.motionBlurShutter ?? 0;
+				if (containerShutter > 0 && fps && shiftedFrame !== undefined) {
+					const currentT = shiftedFrame / fps;
+					const prevT = (shiftedFrame - 1) / fps;
+					tl.seek(prevT);
+					const prevTarget = targetId ? targetsById[targetId] : undefined;
+					const prevX = prevTarget?.x ?? baseX;
+					const prevY = prevTarget?.y ?? baseY;
+					tl.seek(currentT);
+
+					const vx = sampledX - prevX;
+					const vy = sampledY - prevY;
+
+					if (Math.hypot(vx, vy) > 0.5) {
+						activeGroupTex = ctx.renderer.applyMotionBlur(
+							encoder,
+							activeGroupTex,
+							vx,
+							vy,
+							containerShutter,
+							16,
+							[activeTex, targetTexture, ...excludes],
+						);
+						activeGroupView = activeGroupTex.createView();
+					}
+				}
+
+				// Temporal De-flickering & Optical Flow Warping
+				const deflickerFromEffects = Array.isArray(lop.effects)
+					? lop.effects.find(
+							(e: unknown) =>
+								(e as { op?: string })?.op === "TemporalDeflicker" ||
+								(e as { op?: string })?.op === "Deflicker" ||
+								(e as { constructor?: { name?: string } })?.constructor
+									?.name === "TemporalDeflicker",
+						)
+					: undefined;
+				const rawDeflicker =
+					target?.deflicker ?? lop.deflicker ?? deflickerFromEffects;
+				const deflickerOpts =
+					typeof rawDeflicker === "object" && rawDeflicker !== null
+						? rawDeflicker
+						: undefined;
+				if (deflickerOpts) {
+					const deflickerPipe = getTemporalDeflickerPipeline(
+						ctx.device,
+						lop.id || `layer_${i}`,
+					);
+					if (shiftedFrame === 0) {
+						deflickerPipe.reset();
+					}
+					activeGroupTex = deflickerPipe.execute(
+						activeGroupTex,
+						deflickerOpts,
+						encoder,
+					);
+					activeGroupView = activeGroupTex.createView();
+				}
+
+				// Screen-Space 3D Relighting
+				const relightEffect = Array.isArray(lop.effects)
+					? lop.effects.find(
+							(e: unknown) =>
+								(e as { op?: string })?.op === "Relight3D" ||
+								(e as { constructor?: { name?: string } })?.constructor
+									?.name === "Relight3D",
+						)
+					: undefined;
+				const rawRelight =
+					target?.relighting ??
+					lop.relighting ??
+					(typeof lop.relight === "object" ? lop.relight : undefined) ??
+					relightEffect;
+				const relightOpts =
+					typeof rawRelight === "object" && rawRelight !== null
+						? rawRelight
+						: undefined;
+				if (relightOpts) {
+					const relightPipeline = getScreenSpaceRelightPipeline(
+						ctx.device,
+						ctx.renderer.format ?? "rgba8unorm",
+					);
+					const r3dInstance = getRenderer3D(
+						ctx.device,
+						ctx.renderer.format ?? "rgba8unorm",
+						sampleCount3d,
+					);
+
+					const activeLights = synthesizeRelightLights(
+						relightOpts as Record<string, unknown>,
+						sceneLights,
+						rect,
+						shiftedFrame,
+						fps ?? 24,
+					);
+
+					const lightsBuffer =
+						r3dInstance.getOrCreateLightsBuffer(activeLights);
+
+					const relitTex = ctx.renderer.getTemporaryTexture(targetW, targetH, [
+						activeGroupTex,
+						activeTex,
+						targetTexture,
+						...excludes,
+					]);
+					const relitView = relitTex.createView();
+
+					const normalTex = relightOpts.normalTexture ?? relightOpts.normalMap;
+
+					relightPipeline.execute(
+						encoder,
+						relitView,
+						activeGroupTex,
+						normalTex,
+						lightsBuffer,
+						{
+							viewportWidth: targetW,
+							viewportHeight: targetH,
+							layerX: 0,
+							layerY: 0,
+							roughness: resolveVal(
+								target?.roughness ??
+									target?.relightRoughness ??
+									relightOpts.specularRoughness ??
+									relightOpts.roughness,
+								0.35,
+								shiftedFrame,
+								fps ?? 24,
+							),
+							specularStrength: resolveVal(
+								target?.specularStrength ??
+									target?.relightSpecularStrength ??
+									relightOpts.specularStrength,
+								0.7,
+								shiftedFrame,
+								fps ?? 24,
+							),
+							metallic: resolveVal(
+								target?.metallic ??
+									target?.relightMetallic ??
+									relightOpts.metallic,
+								0.0,
+								shiftedFrame,
+								fps ?? 24,
+							),
+							ambientIntensity: resolveVal(
+								target?.ambientIntensity ??
+									target?.relightAmbientIntensity ??
+									relightOpts.ambientIntensity,
+								0.15,
+								shiftedFrame,
+								fps ?? 24,
+							),
+							depthScale: resolveVal(
+								target?.depthScale ??
+									target?.relightDepthScale ??
