@f5-sales-demo/pi-ai 19.51.2

package/src/auth-storage.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,2694 @@
+/**
+ * Credential storage for API keys and OAuth tokens.
+ * Handles loading, saving, refreshing credentials, and usage tracking.
+ *
+ * This module defines:
+ * - `AuthCredentialStore` interface: abstracting persistence (SQLite, memory, etc.)
+ * - `AuthStorage` class: credential management with round-robin, usage limits, OAuth refresh
+ * - `AuthCredentialStore`: concrete SQLite-backed implementation
+ */
+import { Database, type Statement } from "bun:sqlite";
+import * as fs from "node:fs/promises";
+import * as path from "node:path";
+import { getAgentDbPath, logger } from "@f5xc-salesdemos/pi-utils";
+import { getEnvApiKey } from "./stream";
+import type { Provider } from "./types";
+import type {
+	CredentialRankingStrategy,
+	UsageCredential,
+	UsageLimit,
+	UsageLogger,
+	UsageProvider,
+	UsageReport,
+} from "./usage";
+import { claudeRankingStrategy, claudeUsageProvider } from "./usage/claude";
+import { googleGeminiCliUsageProvider } from "./usage/gemini";
+import { githubCopilotUsageProvider } from "./usage/github-copilot";
+import { antigravityUsageProvider } from "./usage/google-antigravity";
+import { kimiUsageProvider } from "./usage/kimi";
+import { codexRankingStrategy, openaiCodexUsageProvider } from "./usage/openai-codex";
+import { zaiUsageProvider } from "./usage/zai";
+import { getOAuthApiKey, getOAuthProvider, refreshOAuthToken } from "./utils/oauth";
+// Re-export login functions so consumers of AuthStorage.login() have access
+// (these are used inside the login() switch-case)
+import { loginAlibabaCodingPlan } from "./utils/oauth/alibaba-coding-plan";
+import { loginAnthropic } from "./utils/oauth/anthropic";
+import { loginCerebras } from "./utils/oauth/cerebras";
+import { loginCloudflareAiGateway } from "./utils/oauth/cloudflare-ai-gateway";
+import { loginCursor } from "./utils/oauth/cursor";
+import { loginGitHubCopilot } from "./utils/oauth/github-copilot";
+import { loginGitLabDuo } from "./utils/oauth/gitlab-duo";
+import { loginAntigravity } from "./utils/oauth/google-antigravity";
+import { loginGeminiCli } from "./utils/oauth/google-gemini-cli";
+import { loginHuggingface } from "./utils/oauth/huggingface";
+import { loginKagi } from "./utils/oauth/kagi";
+import { loginKilo } from "./utils/oauth/kilo";
+import { loginKimi } from "./utils/oauth/kimi";
+import { loginLiteLLM } from "./utils/oauth/litellm";
+import { loginLmStudio } from "./utils/oauth/lm-studio";
+import { loginMiniMaxCode, loginMiniMaxCodeCn } from "./utils/oauth/minimax-code";
+import { loginMoonshot } from "./utils/oauth/moonshot";
+import { loginNanoGPT } from "./utils/oauth/nanogpt";
+import { loginNvidia } from "./utils/oauth/nvidia";
+import { loginOllama } from "./utils/oauth/ollama";
+import { loginOpenAICodex } from "./utils/oauth/openai-codex";
+import { loginOpenCode } from "./utils/oauth/opencode";
+import { loginParallel } from "./utils/oauth/parallel";
+import { loginPerplexity } from "./utils/oauth/perplexity";
+import { loginQianfan } from "./utils/oauth/qianfan";
+import { loginQwenPortal } from "./utils/oauth/qwen-portal";
+import { loginSynthetic } from "./utils/oauth/synthetic";
+import { loginTavily } from "./utils/oauth/tavily";
+import { loginTogether } from "./utils/oauth/together";
+import type { OAuthController, OAuthCredentials, OAuthProvider, OAuthProviderId } from "./utils/oauth/types";
+import { loginVenice } from "./utils/oauth/venice";
+import { loginVercelAiGateway } from "./utils/oauth/vercel-ai-gateway";
+import { loginVllm } from "./utils/oauth/vllm";
+import { loginXiaomi } from "./utils/oauth/xiaomi";
+import { loginZai } from "./utils/oauth/zai";
+import { loginZenMux } from "./utils/oauth/zenmux";
+
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// Credential Types
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+export type ApiKeyCredential = {
+	type: "api_key";
+	key: string;
+};
+
+export type OAuthCredential = {
+	type: "oauth";
+} & OAuthCredentials;
+
+export type AuthCredential = ApiKeyCredential | OAuthCredential;
+
+export type AuthCredentialEntry = AuthCredential | AuthCredential[];
+
+export type AuthStorageData = Record<string, AuthCredentialEntry>;
+
+/**
+ * Serialized representation of AuthStorage for passing to subagent workers.
+ * Contains only the essential credential data, not runtime state.
+ */
+export interface SerializedAuthStorage {
+	credentials: Record<
+		string,
+		Array<{
+			id: number;
+			type: "api_key" | "oauth";
+			data: Record<string, unknown>;
+		}>
+	>;
+	runtimeOverrides?: Record<string, string>;
+	dbPath?: string;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Auth credential with database row ID for updates/deletes.
+ * Wraps AuthCredential with storage metadata.
+ */
+export interface StoredAuthCredential {
+	id: number;
+	provider: string;
+	credential: AuthCredential;
+	disabledCause: string | null;
+}
+
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// AuthStorage Options
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+export type AuthStorageOptions = {
+	usageProviderResolver?: (provider: Provider) => UsageProvider | undefined;
+	rankingStrategyResolver?: (provider: Provider) => CredentialRankingStrategy | undefined;
+	usageFetch?: typeof fetch;
+	usageRequestTimeoutMs?: number;
+	usageLogger?: UsageLogger;
+	/**
+	 * Resolve a config value (API key, header value, etc.) to an actual value.
+	 * - coding-agent injects its resolveConfigValue (supports "!command" syntax via pi-natives)
+	 * - Default: checks environment variable first, then treats as literal
+	 */
+	configValueResolver?: (config: string) => Promise<string | undefined>;
+};
+
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// Default Config Value Resolver
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+/**
+ * Default config value resolver that checks env vars and treats as literal.
+ * Does NOT support "!command" syntax (that requires pi-natives).