+									relightOpts.depthScale,
+								1.0,
+								shiftedFrame,
+								fps ?? 24,
+							),
+							opacity: 1.0,
+						},
+						"clear",
+					);
+
+					activeGroupTex = relitTex;
+					activeGroupView = relitView;
+				}
+
+				// Always composite container groups using the composite shader
+				const compositeExcludes = [activeTex, targetTexture, ...excludes];
+				if (borderResult) compositeExcludes.push(borderResult.borderTex);
+				const nextDestTex = ctx.renderer.composite(
+					encoder,
+					activeTex,
+					activeGroupTex,
+					blendMode,
+					compositeExcludes,
+				);
+				activeTex = nextDestTex;
+				activeView = activeTex.createView();
+
+				return { finalTex: activeTex, finalView: activeView };
+			}
+
+			// Leaf layers (text/media)
+			if (!(layerW > 0 && layerH > 0))
+				return { finalTex: activeTex, finalView: activeView };
+
+			const br = Math.min(
+				lop.borderRadius ?? lop.strokeRadius ?? 0,
+				layerW / 2,
+				layerH / 2,
+			);
+			const texW = Math.ceil(layerW);
+			const texH = Math.ceil(layerH);
+
+			// Suspend any parent container scissors while rendering isolated offscreen localTex
+			const savedScissors = ctx.renderer.suspendScissors?.() ?? [];
+
+			const localTex = ctx.renderer.getTemporaryTexture(texW, texH, [
+				activeTex,
+				targetTexture,
+				...excludes,
+			]);
+			const localView = localTex.createView();
+
+			const localClearPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+				encoder,
+				localView,
+				{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+				texW,
+				texH,
+				"clear",
+			);
+			localClearPass.end();
+
+			// Content: media → bound source VM; text → synthetic text op.
+			let content: VirtualMediaData | undefined;
+			let isCaption = false;
+			if (kind === "media") {
+				content = nodeVM.children?.[0];
+				isCaption =
+					content?.operation?.dataType === "Caption" ||
+					lop.dataType === "Caption" ||
+					(content?.operation as any)?.srtText !== undefined;
+			} else if (kind === "text") {
+				const fullText = lop.text ?? "";
+				let displayText = fullText;
+
+				// Kinetic typography animators (Section 5)
+				let resolvedAnimators = rawAnimators;
+				if (Array.isArray(rawAnimators) && rawAnimators.length > 0) {
+					resolvedAnimators = rawAnimators.map((animator: any, idx: number) => {
+						const a = {
+							...animator,
+							transform: { ...(animator.transform ?? {}) },
+						};
+						if (idx === 0) {
+							const offsetVal =
+								typeof target?.offset === "number"
+									? target.offset
+									: typeof target?.animatorOffset === "number"
+										? target.animatorOffset
+										: undefined;
+							const rangeStartVal =
+								typeof target?.rangeStart === "number"
+									? target.rangeStart
+									: typeof target?.animatorRangeStart === "number"
+										? target.animatorRangeStart
+										: undefined;
+							const rangeEndVal =
+								typeof target?.rangeEnd === "number"
+									? target.rangeEnd
+									: typeof target?.animatorRangeEnd === "number"
+										? target.animatorRangeEnd
+										: undefined;
+
+							if (offsetVal !== undefined) a.offset = offsetVal;
+							if (rangeStartVal !== undefined) a.rangeStart = rangeStartVal;
+							if (rangeEndVal !== undefined) a.rangeEnd = rangeEndVal;
+
+							if (Array.isArray(a.selectors)) {
+								a.selectors = a.selectors.map((s: any) => {
+									if (s.type === "range") {
+										return {
+											...s,
+											...(offsetVal !== undefined ? { offset: offsetVal } : {}),
+											...(rangeStartVal !== undefined
+												? { start: rangeStartVal }
+												: {}),
+											...(rangeEndVal !== undefined
+												? { end: rangeEndVal }
+												: {}),
+										};
+									}
+									return s;
+								});
+							}
+						}
+						return a;
+					});
+				}
+
+				const hasKineticAnimators =
+					Array.isArray(resolvedAnimators) && resolvedAnimators.length > 0;
+				const hasTypewriter = Boolean(lop.typewriter || target?.typewriter);
+
+				// Check if there is an active text track or progress value evaluated by GSAP
+				const textTrack = lop.animation?.tracks?.find(
+					(t: { prop: string }) => t.prop === "text",
+				);
+				const hasTextAnimation =
+					!hasKineticAnimators &&
+					!hasTypewriter &&
+					(textTrack !== undefined || typeof target?.text === "number");
+
+				if (hasTextAnimation && fullText.length > 0) {
+					const progress =
+						typeof target?.text === "number"
+							? Math.max(0, Math.min(1, target.text))
+							: 1;
+
+					if (progress >= 1) {
+						displayText = fullText;
+					} else if (progress <= 0) {
+						displayText = "";
+					} else {
+						// Determine preset style (default to typewriter)
+						const presetType =
+							textTrack?.keyframes?.find(
+								(k: { presetType?: string }) => k.presetType,
+							)?.presetType ?? "typewriter";
+
+						const textNumeric =
+							typeof target?.text === "number" ? target.text : null;
+						const isDirectCount = textNumeric !== null && textNumeric > 1.0001;
+
+						if (presetType === "word-reveal" || presetType === "karaoke") {
+							const tokens = fullText.split(/(\s+)/);
+							const wordIndices: number[] = [];
+							tokens.forEach((token: string, idx: number) => {
+								if (token.trim().length > 0) wordIndices.push(idx);
+							});
+							const visibleWordCount =
+								isDirectCount && textNumeric !== null
+									? Math.min(wordIndices.length, Math.round(textNumeric))
+									: Math.round(wordIndices.length * progress);
+							if (visibleWordCount === 0) {
+								displayText = "";
+							} else {
+								const lastTokenIdx =
+									wordIndices[
+										Math.min(wordIndices.length - 1, visibleWordCount - 1)
+									]!;
+								displayText = tokens.slice(0, lastTokenIdx + 1).join("");
+							}
+						} else if (presetType === "line-reveal") {
+							const lines = fullText.split("\n");
+							const visibleLineCount =
+								isDirectCount && textNumeric !== null
+									? Math.min(lines.length, Math.round(textNumeric))
+									: Math.round(lines.length * progress);
+							displayText = lines
+								.slice(0, Math.max(0, visibleLineCount))
+								.join("\n");
+						} else {
+							// typewriter (character-level reveal)
+							const visibleChars =
+								isDirectCount && textNumeric !== null
+									? Math.min(fullText.length, Math.round(textNumeric))
+									: Math.round(fullText.length * progress);
+							displayText = fullText.slice(0, visibleChars);
+						}
+					}
+				}
+
+				content = {
+					metadata: {},
+					operation: {
+						op: "text",
+						text: displayText,
+						animators: resolvedAnimators,
+						pathOptions: target?.pathOptions ?? lop.pathOptions,
+						typewriter: target?.typewriter ?? lop.typewriter,
+						marquee: target?.marquee ?? (lop as { marquee?: unknown }).marquee,
+						textProgress:
+							typeof target?.text === "number" ? target.text : undefined,
+						firstMargin: target?.firstMargin ?? lop.firstMargin,
+						lastMargin: target?.lastMargin ?? lop.lastMargin,
+						baselineShift: target?.baselineShift ?? lop.baselineShift,
+						signals:
+							(virtualMedia as any)?.operation?.signals ??