+ */
+async function defaultConfigValueResolver(config: string): Promise<string | undefined> {
+	const envValue = process.env[config];
+	return envValue || config;
+}
+
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// Usage Providers (defaults)
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+const DEFAULT_USAGE_PROVIDERS: UsageProvider[] = [
+	openaiCodexUsageProvider,
+	kimiUsageProvider,
+	antigravityUsageProvider,
+	googleGeminiCliUsageProvider,
+	claudeUsageProvider,
+	zaiUsageProvider,
+	githubCopilotUsageProvider,
+];
+
+const DEFAULT_USAGE_PROVIDER_MAP = new Map<Provider, UsageProvider>(
+	DEFAULT_USAGE_PROVIDERS.map(provider => [provider.id, provider]),
+);
+
+const USAGE_CACHE_PREFIX = "usage_cache:";
+const USAGE_REPORT_TTL_MS = 30_000;
+const DEFAULT_USAGE_REQUEST_TIMEOUT_MS = 3_000;
+const DEFAULT_OAUTH_REFRESH_TIMEOUT_MS = 10_000;
+
+type UsageCacheEntry<T> = {
+	value: T;
+	expiresAt: number;
+};
+
+interface UsageCache {
+	get<T>(key: string): UsageCacheEntry<T> | undefined;
+	set<T>(key: string, entry: UsageCacheEntry<T>): void;
+	cleanup?(): void;
+}
+
+type UsageRequestDescriptor = {
+	provider: Provider;
+	credential: UsageCredential;
+	baseUrl?: string;
+};
+
+type AuthApiKeyOptions = {
+	baseUrl?: string;
+	modelId?: string;
+};
+
+function requiresOpenAICodexProModel(provider: string, modelId: string | undefined): boolean {
+	return provider === "openai-codex" && typeof modelId === "string" && modelId.includes("-spark");
+}
+
+function getUsagePlanType(report: UsageReport | null): string | undefined {
+	const metadata = report?.metadata;
+	if (!metadata || typeof metadata !== "object" || Array.isArray(metadata)) return undefined;
+	const planType = (metadata as { planType?: unknown }).planType;
+	return typeof planType === "string" ? planType.toLowerCase() : undefined;
+}
+
+function getOpenAICodexPlanPriority(report: UsageReport | null): number {
+	const planType = getUsagePlanType(report);
+	if (!planType) return 1;
+	return planType.includes("pro") ? 0 : 2;
+}
+
+function resolveDefaultUsageProvider(provider: Provider): UsageProvider | undefined {
+	return DEFAULT_USAGE_PROVIDER_MAP.get(provider);
+}
+
+const DEFAULT_RANKING_STRATEGIES = new Map<Provider, CredentialRankingStrategy>([
+	["openai-codex", codexRankingStrategy],
+	["anthropic", claudeRankingStrategy],
+]);
+
+function resolveDefaultRankingStrategy(provider: Provider): CredentialRankingStrategy | undefined {
+	return DEFAULT_RANKING_STRATEGIES.get(provider);
+}
+
+function parseUsageCacheEntry<T>(raw: string): UsageCacheEntry<T> | undefined {
+	try {
+		const parsed = JSON.parse(raw) as { value?: T; expiresAt?: unknown };
+		const expiresAt = typeof parsed.expiresAt === "number" ? parsed.expiresAt : undefined;
+		if (!expiresAt || !Number.isFinite(expiresAt)) return undefined;
+		return { value: parsed.value as T, expiresAt };
+	} catch {
+		return undefined;
+	}
+}
+
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// Usage Cache (backed by AuthCredentialStore)
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+class AuthStorageUsageCache implements UsageCache {
+	constructor(private store: AuthCredentialStore) {}
+
+	get<T>(key: string): UsageCacheEntry<T> | undefined {
+		const raw = this.store.getCache(`${USAGE_CACHE_PREFIX}${key}`);
+		if (!raw) return undefined;
+		return parseUsageCacheEntry<T>(raw);
+	}
+
+	set<T>(key: string, entry: UsageCacheEntry<T>): void {
+		const payload = JSON.stringify({ value: entry.value, expiresAt: entry.expiresAt });
+		this.store.setCache(`${USAGE_CACHE_PREFIX}${key}`, payload, Math.floor(entry.expiresAt / 1000));
+	}
+
+	cleanup(): void {
+		this.store.cleanExpiredCache();
+	}
+}
+
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// In-memory representation
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+type StoredCredential = { id: number; credential: AuthCredential };
+
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// AuthStorage Class
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+/**
+ * Credential storage backed by an AuthCredentialStore.
+ * Reads from storage on reload(), manages round-robin credential selection,
+ * usage limit tracking, and OAuth token refresh.
+ */
+export class AuthStorage {
+	static readonly #defaultBackoffMs = 60_000; // Default backoff when no reset time available
+
+	/** Provider -> credentials cache, populated from store on reload(). */
+	#data: Map<string, StoredCredential[]> = new Map();
+	#runtimeOverrides: Map<string, string> = new Map();
+	/** Tracks next credential index per provider:type key for round-robin distribution (non-session use). */
+	#providerRoundRobinIndex: Map<string, number> = new Map();
+	/** Tracks the last used credential per provider for a session (used for rate-limit switching). */
+	#sessionLastCredential: Map<string, Map<string, { type: AuthCredential["type"]; index: number }>> = new Map();
+	/** Maps provider:type -> credentialIndex -> blockedUntilMs for temporary backoff. */
+	#credentialBackoff: Map<string, Map<number, number>> = new Map();
+	#usageProviderResolver?: (provider: Provider) => UsageProvider | undefined;
+	#rankingStrategyResolver?: (provider: Provider) => CredentialRankingStrategy | undefined;
+	#usageCache: UsageCache;
+	#usageRequestInFlight: Map<string, Promise<UsageReport | null>> = new Map();
+	#usageReportsInFlight: Map<string, Promise<UsageReport[]>> = new Map();
+	#usageFetch: typeof fetch;
+	#usageRequestTimeoutMs: number;
+	#usageLogger?: UsageLogger;
+	#fallbackResolver?: (provider: string) => string | undefined;
+	#store: AuthCredentialStore;
+	#configValueResolver: (config: string) => Promise<string | undefined>;
+	#closed = false;
+
+	constructor(store: AuthCredentialStore, options: AuthStorageOptions = {}) {
+		this.#store = store;
+		this.#configValueResolver = options.configValueResolver ?? defaultConfigValueResolver;
+		this.#usageProviderResolver = options.usageProviderResolver ?? resolveDefaultUsageProvider;
+		this.#rankingStrategyResolver = options.rankingStrategyResolver ?? resolveDefaultRankingStrategy;
+		this.#usageCache = new AuthStorageUsageCache(this.#store);
+		this.#usageFetch = options.usageFetch ?? fetch;
+		this.#usageRequestTimeoutMs = options.usageRequestTimeoutMs ?? DEFAULT_USAGE_REQUEST_TIMEOUT_MS;
+		this.#usageLogger =
+			options.usageLogger ??
+			({
+				debug: (message, meta) => logger.debug(message, meta),
+				warn: (message, meta) => logger.warn(message, meta),
+			} satisfies UsageLogger);
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Create an AuthStorage instance backed by a AuthCredentialStore.
+	 * Convenience factory for standalone use (e.g., pi-ai CLI).
+	 * @param dbPath - Path to SQLite database
+	 */
+	static async create(dbPath: string, options: AuthStorageOptions = {}): Promise<AuthStorage> {
+		const store = await AuthCredentialStore.open(dbPath);
+		return new AuthStorage(store, options);
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Close the underlying credential store.
+	 *
+	 * After calling this, the instance must not be reused.
+	 */
+	close(): void {
+		if (this.#closed) return;
+		this.#closed = true;
+		this.#store.close();
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Set a runtime API key override (not persisted to disk).
+	 * Used for CLI --api-key flag.
+	 */
+	setRuntimeApiKey(provider: string, apiKey: string): void {
+		this.#runtimeOverrides.set(provider, apiKey);
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Remove a runtime API key override.
+	 */
+	removeRuntimeApiKey(provider: string): void {
+		this.#runtimeOverrides.delete(provider);
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Set a fallback resolver for API keys not found in storage or env vars.
+	 * Used for custom provider keys from models.json.
+	 */
+	setFallbackResolver(resolver: (provider: string) => string | undefined): void {
+		this.#fallbackResolver = resolver;
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Reload credentials from storage.
+	 */
+	async reload(): Promise<void> {
+		const records = this.#store.listAuthCredentials();
+		const grouped = new Map<string, StoredCredential[]>();
+		for (const record of records) {
+			const list = grouped.get(record.provider) ?? [];
+			list.push({ id: record.id, credential: record.credential });
+			grouped.set(record.provider, list);
+		}
+
+		const dedupedGrouped = new Map<string, StoredCredential[]>();
+		for (const [provider, entries] of grouped.entries()) {
+			const deduped = this.#pruneDuplicateStoredCredentials(provider, entries);
+			if (deduped.length > 0) {
+				dedupedGrouped.set(provider, deduped);
+			}
+		}
+		this.#data = dedupedGrouped;
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Gets cached credentials for a provider.
+	 * @param provider - Provider name (e.g., "anthropic", "openai")
+	 * @returns Array of stored credentials, empty if none exist
+	 */
+	#getStoredCredentials(provider: string): StoredCredential[] {
+		return this.#data.get(provider) ?? [];
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Updates in-memory credential cache for a provider.
+	 * Removes the provider entry entirely if credentials array is empty.
+	 * @param provider - Provider name (e.g., "anthropic", "openai")
+	 * @param credentials - Array of stored credentials to cache
+	 */
+	#setStoredCredentials(provider: string, credentials: StoredCredential[]): void {
+		if (credentials.length === 0) {
+			this.#data.delete(provider);
+		} else {
+			this.#data.set(provider, credentials);
+		}
+	}
+
+	#resolveOAuthDedupeIdentityKey(provider: string, credential: OAuthCredential): string | null {
+		return resolveCredentialIdentityKey(provider, credential);
+	}
+
+	#dedupeOAuthCredentials(provider: string, credentials: AuthCredential[]): AuthCredential[] {
+		const seen = new Set<string>();
+		const deduped: AuthCredential[] = [];
+		for (let index = credentials.length - 1; index >= 0; index -= 1) {
+			const credential = credentials[index];
+			if (credential.type !== "oauth") {
+				deduped.push(credential);
+				continue;
+			}
+			const identityKey = this.#resolveOAuthDedupeIdentityKey(provider, credential);
+			if (!identityKey) {
+				deduped.push(credential);
+				continue;
+			}
+			if (seen.has(identityKey)) {
+				continue;
+			}
+			seen.add(identityKey);
+			deduped.push(credential);
+		}
+		return deduped.reverse();
+	}
+
+	#pruneDuplicateStoredCredentials(provider: string, entries: StoredCredential[]): StoredCredential[] {
+		const seen = new Set<string>();
+		const kept: StoredCredential[] = [];
+		const removed: StoredCredential[] = [];
+		for (let index = entries.length - 1; index >= 0; index -= 1) {
+			const entry = entries[index];
+			const credential = entry.credential;
+			if (credential.type !== "oauth") {
+				kept.push(entry);
+				continue;
+			}
+			const identityKey = this.#resolveOAuthDedupeIdentityKey(provider, credential);
+			if (!identityKey) {
+				kept.push(entry);
+				continue;
+			}
+			if (seen.has(identityKey)) {
+				removed.push(entry);
+				continue;
+			}
+			seen.add(identityKey);
+			kept.push(entry);
+		}
+		if (removed.length > 0) {
+			for (const entry of removed) {
+				this.#store.deleteAuthCredential(entry.id, "deduplicated duplicate credential");
+			}
+			this.#resetProviderAssignments(provider);
+		}
+		return kept.reverse();
+	}
+
+	/** Returns all credentials for a provider as an array */
+	#getCredentialsForProvider(provider: string): AuthCredential[] {
+		return this.#getStoredCredentials(provider).map(entry => entry.credential);
+	}
+
+	/** Composite key for round-robin tracking: "anthropic:oauth" or "openai:api_key" */
+	#getProviderTypeKey(provider: string, type: AuthCredential["type"]): string {
+		return `${provider}:${type}`;
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Returns next index in round-robin sequence for load distribution.
+	 * Increments stored counter and wraps at total.
+	 */
+	#getNextRoundRobinIndex(providerKey: string, total: number): number {
+		if (total <= 1) return 0;
+		const current = this.#providerRoundRobinIndex.get(providerKey) ?? -1;
+		const next = (current + 1) % total;
+		this.#providerRoundRobinIndex.set(providerKey, next);
+		return next;
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * FNV-1a hash for deterministic session-to-credential mapping.
+	 * Ensures the same session always starts with the same credential.
+	 */
+	#getHashedIndex(sessionId: string, total: number): number {
+		if (total <= 1) return 0;
+		return Bun.hash.xxHash32(sessionId) % total;
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Returns credential indices in priority order for selection.
+	 * With sessionId: starts from hashed index (consistent per session).
+	 * Without sessionId: starts from round-robin index (load balancing).
+	 * Order wraps around so all credentials are tried if earlier ones are blocked.