+							(virtualMedia as any)?.signals,
+						fontSize: target?.fontSize ?? lop.fontSize,
+						fontFamily: lop.fontFamily,
+						fontStyle: lop.fontStyle,
+						fontWeight: lop.fontWeight,
+						fill: target?.fill ?? target?.color ?? lop.fill,
+						align:
+							lop.align === "start"
+								? "left"
+								: lop.align === "end"
+									? "right"
+									: lop.align,
+						verticalAlign: lop.verticalAlign,
+						letterSpacing: target?.letterSpacing ?? lop.letterSpacing,
+						lineHeight: lop.lineHeight,
+						padding: lop.padding,
+						textBackgroundColor:
+							target?.textBackgroundColor ??
+							target?.background ??
+							lop.background,
+						borderRadius: lop.borderRadius,
+						stroke: target?.stroke ?? target?.strokeColor ?? lop.stroke,
+						strokeWidth: target?.strokeWidth ?? lop.strokeWidth,
+						strokeAlign: lop.strokeAlign,
+						textShadow: lop.textShadow,
+						shadows: lop.shadows,
+						x: isPathText ? 0 : padX,
+						y: isPathText ? 0 : padY,
+						width: isPathText
+							? targetW
+							: lop.width !== undefined
+								? rect.width
+								: undefined,
+						height: isPathText
+							? targetH
+							: lop.height !== undefined
+								? rect.height
+								: undefined,
+					},
+					children: [],
+				} as unknown as VirtualMediaData;
+			}
+
+			// A true-3D text layer hands its glyphs to the 3D pass as outlines, to
+			// be resolved per screen pixel on its plane: a texture of the text
+			// blurs up close and aliases at a glancing angle. Whatever else the
+			// layer draws (a backdrop, emoji) still lands in its texture.
+			let glyphBatches: SlugGlyphBatch[] | null = null;
+			let layerHasRaster = true;
+			if (content) {
+				const contentMeta = getActiveMediaMetadata(content);
+				const contentDurationMs = contentMeta?.durationMs ?? composeDuration;
+				const layerDurationFrames = Math.max(
+					1,
+					Math.round((contentDurationMs / 1000) * (fps ?? 24)),
+				);
+				const layerDurationInMS = (layerDurationFrames / (fps ?? 24)) * 1000;
+				const contentIsImageCompositor =
+					content.operation?.op === "Compositor" &&
+					content.operation?.dataType === "Image";
+
+				const captureGlyphs = isTrue3D && kind === "text";
+				const rasterDrawsBefore = ctx.renderer.rasterDrawCount;
+				if (captureGlyphs) ctx.renderer.slugPipeline.beginCapture();
+				try {
+					await drawChild(
+						content,
+						{
+							containerWidth: layerW,
+							containerHeight: layerH,
+							renderId: `${props.renderId}-l${i}`,
+							durationMs: layerDurationInMS,
+							opacity: 1.0,
+							fps,
+							// A media layer's effect chain (decode → passes) allocates from the
+							// shared pool: keep it off the destination this layer composites onto,
+							// or the raw frame lands there wherever the clip does not cover it.
+							excludeTextures: [activeTex, targetTexture, ...excludes],
+							isVideoMode: isVideoMode && !contentIsImageCompositor,
+							...(isVideoMode && {
+								frame:
+									Math.max(0, shiftedFrame - (lop.startFrame ?? 0)) +
+									(lop.mediaStartFrame ??
+										lop.trimStartFrames ??