+	 */
+	#getCredentialOrder(providerKey: string, sessionId: string | undefined, total: number): number[] {
+		if (total <= 1) return [0];
+		const start = sessionId
+			? this.#getHashedIndex(sessionId, total)
+			: this.#getNextRoundRobinIndex(providerKey, total);
+		const order: number[] = [];
+		for (let i = 0; i < total; i++) {
+			order.push((start + i) % total);
+		}
+		return order;
+	}
+
+	/** Returns block expiry timestamp for a credential, cleaning up expired entries. */
+	#getCredentialBlockedUntil(providerKey: string, credentialIndex: number): number | undefined {
+		const backoffMap = this.#credentialBackoff.get(providerKey);
+		if (!backoffMap) return undefined;
+		const blockedUntil = backoffMap.get(credentialIndex);
+		if (!blockedUntil) return undefined;
+		if (blockedUntil <= Date.now()) {
+			backoffMap.delete(credentialIndex);
+			if (backoffMap.size === 0) {
+				this.#credentialBackoff.delete(providerKey);
+			}
+			return undefined;
+		}
+		return blockedUntil;
+	}
+
+	/** Checks if a credential is temporarily blocked due to usage limits. */
+	#isCredentialBlocked(providerKey: string, credentialIndex: number): boolean {
+		return this.#getCredentialBlockedUntil(providerKey, credentialIndex) !== undefined;
+	}
+
+	/** Marks a credential as blocked until the specified time. */
+	#markCredentialBlocked(providerKey: string, credentialIndex: number, blockedUntilMs: number): void {
+		const backoffMap = this.#credentialBackoff.get(providerKey) ?? new Map<number, number>();
+		const existing = backoffMap.get(credentialIndex) ?? 0;
+		backoffMap.set(credentialIndex, Math.max(existing, blockedUntilMs));
+		this.#credentialBackoff.set(providerKey, backoffMap);
+	}
+
+	/** Records which credential was used for a session (for rate-limit switching). */
+	#recordSessionCredential(
+		provider: string,
+		sessionId: string | undefined,
+		type: AuthCredential["type"],
+		index: number,
+	): void {
+		if (!sessionId) return;
+		const sessionMap = this.#sessionLastCredential.get(provider) ?? new Map();
+		sessionMap.set(sessionId, { type, index });
+		this.#sessionLastCredential.set(provider, sessionMap);
+	}
+
+	/** Retrieves the last credential used by a session. */
+	#getSessionCredential(
+		provider: string,
+		sessionId: string | undefined,
+	): { type: AuthCredential["type"]; index: number } | undefined {
+		if (!sessionId) return undefined;
+		return this.#sessionLastCredential.get(provider)?.get(sessionId);
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Selects a credential of the specified type for a provider.
+	 * Returns both the credential and its index in the original array (for updates/removal).
+	 * Uses deterministic hashing for session stickiness and skips blocked credentials when possible.
+	 */
+	#selectCredentialByType<T extends AuthCredential["type"]>(
+		provider: string,
+		type: T,
+		sessionId?: string,
+	): { credential: Extract<AuthCredential, { type: T }>; index: number } | undefined {
+		const credentials = this.#getCredentialsForProvider(provider)
+			.map((credential, index) => ({ credential, index }))
+			.filter(
+				(entry): entry is { credential: Extract<AuthCredential, { type: T }>; index: number } =>
+					entry.credential.type === type,
+			);
+
+		if (credentials.length === 0) return undefined;
+		if (credentials.length === 1) return credentials[0];
+
+		const providerKey = this.#getProviderTypeKey(provider, type);
+		const order = this.#getCredentialOrder(providerKey, sessionId, credentials.length);
+		const fallback = credentials[order[0]];
+
+		for (const idx of order) {
+			const candidate = credentials[idx];
+			if (!this.#isCredentialBlocked(providerKey, candidate.index)) {
+				return candidate;
+			}
+		}
+
+		return fallback;
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Clears round-robin and session assignment state for a provider.
+	 * Called when credentials are added/removed to prevent stale index references.
+	 */
+	#resetProviderAssignments(provider: string): void {
+		for (const key of this.#providerRoundRobinIndex.keys()) {
+			if (key.startsWith(`${provider}:`)) {
+				this.#providerRoundRobinIndex.delete(key);
+			}
+		}
+		this.#sessionLastCredential.delete(provider);
+		for (const key of this.#credentialBackoff.keys()) {
+			if (key.startsWith(`${provider}:`)) {
+				this.#credentialBackoff.delete(key);
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	/** Updates credential at index in-place (used for OAuth token refresh) */
+	#replaceCredentialAt(provider: string, index: number, credential: AuthCredential): void {
+		const entries = this.#getStoredCredentials(provider);
+		if (index < 0 || index >= entries.length) return;
+		const target = entries[index];
+		this.#store.updateAuthCredential(target.id, credential);
+		const updated = [...entries];
+		updated[index] = { id: target.id, credential };
+		this.#setStoredCredentials(provider, updated);
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Disables credential at index (used when OAuth refresh fails).
+	 * The credential remains in the database but is excluded from active queries.
+	 * Cleans up provider entry if last credential disabled.
+	 */
+	#disableCredentialAt(provider: string, index: number, disabledCause: string): void {
+		const entries = this.#getStoredCredentials(provider);
+		if (index < 0 || index >= entries.length) return;
+		this.#store.deleteAuthCredential(entries[index].id, disabledCause);
+		const updated = entries.filter((_value, idx) => idx !== index);
+		this.#setStoredCredentials(provider, updated);
+		this.#resetProviderAssignments(provider);
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Get credential for a provider (first entry if multiple).
+	 */
+	get(provider: string): AuthCredential | undefined {
+		return this.#getCredentialsForProvider(provider)[0];
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Set credential for a provider.
+	 */
+	async set(provider: string, credential: AuthCredentialEntry): Promise<void> {
+		const normalized = Array.isArray(credential) ? credential : [credential];
+		const deduped = this.#dedupeOAuthCredentials(provider, normalized);
+		const stored = this.#store.replaceAuthCredentialsForProvider(provider, deduped);
+		this.#setStoredCredentials(
+			provider,
+			stored.map(record => ({ id: record.id, credential: record.credential })),
+		);
+		this.#resetProviderAssignments(provider);
+	}
+
+	async #upsertOAuthCredential(provider: string, credential: OAuthCredential): Promise<void> {
+		const stored = this.#store.upsertAuthCredentialForProvider(provider, credential);
+		this.#setStoredCredentials(
+			provider,
+			stored.map(record => ({ id: record.id, credential: record.credential })),
+		);
+		this.#resetProviderAssignments(provider);
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Remove credential for a provider.
+	 */
+	async remove(provider: string): Promise<void> {
+		this.#store.deleteAuthCredentialsForProvider(provider, "deleted by user");
+		this.#data.delete(provider);
+		this.#resetProviderAssignments(provider);
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * List all providers with credentials.