+										(lop.trimStartSec != null
+											? Math.round(lop.trimStartSec * (fps ?? 24))
+											: 0)),
+							}),
+							...(isCaption && {
+								fontFamily: lop.fontFamily,
+								fontSize: target?.fontSize ?? lop.fontSize,
+								fontWeight: lop.fontWeight,
+								fontStyle: lop.fontStyle,
+								fill: lop.fill,
+								color: lop.fill,
+								align:
+									lop.align === "start"
+										? "left"
+										: lop.align === "end"
+											? "right"
+											: (lop.align ?? "center"),
+								verticalAlign: lop.verticalAlign ?? lop.textAlignVertical,
+								lineHeight: lop.lineHeight,
+								letterSpacing: lop.letterSpacing,
+								textBackgroundColor: lop.background ?? lop.textBackgroundColor,
+								borderRadius: lop.borderRadius ?? lop.strokeRadius,
+								strokeRadius: lop.strokeRadius ?? lop.borderRadius,
+								stroke: lop.stroke,
+								strokeWidth: lop.strokeWidth,
+								shadows: lop.shadows,
+								padding: lop.padding,
+								maxWidth: lop.maxWidth ?? layerW,
+							}),
+						},
+						localView,
+						localTex,
+						texW,
+						texH,
+					);
+				} finally {
+					if (captureGlyphs) {
+						glyphBatches = ctx.renderer.slugPipeline.endCapture();
+					}
+				}
+				layerHasRaster = ctx.renderer.rasterDrawCount !== rasterDrawsBefore;
+			} else if (kind === "shape") {
+				const shapePass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+					encoder,
+					localView,
+					{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+					texW,
+					texH,
+					"load",
+				);
+
+				const shapeType = lop.shapeType ?? lop.shape ?? "rect";
+				const shapeConfig: ShapeGeometryConfig = {
+					shapeType,
+					width: layerW,
+					height: layerH,
+					path: lop.d ?? lop.path,
+					cornerRadius:
+						target?.cornerRadius ??
+						lop.cornerRadius ??
+						lop.borderRadius ??
+						lop.radius ??
+						0,
+					starPoints: lop.starPoints ?? 5,
+					starInnerRadiusRatio:
+						target?.starInnerRadiusRatio ?? lop.starInnerRadiusRatio ?? 0.5,
+					polygonSides: lop.polygonSides ?? 5,
+				};
+
+				const fillType = lop.fillType ?? "solid";
+				const fillColor =
+					target?.fillColor ??
+					target?.fill ??
+					lop.fillColor ??
+					lop.fill ??
+					"#38bdf8";
+				const color2 =
+					target?.gradientEndColor ??
+					lop.gradientEndColor ??
+					lop.fillColor2 ??
+					"#9333ea";
+
+				let startX = lop.fillStartX;
+				let startY = lop.fillStartY;
+				let endX = lop.fillEndX;
+				let endY = lop.fillEndY;
+				if (
+					fillType === "linear" &&
+					startX === undefined &&
+					lop.gradientAngle !== undefined
+				) {
+					const rad = (lop.gradientAngle * Math.PI) / 180;
+					const cx = layerW / 2;
+					const cy = layerH / 2;
+					// Edge to edge along the angle (0° left→right, 90° top→bottom),
+					// matching the shape generator's SVG gradients.
+					const half =
+						(Math.abs(layerW * Math.cos(rad)) +
+							Math.abs(layerH * Math.sin(rad))) /
+						2;
+					startX = cx - Math.cos(rad) * half;
+					startY = cy - Math.sin(rad) * half;
+					endX = cx + Math.cos(rad) * half;
+					endY = cy + Math.sin(rad) * half;
+				}
+
+				const fillConfig: ShapeFillConfig = {
+					type: fillType,
+					color: fillColor,
+					color2,
+					startX,
+					startY,
+					endX,
+					endY,
+					cx: lop.fillCx,
+					cy: lop.fillCy,
+					radius: lop.fillRadius,
+				};
+
+				const strokeWidth = target?.strokeWidth ?? lop.strokeWidth ?? 0;
+				const strokeColor =
+					target?.strokeColor ?? lop.strokeColor ?? lop.stroke ?? "#ffffff";
+				const strokeLineCap = lop.strokeLineCap ?? "round";
+				const strokeDashArray = lop.strokeDashArray;
+				const strokeDashOffset =
+					target?.strokeDashOffset ?? lop.strokeDashOffset ?? 0;
+				const trimStart = target?.trimStart ?? lop.trimStart ?? 0;
+				const trimEnd = target?.trimEnd ?? lop.trimEnd ?? 1;
+				const trimOffset = target?.trimOffset ?? lop.trimOffset ?? 0;
+
+				ctx.renderer.drawShape(
+					shapePass,
+					shapeConfig,
+					fillConfig,
+					strokeWidth > 0
+						? {
+								color: strokeColor,
+								width: strokeWidth,
+								cap: strokeLineCap,
+								trimStart,
+								trimEnd,
+								trimOffset,
+								dashArray: strokeDashArray,
+								dashOffset: strokeDashOffset,
+							}
+						: undefined,
+				);
+
+				shapePass.end();
+			}
+
+			// Temporal De-flickering & Optical Flow Warping
+			const leafDeflickerEffect = Array.isArray(lop.effects)
+				? lop.effects.find(
+						(e: unknown) =>
+							(e as { op?: string })?.op === "TemporalDeflicker" ||
+							(e as { constructor?: { name?: string } })?.constructor?.name ===
+								"TemporalDeflicker",
+					)
+				: undefined;
+			const deflickerOpts =
+				target?.deflicker ?? lop.deflicker ?? leafDeflickerEffect;
+
+			// Screen-Space 3D Relighting
+			const leafRelightEffect = Array.isArray(lop.effects)
+				? lop.effects.find(
+						(e: unknown) =>
+							(e as { op?: string })?.op === "Relight3D" ||
+							(e as { constructor?: { name?: string } })?.constructor?.name ===
+								"Relight3D",
+					)
+				: undefined;
+			const rawLeafRelight =
+				target?.relighting ??
+				lop.relighting ??
+				(typeof lop.relight === "object" ? lop.relight : undefined) ??
+				leafRelightEffect;
+			const relightOpts =
+				typeof rawLeafRelight === "object" && rawLeafRelight !== null
+					? rawLeafRelight
+					: undefined;
+
+			// Directional velocity motion blur
+			const shutterAngle =
+				target?.motionBlurShutter ?? lop.motionBlurShutter ?? 0;
+
+			// Effects work on the layer's pixels: glyphs held back for the 3D
+			// pass are drawn into its texture after all.
+			if (
+				glyphBatches &&
+				glyphBatches.length > 0 &&
+				(deflickerOpts || relightOpts || shutterAngle > 0)
+			) {
+				const glyphPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+					encoder,
+					localView,
+					{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+					texW,
+					texH,
+					"load",
+				);
+				ctx.renderer.slugPipeline.drawBatches(
+					glyphPass,
+					glyphBatches,
+					texW,
+					texH,
+				);
+				glyphPass.end();
+				glyphBatches = null;
+				layerHasRaster = true;
+			}
+
+			let finalTex = localTex;
+			if (!isTrue3D && br > 0 && !isCaption && kind !== "shape") {
+				const maskTex = ctx.renderer.getTemporaryTexture(texW, texH, [
+					localTex,
+					activeTex,
+					targetTexture,
+					...excludes,
+				]);
+				const maskView = maskTex.createView();
+				const maskClearPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+					encoder,
+					maskView,
+					{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+					texW,
+					texH,
+					"clear",
+				);
+				maskClearPass.end();
+
+				const maskPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+					encoder,
+					maskView,
+					{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+					texW,
+					texH,
+					"load",
+				);
+				ctx.renderer.drawRect(
+					maskPass,
+					{ x: 0, y: 0, width: layerW, height: layerH },
+					{ r: 1, g: 1, b: 1, a: 1 },
+					br,
+				);
+				maskPass.end();
+
+				finalTex = ctx.renderer.composite(
+					encoder,
+					localTex,
+					maskTex,
+					"mask-in",
+					[activeTex, targetTexture, ...excludes],
+				);
+			}
+
+			// Temporal De-flickering & Optical Flow Warping
+			if (deflickerOpts) {
+				const deflickerPipe = getTemporalDeflickerPipeline(
+					ctx.device,
+					lop.id || `layer_${i}`,
+				);
+				if (shiftedFrame === 0) {
+					deflickerPipe.reset();
+				}
+				finalTex = deflickerPipe.execute(finalTex, deflickerOpts, encoder);
+			}
+
+			// Screen-Space 3D Relighting
+			if (relightOpts) {
+				const relightPipeline = getScreenSpaceRelightPipeline(
+					ctx.device,
+					ctx.renderer.format ?? "rgba8unorm",
+				);
+				const r3dInstance = getRenderer3D(
+					ctx.device,
+					ctx.renderer.format ?? "rgba8unorm",
+					sampleCount3d,
+				);
+				const activeLights = synthesizeRelightLights(
+					relightOpts as Record<string, unknown>,
+					sceneLights,
+					{ x: sampledX, y: sampledY, width: texW, height: texH },
+					shiftedFrame,
+					fps ?? 24,
+				);
+				const lightsBuffer = r3dInstance.getOrCreateLightsBuffer(activeLights);
+
+				const relitTex = ctx.renderer.getTemporaryTexture(texW, texH, [
+					finalTex,
+					activeTex,
+					targetTexture,
+					...excludes,
+				]);
+				const relitView = relitTex.createView();
+
+				const normalTex = relightOpts.normalTexture ?? relightOpts.normalMap;
+
+				relightPipeline.execute(
+					encoder,
+					relitView,
+					finalTex,
+					normalTex,
+					lightsBuffer,
+					{
+						viewportWidth: texW,
+						viewportHeight: texH,
+						layerX: sampledX,
+						layerY: sampledY,
+						roughness: resolveVal(
+							target?.roughness ??
+								target?.relightRoughness ??
+								relightOpts.specularRoughness ??
+								relightOpts.roughness,
+							0.35,
+							shiftedFrame,
+							fps ?? 24,
+						),
+						specularStrength: resolveVal(
+							target?.specularStrength ??
+								target?.relightSpecularStrength ??
+								relightOpts.specularStrength,
+							0.7,
+							shiftedFrame,
+							fps ?? 24,
+						),
+						metallic: resolveVal(
+							target?.metallic ??
+								target?.relightMetallic ??
+								relightOpts.metallic,
+							0.0,
+							shiftedFrame,
+							fps ?? 24,
+						),
+						ambientIntensity: resolveVal(
+							target?.ambientIntensity ??
+								target?.relightAmbientIntensity ??
+								relightOpts.ambientIntensity,
+							0.15,
+							shiftedFrame,
+							fps ?? 24,
+						),
+						depthScale: resolveVal(
+							target?.depthScale ??
+								target?.relightDepthScale ??
+								relightOpts.depthScale,
+							1.0,
+							shiftedFrame,
+							fps ?? 24,
+						),
+						opacity: 1.0,
+					},
+					"clear",
+				);
+
+				finalTex = relitTex;
+			}
+
+			// Directional velocity motion blur (last: the shutter integrates the final look)
+			let blurPadX = 0;
+			let blurPadY = 0;
+			if (shutterAngle > 0 && fps && shiftedFrame !== undefined) {
+				const currentT = shiftedFrame / fps;
+				const prevT = (shiftedFrame - 1) / fps;
+				tl.seek(prevT);
+				const prevTarget = targetId ? targetsById[targetId] : undefined;
+				const prevX = prevTarget?.x ?? baseX;
+				const prevY = prevTarget?.y ?? baseY;
+				tl.seek(currentT);
+
+				const vx = sampledX - prevX;
+				const vy = sampledY - prevY;
+
+				if (Math.hypot(vx, vy) > 0.5) {
+					// The blur only samples inside its texture: give flat layers room
+					// to streak past their own bounds instead of smearing edge pixels.