+	 */
+	list(): string[] {
+		return [...this.#data.keys()];
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Check if credentials exist for a provider in storage.
+	 */
+	has(provider: string): boolean {
+		return this.#getCredentialsForProvider(provider).length > 0;
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Check if any form of auth is configured for a provider.
+	 * Unlike getApiKey(), this doesn't refresh OAuth tokens.
+	 */
+	hasAuth(provider: string): boolean {
+		if (this.#runtimeOverrides.has(provider)) return true;
+		if (this.#getCredentialsForProvider(provider).length > 0) return true;
+		if (getEnvApiKey(provider)) return true;
+		if (this.#fallbackResolver?.(provider)) return true;
+		return false;
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Check if OAuth credentials are configured for a provider.
+	 */
+	hasOAuth(provider: string): boolean {
+		return this.#getCredentialsForProvider(provider).some(credential => credential.type === "oauth");
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Get OAuth credentials for a provider.
+	 */
+	getOAuthCredential(provider: string): OAuthCredential | undefined {
+		return this.#getCredentialsForProvider(provider).find(
+			(credential): credential is OAuthCredential => credential.type === "oauth",
+		);
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Get all credentials.
+	 */
+	getAll(): AuthStorageData {
+		const result: AuthStorageData = {};
+		for (const [provider, entries] of this.#data.entries()) {
+			const credentials = entries.map(entry => entry.credential);
+			if (credentials.length === 1) {
+				result[provider] = credentials[0];
+			} else if (credentials.length > 1) {
+				result[provider] = credentials;
+			}
+		}
+		return result;
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Login to an OAuth provider.
+	 */
+	async login(
+		provider: OAuthProviderId,
+		ctrl: OAuthController & {
+			/** onAuth is required by auth-storage but optional in OAuthController */
+			onAuth: (info: { url: string; instructions?: string }) => void;
+			/** onPrompt is required for some providers (github-copilot, openai-codex) */
+			onPrompt: (prompt: { message: string; placeholder?: string }) => Promise<string>;
+		},
+	): Promise<void> {
+		let credentials: OAuthCredentials;
+		const saveApiKeyCredential = async (apiKey: string): Promise<void> => {
+			const newCredential: ApiKeyCredential = { type: "api_key", key: apiKey };
+			await this.set(provider, newCredential);
+		};
+		const manualCodeInput = () => ctrl.onPrompt({ message: "Paste the authorization code (or full redirect URL):" });
+		switch (provider) {
+			case "anthropic":
+				credentials = await loginAnthropic({
+					...ctrl,
+					onManualCodeInput: ctrl.onManualCodeInput ?? manualCodeInput,
+				});
+				break;
+			case "alibaba-coding-plan": {
+				const apiKey = await loginAlibabaCodingPlan(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "github-copilot":
+				credentials = await loginGitHubCopilot({
+					onAuth: (url, instructions) => ctrl.onAuth({ url, instructions }),
+					onPrompt: ctrl.onPrompt,
+					onProgress: ctrl.onProgress,
+					signal: ctrl.signal,
+				});
+				break;
+			case "google-gemini-cli":
+				credentials = await loginGeminiCli({
+					...ctrl,
+					onManualCodeInput: ctrl.onManualCodeInput ?? manualCodeInput,
+				});
+				break;
+			case "google-antigravity":
+				credentials = await loginAntigravity({
+					...ctrl,
+					onManualCodeInput: ctrl.onManualCodeInput ?? manualCodeInput,
+				});
+				break;
+			case "openai-codex":
+				credentials = await loginOpenAICodex({
+					...ctrl,
+					onManualCodeInput: ctrl.onManualCodeInput ?? manualCodeInput,
+				});
+				break;
+			case "gitlab-duo":
+				credentials = await loginGitLabDuo({
+					...ctrl,
+					onManualCodeInput: ctrl.onManualCodeInput ?? manualCodeInput,
+				});
+				break;
+			case "kimi-code":
+				credentials = await loginKimi(ctrl);
+				break;
+			case "kilo":
+				credentials = await loginKilo(ctrl);
+				break;
+			case "cursor":
+				credentials = await loginCursor(
+					url => ctrl.onAuth({ url }),
+					ctrl.onProgress ? () => ctrl.onProgress?.("Waiting for browser authentication...") : undefined,
+				);
+				break;
+			case "perplexity":
+				credentials = await loginPerplexity(ctrl);
+				break;
+			case "huggingface": {
+				const apiKey = await loginHuggingface(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "opencode-zen":
+			case "opencode-go": {
+				const apiKey = await loginOpenCode(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "lm-studio": {
+				const apiKey = await loginLmStudio(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "ollama": {
+				const apiKey = await loginOllama(ctrl);
+				if (!apiKey) {
+					return;
+				}
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "cerebras": {
+				const apiKey = await loginCerebras(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "zai": {
+				const apiKey = await loginZai(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "qianfan": {
+				const apiKey = await loginQianfan(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "minimax-code": {
+				const apiKey = await loginMiniMaxCode(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "minimax-code-cn": {
+				const apiKey = await loginMiniMaxCodeCn(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "synthetic": {
+				const apiKey = await loginSynthetic(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "tavily": {
+				const apiKey = await loginTavily(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "venice": {
+				const apiKey = await loginVenice(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "litellm": {
+				const result = await loginLiteLLM(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(result.apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "moonshot": {
+				const apiKey = await loginMoonshot(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "kagi": {
+				const apiKey = await loginKagi(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "nanogpt": {
+				const apiKey = await loginNanoGPT(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "together": {
+				const apiKey = await loginTogether(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "cloudflare-ai-gateway": {
+				const apiKey = await loginCloudflareAiGateway(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "vercel-ai-gateway": {
+				const apiKey = await loginVercelAiGateway(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "vllm": {
+				const apiKey = await loginVllm(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "parallel": {
+				const apiKey = await loginParallel(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "qwen-portal": {
+				const apiKey = await loginQwenPortal(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "nvidia": {
+				const apiKey = await loginNvidia(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "xiaomi": {
+				const apiKey = await loginXiaomi(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			case "zenmux": {
+				const apiKey = await loginZenMux(ctrl);
+				await saveApiKeyCredential(apiKey);
+				return;
+			}
+			default: {
+				const customProvider = getOAuthProvider(provider);
+				if (!customProvider) {
+					throw new Error(`Unknown OAuth provider: ${provider}`);
+				}
+				const customLoginResult = await customProvider.login({
+					onAuth: info => ctrl.onAuth(info),
+					onProgress: ctrl.onProgress,
+					onPrompt: ctrl.onPrompt,
+					onManualCodeInput: ctrl.onManualCodeInput ?? manualCodeInput,
+					signal: ctrl.signal,
+				});
+				if (typeof customLoginResult === "string") {
+					await saveApiKeyCredential(customLoginResult);
+					return;
+				}
+				credentials = customLoginResult;
+				break;
+			}
+		}
+		const newCredential: OAuthCredential = { type: "oauth", ...credentials };
+		await this.#upsertOAuthCredential(provider, newCredential);
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Logout from a provider.