+					if (!isTrue3D && !(is3D && quad3D)) {
+						const reach = shutterAngle / 360;
+						blurPadX = Math.ceil(Math.abs(vx) * reach);
+						blurPadY = Math.ceil(Math.abs(vy) * reach);
+						const paddedTex = ctx.renderer.getTemporaryTexture(
+							texW + blurPadX * 2,
+							texH + blurPadY * 2,
+							[finalTex, activeTex, targetTexture, ...excludes],
+						);
+						const padPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+							encoder,
+							paddedTex.createView(),
+							{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+							paddedTex.width,
+							paddedTex.height,
+							"clear",
+						);
+						ctx.renderer.drawTexture(
+							padPass,
+							finalTex,
+							{ x: blurPadX, y: blurPadY, width: texW, height: texH },
+							{ opacity: 1.0 },
+						);
+						padPass.end();
+						finalTex = paddedTex;
+					}
+					// ~1 tap per 2 px of streak so fast moves smear instead of ghosting.
+					const streakPx = Math.hypot(vx, vy) * (shutterAngle / 360) * 2;
+					const samples = Math.min(128, Math.max(16, Math.ceil(streakPx / 2)));
+					finalTex = ctx.renderer.applyMotionBlur(
+						encoder,
+						finalTex,
+						vx,
+						vy,
+						shutterAngle,
+						samples,
+						[activeTex, targetTexture, ...excludes],
+					);
+				}
+			}
+
+			const borderExcludes = [
+				localTex,
+				finalTex,
+				activeTex,
+				targetTexture,
+				...excludes,
+			];
+			const borderResult =
+				!isTrue3D && lop.borderWidth !== undefined && lop.borderColor
+					? createBorderTexture(
+							ctx,
+							encoder,
+							layerW,
+							layerH,
+							br,
+							lop.borderWidth,
+							lop.borderColor,
+							lop.strokeAlign ?? "inside",
+							borderExcludes,
+						)
+					: null;
+
+			// Restore parent container scissors before compositing onto container/screen activeView
+			if (savedScissors.length > 0) {
+				ctx.renderer.resumeScissors?.(savedScissors);
+			}
+
+			if (isTrue3D) {
+				const renderedTex = finalTex;
+				if (borderResult) {
+					const borderPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+						encoder,
+						renderedTex.createView(),
+						{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+						texW,
+						texH,
+						"load",
+					);
+					ctx.renderer.drawTexture(
+						borderPass,
+						borderResult.borderTex,
+						{
+							x: borderResult.ox,
+							y: borderResult.oy,
+							width: borderResult.ow,
+							height: borderResult.oh,
+						},
+						{ opacity: 1.0 },
+					);
+					borderPass.end();
+				}
+
+				let modelMatrix: Mat4 | undefined;
+				if (parent3DMatrix) {
+					let localM = Matrix4Math.identity();
+					const childX = target?.x ?? lop.x ?? 0;
+					const childY = target?.y ?? lop.y ?? 0;
+					const childZ = target?.z ?? lop.z ?? 0;
+					localM = Matrix4Math.multiply(
+						localM,
+						Matrix4Math.translate(childX, childY, childZ),
+					);
+					const rxRad = ((target?.rotateX ?? lop.rotateX ?? 0) * Math.PI) / 180;
+					const ryRad = ((target?.rotateY ?? lop.rotateY ?? 0) * Math.PI) / 180;
+					const rzRad =
+						((target?.rotateZ ?? lop.rotateZ ?? 0) !== 0
+							? (target?.rotateZ ?? lop.rotateZ ?? 0)
+							: rotation) *
+						(Math.PI / 180);
+					if (rzRad !== 0)
+						localM = Matrix4Math.multiply(localM, Matrix4Math.rotateZ(rzRad));
+					if (ryRad !== 0)
+						localM = Matrix4Math.multiply(localM, Matrix4Math.rotateY(ryRad));
+					if (rxRad !== 0)
+						localM = Matrix4Math.multiply(localM, Matrix4Math.rotateX(rxRad));
+
+					const sx = layerW * scale;
+					const sy = layerH * scale;
+					const sz = target?.scaleZ ?? lop.scaleZ ?? 1;
+					localM = Matrix4Math.multiply(localM, Matrix4Math.scale(sx, sy, sz));
+
+					const ax = lop.anchorX ?? 0.5;
+					const ay = lop.anchorY ?? 0.5;
+					const pivotX = 0.5 - ax;
+					const pivotY = 0.5 - ay;
+					if (pivotX !== 0 || pivotY !== 0) {
+						localM = Matrix4Math.multiply(
+							localM,
+							Matrix4Math.translate(pivotX, pivotY, 0),
+						);
+					}
+
+					modelMatrix = Matrix4Math.multiply(parent3DMatrix, localM);
+				}
+
+				const quadOpts: DrawQuad3DOpts = {
+					position: [
+						localX + layerW * 0.5,
+						localY + layerH * 0.5,
+						target?.z ?? lop.z ?? 0,
+					],
+					width: layerW,
+					height: layerH,
+					textureExtent: [layerW / texW, layerH / texH],
+					rotation: [
+						target?.rotateX ?? lop.rotateX ?? 0,
+						target?.rotateY ?? lop.rotateY ?? 0,
+						(target?.rotateZ ?? lop.rotateZ ?? 0) !== 0
+							? (target?.rotateZ ?? lop.rotateZ ?? 0)
+							: rotation,
+					],
+					scale: [scale, scale, target?.scaleZ ?? lop.scaleZ ?? 1],
+					anchor: [lop.anchorX ?? 0.5, lop.anchorY ?? 0.5],
+					borderRadius: br,
+					borderWidth: lop.borderWidth,
+					borderColor: lop.borderColor,
+					opacity: layerOpacity,
+					twoSided: target?.twoSided ?? lop.twoSided ?? true,
+					material: target?.material ?? lop.material,
+					shininess: target?.shininess ?? lop.shininess,
+					roughness: target?.roughness ?? lop.roughness,
+					specularIntensity: target?.specularIntensity ?? lop.specularIntensity,
+					ambientIntensity: target?.ambientIntensity ?? lop.ambientIntensity,
+					metallic: target?.metallic ?? lop.metallic,
+					...(modelMatrix && { modelMatrix }),
+				};
+
+				// The texture quad carries the layer's backdrop and border; a
+				// text layer that drew neither needs only its glyphs.