+	 */
+	async logout(provider: string): Promise<void> {
+		await this.remove(provider);
+	}
+
+	// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+	// Usage API Integration
+	// Queries provider usage endpoints to detect rate limits before they occur.
+	// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+	#buildUsageCredential(credential: OAuthCredential): UsageCredential {
+		return {
+			type: "oauth",
+			accessToken: credential.access,
+			refreshToken: credential.refresh,
+			expiresAt: credential.expires,
+			accountId: credential.accountId,
+			projectId: credential.projectId,
+			email: credential.email,
+			enterpriseUrl: credential.enterpriseUrl,
+		};
+	}
+
+	#buildUsageCacheIdentity(credential: UsageCredential): string {
+		const parts: string[] = [credential.type];
+		const accountId = credential.accountId?.trim();
+		if (accountId) parts.push(`account:${accountId}`);
+		const email = credential.email?.trim().toLowerCase();
+		if (email) parts.push(`email:${email}`);
+		const projectId = credential.projectId?.trim();
+		if (projectId) parts.push(`project:${projectId}`);
+		const enterpriseUrl = credential.enterpriseUrl?.trim().toLowerCase();
+		if (enterpriseUrl) parts.push(`enterprise:${enterpriseUrl}`);
+		// Only fall back to a secret-derived key when a stable account identifier is unavailable.
+		// Including the token hash when accountId/email are present causes cache misses on
+		// every OAuth refresh — usage data is per-account, not per-token.
+		const hasStableIdentifier = Boolean(accountId || email);
+		if (!hasStableIdentifier) {
+			const secret = credential.apiKey?.trim() || credential.refreshToken?.trim() || credential.accessToken?.trim();
+			if (secret) {
+				parts.push(`secret:${Bun.hash(secret).toString(16)}`);
+			} else {
+				parts.push("anonymous");
+			}
+		}
+		return parts.join("|");
+	}
+
+	#normalizeUsageBaseUrl(baseUrl?: string): string {
+		return baseUrl?.trim().replace(/\/+$/, "") ?? "";
+	}
+
+	#buildUsageReportCacheKey(request: UsageRequestDescriptor): string {
+		const baseUrl = this.#normalizeUsageBaseUrl(request.baseUrl) || "default";
+		const identity = this.#buildUsageCacheIdentity(request.credential);
+		return `report:${request.provider}:${baseUrl}:${identity}`;
+	}
+
+	#buildUsageReportsCacheKey(requests: ReadonlyArray<UsageRequestDescriptor>): string {
+		const snapshot = requests
+			.map(
+				request =>
+					`${request.provider}:${this.#normalizeUsageBaseUrl(request.baseUrl) || "default"}:${this.#buildUsageCacheIdentity(request.credential)}`,
+			)
+			.sort()
+			.join("\n");
+		return `reports:${Bun.hash(snapshot).toString(16)}`;
+	}
+
+	#buildUsageRequest(provider: Provider, credential: UsageCredential, baseUrl?: string): UsageRequestDescriptor {
+		return { provider, credential, baseUrl };
+	}
+
+	#buildUsageRequestForOauth(
+		provider: Provider,
+		credential: OAuthCredential,
+		baseUrl?: string,
+	): UsageRequestDescriptor {
+		return this.#buildUsageRequest(provider, this.#buildUsageCredential(credential), baseUrl);
+	}
+
+	#buildRefreshableOauthCredential(credential: UsageCredential): OAuthCredential | null {
+		if (!credential.accessToken || !credential.refreshToken || credential.expiresAt === undefined) {
+			return null;
+		}
+		return {
+			type: "oauth",
+			access: credential.accessToken,
+			refresh: credential.refreshToken,
+			expires: credential.expiresAt,
+			accountId: credential.accountId,
+			projectId: credential.projectId,
+			email: credential.email,
+			enterpriseUrl: credential.enterpriseUrl,
+		};
+	}
+
+	#mergeRefreshedUsageCredential(credential: UsageCredential, refreshed: OAuthCredentials): UsageCredential {
+		return {
+			...credential,
+			accessToken: refreshed.access,
+			refreshToken: refreshed.refresh,
+			expiresAt: refreshed.expires,
+			accountId: refreshed.accountId ?? credential.accountId,
+			projectId: refreshed.projectId ?? credential.projectId,
+			email: refreshed.email ?? credential.email,
+			enterpriseUrl: refreshed.enterpriseUrl ?? credential.enterpriseUrl,
+		};
+	}
+
+	#persistRefreshedUsageCredential(provider: Provider, previous: UsageCredential, next: UsageCredential): void {
+		const entries = this.#getStoredCredentials(provider);
+		const index = entries.findIndex(entry => {
+			if (entry.credential.type !== "oauth") return false;
+			if (previous.refreshToken && entry.credential.refresh === previous.refreshToken) return true;
+			if (previous.accessToken && entry.credential.access === previous.accessToken) return true;
+			return (
+				entry.credential.accountId === previous.accountId &&
+				entry.credential.email === previous.email &&
+				entry.credential.projectId === previous.projectId
+			);
+		});
+		if (index === -1) return;
+		const existing = entries[index]!.credential;
+		if (existing.type !== "oauth") return;
+		this.#replaceCredentialAt(provider, index, {
+			type: "oauth",
+			access: next.accessToken ?? existing.access,
+			refresh: next.refreshToken ?? existing.refresh,
+			expires: next.expiresAt ?? existing.expires,
+			accountId: next.accountId,
+			projectId: next.projectId,
+			email: next.email,
+			enterpriseUrl: next.enterpriseUrl,
+		});
+	}
+
+	async #fetchUsageUncached(request: UsageRequestDescriptor, timeoutMs?: number): Promise<UsageReport | null> {
+		const resolver = this.#usageProviderResolver;
+		if (!resolver) return null;
+
+		const providerImpl = resolver(request.provider);
+		if (!providerImpl) return null;
+
+		const timeoutSignal =
+			typeof timeoutMs === "number" && Number.isFinite(timeoutMs) && timeoutMs > 0
+				? AbortSignal.timeout(timeoutMs)
+				: undefined;
+		let params: UsageRequestDescriptor & { signal?: AbortSignal } = { ...request, signal: timeoutSignal };
+
+		if (
+			request.credential.type === "oauth" &&
+			request.credential.expiresAt !== undefined &&
+			Date.now() >= request.credential.expiresAt
+		) {
+			const refreshableCredential = this.#buildRefreshableOauthCredential(request.credential);