+				const quadHasContent =
+					layerHasRaster ||
+					Boolean(
+						quadOpts.borderWidth &&
+							quadOpts.borderWidth > 0 &&
+							quadOpts.borderColor,
+					);
+				if (!glyphBatches || quadHasContent) {
+					pending3DItems.push({
+						kind: "quad",
+						texture: renderedTex,
+						opts: quadOpts,
+					});
+				}
+				if (glyphBatches && glyphBatches.length > 0) {
+					pending3DItems.push({
+						kind: "slug",
+						batches: glyphBatches,
+						opts: quadOpts,
+						stackBase: quadHasContent ? 1 : 0,
+					});
+				}
+				return { finalTex: activeTex, finalView: activeView };
+			}
+
+			if (is3D && quad3D) {
+				const renderedTex = finalTex;
+				if (borderResult) {
+					const borderPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+						encoder,
+						renderedTex.createView(),
+						{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+						texW,
+						texH,
+						"load",
+					);
+					ctx.renderer.drawTexture(
+						borderPass,
+						borderResult.borderTex,
+						{
+							x: borderResult.ox,
+							y: borderResult.oy,
+							width: borderResult.ow,
+							height: borderResult.oh,
+						},
+						{ opacity: 1.0 },
+					);
+					borderPass.end();
+				}
+
+				if (blendMode === "normal" || blendMode === "source-over") {
+					drawProjectedQuad(
+						ctx,
+						encoder,
+						activeView,
+						renderedTex,
+						quad3D,
+						targetW,
+						targetH,
+						layerOpacity,
+					);
+				} else {
+					const layerExcludes = [
+						activeTex,
+						targetTexture,
+						renderedTex,
+						...excludes,
+					];
+					if (borderResult) layerExcludes.push(borderResult.borderTex);
+					const layerTex = ctx.renderer.getTemporaryTexture(
+						targetW,
+						targetH,
+						layerExcludes,
+					);
+					const layerView = layerTex.createView();
+					const layerClearPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+						encoder,
+						layerView,
+						{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+						targetW,
+						targetH,
+						"clear",
+					);
+					layerClearPass.end();
+
+					drawProjectedQuad(
+						ctx,
+						encoder,
+						layerView,
+						renderedTex,
+						quad3D,
+						targetW,
+						targetH,
+						layerOpacity,
+					);
+
+					const nextCompTex = ctx.renderer.composite(
+						encoder,
+						activeTex,
+						layerTex,
+						blendMode,
+						[targetTexture, ...excludes],
+					);
+					activeTex = nextCompTex;
+					activeView = activeTex.createView();
+				}
+
+				return { finalTex: activeTex, finalView: activeView };
+			}
+
+			if (blendMode === "normal" || blendMode === "source-over") {
+				const drawPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+					encoder,
+					activeView,
+					{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+					targetW,
+					targetH,
+					"load",
+				);
+				ctx.renderer.pushTransform(layerMatrix);
+				ctx.renderer.drawTexture(
+					drawPass,
+					finalTex,
+					{
+						x: -blurPadX,
+						y: -blurPadY,
+						width: layerW + blurPadX * 2,
+						height: layerH + blurPadY * 2,
+					},
+					{ opacity: layerOpacity },
+				);
+
+				if (borderResult) {
+					ctx.renderer.drawTexture(
+						drawPass,
+						borderResult.borderTex,
+						{
+							x: borderResult.ox,
+							y: borderResult.oy,
+							width: borderResult.ow,
+							height: borderResult.oh,
+						},
+						{ opacity: layerOpacity },
+					);
+				}
+
+				ctx.renderer.popTransform();
+				drawPass.end();
+			} else {
+				const layerExcludes = [finalTex, activeTex, targetTexture, ...excludes];
+				if (borderResult) layerExcludes.push(borderResult.borderTex);
+				const layerTex = ctx.renderer.getTemporaryTexture(
+					targetW,
+					targetH,
+					layerExcludes,
+				);
+				const layerView = layerTex.createView();
+
+				const layerClearPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+					encoder,
+					layerView,
+					{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+					targetW,
+					targetH,
+					"clear",
+				);
+				layerClearPass.end();
+
+				const drawPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+					encoder,
+					layerView,
+					{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+					targetW,
+					targetH,
+					"load",
+				);
+				ctx.renderer.pushTransform(layerMatrix);
+				ctx.renderer.drawTexture(
+					drawPass,
+					finalTex,
+					{
+						x: -blurPadX,
+						y: -blurPadY,
+						width: layerW + blurPadX * 2,
+						height: layerH + blurPadY * 2,
+					},
+					{ opacity: layerOpacity },
+				);
+
+				if (borderResult) {
+					ctx.renderer.drawTexture(
+						drawPass,
+						borderResult.borderTex,
+						{
+							x: borderResult.ox,
+							y: borderResult.oy,
+							width: borderResult.ow,
+							height: borderResult.oh,
+						},
+						{ opacity: layerOpacity },
+					);
+				}
+
+				ctx.renderer.popTransform();
+				drawPass.end();
+
+				const nextCompTex = ctx.renderer.composite(
+					encoder,
+					activeTex,
+					layerTex,
+					blendMode,
+					[targetTexture, ...excludes],
+				);
+				activeTex = nextCompTex;
+				activeView = activeTex.createView();
+			}
+
+			return { finalTex: activeTex, finalView: activeView };
+		};
+
+		const initialExcludes = [
+			compTex,
+			targetTexture,
+			...(props.excludeTextures || []),
+		];
+		const renderResult = await renderNodeTree(
+			virtualMedia.children ?? [],
+			compTex,
+			compView,
+			initialExcludes,
+			1.0,
+			new DOMMatrix(),
+			null,
+			nativeWidth,
+			nativeHeight,
+			null,
+			true,
+		);
+		currentCompTex = renderResult.finalTex;
+
+		ctx.renderer.popTransform();
+		ctx.renderer.popScissor();
+
+		// 4. Composite the native texture back to targetView
+		const finalPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+			encoder,
+			targetView,
+			{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+			targetWidth,
+			targetHeight,
+			"load",
+		);
+
+		ctx.renderer.drawTexture(
+			finalPass,
+			currentCompTex,
+			{
+				x: 0,
+				y: 0,
+				width: props.containerWidth ?? targetWidth,
+				height: props.containerHeight ?? targetHeight,
+			},
+			{ opacity },
+		);
+
+		args.pass = finalPass;
+	}
+};
+
+function createBorderTexture(
+	ctx: RenderContextValue,
+	encoder: GPUCommandEncoder,
+	w: number,
+	h: number,
+	br: number,
+	borderWidth: number,
+	borderColor: string | Color,
+	strokeAlign: string,
+	excludeTextures: GPUTexture[],
+): {
+	borderTex: GPUTexture;
+	ox: number;
+	oy: number;
+	ow: number;
+	oh: number;
+} | null {
+	if (w <= 0 || h <= 0 || !borderColor || !borderWidth || borderWidth <= 0) {
+		return null;
+	}
+
+	let ox = 0;
+	let oy = 0;
+	let ow = w;
+	let oh = h;
+	let outerRadius = br;
+	let innerRadius = br;
+
+	if (strokeAlign === "inside") {
+		ox = 0;
+		oy = 0;
+		ow = w;
+		oh = h;
+		outerRadius = br;
+		innerRadius = Math.max(0, br - borderWidth);
+	} else if (strokeAlign === "outside") {
+		ox = -borderWidth;
+		oy = -borderWidth;
+		ow = w + 2 * borderWidth;
+		oh = h + 2 * borderWidth;
+		outerRadius = br + borderWidth;
+		innerRadius = br;
+	} else {
+		// center
+		ox = -borderWidth / 2;
+		oy = -borderWidth / 2;
+		ow = w + borderWidth;
+		oh = h + borderWidth;
+		outerRadius = br + borderWidth / 2;
+		innerRadius = Math.max(0, br - borderWidth / 2);
+	}
+
+	if (br <= 0) {
+		outerRadius = 0;
+		innerRadius = 0;
+	}
+
+	if (ow <= 0 || oh <= 0) {
+		return null;
+	}
+
+	const borderTexW = Math.ceil(ow);
+	const borderTexH = Math.ceil(oh);
+
+	const outerTex = ctx.renderer.getTemporaryTexture(
+		borderTexW,
+		borderTexH,
+		excludeTextures,
+	);
+	const outerView = outerTex.createView();
+
+	const outerClearPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+		encoder,
+		outerView,
+		{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+		borderTexW,
+		borderTexH,
+		"clear",
+	);
+	outerClearPass.end();
+
+	const outerDrawPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+		encoder,
+		outerView,
+		{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+		borderTexW,
+		borderTexH,
+		"load",
+	);
+	ctx.renderer.drawRect(
+		outerDrawPass,
+		{ x: 0, y: 0, width: ow, height: oh },
+		borderColor,
+		outerRadius,
+	);
+	outerDrawPass.end();
+
+	const innerW = ow - 2 * borderWidth;
+	const innerH = oh - 2 * borderWidth;
+
+	if (innerW > 0 && innerH > 0) {
+		const innerTex = ctx.renderer.getTemporaryTexture(borderTexW, borderTexH, [
+			outerTex,
+			...excludeTextures,
+		]);
+		const innerView = innerTex.createView();
+
+		const innerClearPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+			encoder,
+			innerView,
+			{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+			borderTexW,
+			borderTexH,
+			"clear",
+		);
+		innerClearPass.end();
+
+		const innerDrawPass = ctx.renderer.beginFrame(
+			encoder,
+			innerView,
+			{ r: 0, g: 0, b: 0, a: 0 },
+			borderTexW,
+			borderTexH,
+			"load",
+		);
+		ctx.renderer.drawRect(
+			innerDrawPass,
+			{ x: borderWidth, y: borderWidth, width: innerW, height: innerH },
+			{ r: 1, g: 1, b: 1, a: 1 },
+			innerRadius,
+		);
+		innerDrawPass.end();
+
+		const borderTex = ctx.renderer.composite(
+			encoder,
+			outerTex,
+			innerTex,
+			"mask-out",
+			excludeTextures,
+		);
+		return { borderTex, ox, oy, ow, oh };
+	}
+
+	return { borderTex: outerTex, ox, oy, ow, oh };
+}