+			if (refreshableCredential) {
+				try {
+					const refreshed = await this.#refreshOAuthCredential(request.provider, refreshableCredential);
+					const refreshedCredential = this.#mergeRefreshedUsageCredential(request.credential, refreshed);
+					this.#persistRefreshedUsageCredential(request.provider, request.credential, refreshedCredential);
+					params = {
+						...params,
+						credential: refreshedCredential,
+					};
+				} catch (error) {
+					this.#usageLogger?.debug("Usage credential refresh failed, using original credential", {
+						provider: request.provider,
+						error: String(error),
+					});
+				}
+			}
+		}
+
+		if (providerImpl.supports && !providerImpl.supports(params)) return null;
+
+		try {
+			return await providerImpl.fetchUsage(params, {
+				fetch: this.#usageFetch,
+				logger: this.#usageLogger,
+			});
+		} catch (error) {
+			logger.debug("AuthStorage usage fetch failed", {
+				provider: request.provider,
+				error: String(error),
+			});
+			return null;
+		}
+	}
+
+	async #fetchUsageCached(request: UsageRequestDescriptor, timeoutMs?: number): Promise<UsageReport | null> {
+		const cacheKey = this.#buildUsageReportCacheKey(request);
+		const now = Date.now();
+		const cached = this.#usageCache.get<UsageReport | null>(cacheKey);
+		if (cached && cached.expiresAt > now) {
+			return cached.value;
+		}
+
+		const inFlight = this.#usageRequestInFlight.get(cacheKey);
+		if (inFlight) return inFlight;
+
+		const promise = (async () => {
+			const report = await this.#fetchUsageUncached(request, timeoutMs);
+			if (report !== null) {
+				this.#usageCache.set(cacheKey, { value: report, expiresAt: Date.now() + USAGE_REPORT_TTL_MS });
+				return report;
+			}
+			return cached?.value ?? null;
+		})().finally(() => {
+			this.#usageRequestInFlight.delete(cacheKey);
+		});
+
+		this.#usageRequestInFlight.set(cacheKey, promise);
+		return promise;
+	}
+
+	#collectUsageRequests(options?: {
+		baseUrlResolver?: (provider: Provider) => string | undefined;
+	}): UsageRequestDescriptor[] {
+		const resolver = this.#usageProviderResolver;
+		if (!resolver) return [];
+
+		const requests: UsageRequestDescriptor[] = [];
+		const providers = new Set<string>([
+			...this.#data.keys(),
+			...DEFAULT_USAGE_PROVIDERS.map(provider => provider.id),
+		]);
+
+		for (const providerId of providers) {
+			const provider = providerId as Provider;
+			const providerImpl = resolver(provider);
+			if (!providerImpl) continue;
+			const baseUrl = options?.baseUrlResolver?.(provider);
+			let entries = this.#getStoredCredentials(providerId);
+			if (entries.length > 0) {
+				const dedupedEntries = this.#pruneDuplicateStoredCredentials(providerId, entries);
+				if (dedupedEntries.length !== entries.length) {
+					this.#setStoredCredentials(providerId, dedupedEntries);
+				}
+				entries = dedupedEntries;
+			}
+
+			if (entries.length === 0) {
+				const runtimeKey = this.#runtimeOverrides.get(providerId);
+				const envKey = getEnvApiKey(providerId);
+				const apiKey = runtimeKey ?? envKey;
+				if (!apiKey) continue;
+				const request = this.#buildUsageRequest(provider, { type: "api_key", apiKey }, baseUrl);
+				if (providerImpl.supports && !providerImpl.supports(request)) continue;
+				requests.push(request);
+				continue;
+			}
+
+			for (const entry of entries) {
+				const credential = entry.credential;
+				const request =
+					credential.type === "api_key"
+						? this.#buildUsageRequest(provider, { type: "api_key", apiKey: credential.key }, baseUrl)
+						: this.#buildUsageRequestForOauth(provider, credential, baseUrl);
+				if (providerImpl.supports && !providerImpl.supports(request)) continue;
+				requests.push(request);
+			}
+		}
+
+		return requests;
+	}
+
+	#getUsageReportMetadataValue(report: UsageReport, key: string): string | undefined {
+		const metadata = report.metadata;
+		if (!metadata || typeof metadata !== "object") return undefined;
+		const value = metadata[key];
+		return typeof value === "string" ? value.trim() : undefined;
+	}
+
+	#getUsageReportScopeAccountId(report: UsageReport): string | undefined {
+		const ids = new Set<string>();
+		for (const limit of report.limits) {
+			const accountId = limit.scope.accountId?.trim();
+			if (accountId) ids.add(accountId);
+		}
+		if (ids.size === 1) return [...ids][0];
+		return undefined;
+	}
+
+	#getUsageReportIdentifiers(report: UsageReport): string[] {
+		const identifiers: string[] = [];
+		const email = this.#getUsageReportMetadataValue(report, "email");
+		if (email) identifiers.push(`email:${email.toLowerCase()}`);
+		if (report.provider === "openai-codex" || report.provider === "anthropic") {
+			return identifiers.map(identifier => `${report.provider}:${identifier.toLowerCase()}`);
+		}
+		const accountId = this.#getUsageReportMetadataValue(report, "accountId");
+		if (accountId) identifiers.push(`account:${accountId}`);
+		const account = this.#getUsageReportMetadataValue(report, "account");
+		if (account) identifiers.push(`account:${account}`);
+		const user = this.#getUsageReportMetadataValue(report, "user");
+		if (user) identifiers.push(`account:${user}`);
+		const username = this.#getUsageReportMetadataValue(report, "username");
+		if (username) identifiers.push(`account:${username}`);
+		const scopeAccountId = this.#getUsageReportScopeAccountId(report);
+		if (scopeAccountId) identifiers.push(`account:${scopeAccountId}`);
+		return identifiers.map(identifier => `${report.provider}:${identifier.toLowerCase()}`);
+	}
+
+	#mergeUsageReportGroup(reports: UsageReport[]): UsageReport {
+		if (reports.length === 1) return reports[0];
+		const sorted = [...reports].sort((a, b) => {
+			const limitDiff = b.limits.length - a.limits.length;
+			if (limitDiff !== 0) return limitDiff;
+			return (b.fetchedAt ?? 0) - (a.fetchedAt ?? 0);
+		});
+		const base = sorted[0];
+		const mergedLimits = [...base.limits];
+		const limitIds = new Set(mergedLimits.map(limit => limit.id));
+		const mergedMetadata: Record<string, unknown> = { ...(base.metadata ?? {}) };
+		let fetchedAt = base.fetchedAt;
+
+		for (const report of sorted.slice(1)) {
+			fetchedAt = Math.max(fetchedAt, report.fetchedAt);
+			for (const limit of report.limits) {
+				if (!limitIds.has(limit.id)) {
+					limitIds.add(limit.id);
+					mergedLimits.push(limit);
+				}
+			}
+			if (report.metadata) {
+				for (const [key, value] of Object.entries(report.metadata)) {
+					if (mergedMetadata[key] === undefined) {
+						mergedMetadata[key] = value;
+					}
+				}
+			}
+		}
+
+		return {
+			...base,
+			fetchedAt,
+			limits: mergedLimits,
+			metadata: Object.keys(mergedMetadata).length > 0 ? mergedMetadata : undefined,
+		};
+	}
+
+	#dedupeUsageReports(reports: UsageReport[]): UsageReport[] {
+		const groups: UsageReport[][] = [];
+		const idToGroup = new Map<string, number>();
+
+		for (const report of reports) {
+			const identifiers = this.#getUsageReportIdentifiers(report);
+			let groupIndex: number | undefined;
+			for (const identifier of identifiers) {
+				const existing = idToGroup.get(identifier);
+				if (existing !== undefined) {
+					groupIndex = existing;
+					break;
+				}
+			}
+			if (groupIndex === undefined) {
+				groupIndex = groups.length;
+				groups.push([]);
+			}
+			groups[groupIndex].push(report);
+			for (const identifier of identifiers) {
+				idToGroup.set(identifier, groupIndex);
+			}
+		}
+
+		const deduped = groups.map(group => this.#mergeUsageReportGroup(group));
+		if (deduped.length !== reports.length) {
+			this.#usageLogger?.debug("Usage reports deduped", {
+				before: reports.length,
+				after: deduped.length,
+			});
+		}
+		return deduped;
+	}
+
+	#isUsageLimitExhausted(limit: UsageLimit): boolean {
+		if (limit.status === "exhausted") return true;
+		const amount = limit.amount;
+		if (amount.usedFraction !== undefined && amount.usedFraction >= 1) return true;
+		if (amount.remainingFraction !== undefined && amount.remainingFraction <= 0) return true;
+		if (amount.used !== undefined && amount.limit !== undefined && amount.used >= amount.limit) return true;
+		if (amount.remaining !== undefined && amount.remaining <= 0) return true;
+		if (amount.unit === "percent" && amount.used !== undefined && amount.used >= 100) return true;
+		return false;
+	}
+
+	/** Returns true if usage indicates rate limit has been reached. */
+	#isUsageLimitReached(report: UsageReport): boolean {
+		return report.limits.some(limit => this.#isUsageLimitExhausted(limit));
+	}
+
+	/** Extracts the earliest reset timestamp from exhausted windows (in ms). */
+	#getUsageResetAtMs(report: UsageReport, nowMs: number): number | undefined {
+		const candidates: number[] = [];
+		for (const limit of report.limits) {
+			if (!this.#isUsageLimitExhausted(limit)) continue;
+			const window = limit.window;
+			if (window?.resetsAt && window.resetsAt > nowMs) {
+				candidates.push(window.resetsAt);
+			}
+		}
+		if (candidates.length === 0) return undefined;
+		return Math.min(...candidates);
+	}
+
+	async #getUsageReport(
+		provider: Provider,
+		credential: OAuthCredential,
+		options?: { baseUrl?: string; timeoutMs?: number },
+	): Promise<UsageReport | null> {
+		return this.#fetchUsageCached(
+			this.#buildUsageRequestForOauth(provider, credential, options?.baseUrl),
+			options?.timeoutMs ?? this.#usageRequestTimeoutMs,
+		);
+	}
+
+	async fetchUsageReports(options?: {
+		baseUrlResolver?: (provider: Provider) => string | undefined;
+	}): Promise<UsageReport[] | null> {
+		if (!this.#usageProviderResolver) return null;
+
+		const requests = this.#collectUsageRequests(options);
+		if (requests.length === 0) return [];
+
+		this.#usageLogger?.debug("Usage fetch requested", {
+			providers: [...new Set(requests.map(request => request.provider))].sort(),
+		});
+
+		const cacheKey = this.#buildUsageReportsCacheKey(requests);
+		const now = Date.now();
+		const cached = this.#usageCache.get<UsageReport[]>(cacheKey);
+		if (cached && cached.expiresAt > now) {
+			return cached.value;
+		}
+
+		const inFlight = this.#usageReportsInFlight.get(cacheKey);
+		if (inFlight) return inFlight;
+
+		const promise = (async () => {
+			for (const request of requests) {
+				this.#usageLogger?.debug("Usage fetch queued", {
+					provider: request.provider,
+					credentialType: request.credential.type,
+					baseUrl: request.baseUrl,
+					accountId: request.credential.accountId,
+					email: request.credential.email,
+				});
+			}
+
+			const results = await Promise.all(
+				requests.map(request => this.#fetchUsageCached(request, this.#usageRequestTimeoutMs)),
+			);
+			const reports = results.filter((report): report is UsageReport => report !== null);
+			const deduped = this.#dedupeUsageReports(reports);
+			if (deduped.length > 0) {
+				this.#usageCache.set(cacheKey, { value: deduped, expiresAt: Date.now() + USAGE_REPORT_TTL_MS });
+			}
+			const resolved = deduped.length > 0 ? deduped : (cached?.value ?? []);
+			this.#usageLogger?.debug("Usage fetch resolved", {
+				reports: resolved.map(report => {
+					const accountLabel =
+						this.#getUsageReportMetadataValue(report, "email") ??
+						this.#getUsageReportMetadataValue(report, "accountId") ??
+						this.#getUsageReportMetadataValue(report, "account") ??
+						this.#getUsageReportMetadataValue(report, "user") ??
+						this.#getUsageReportMetadataValue(report, "username") ??
+						this.#getUsageReportScopeAccountId(report);
+					return {
+						provider: report.provider,
+						limits: report.limits.length,
+						account: accountLabel,
+					};
+				}),
+			});
+			return resolved;
+		})().finally(() => {
+			this.#usageReportsInFlight.delete(cacheKey);
+		});
+
+		this.#usageReportsInFlight.set(cacheKey, promise);
+		return promise;
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Marks the current session's credential as temporarily blocked due to usage limits.
+	 * Uses usage reports to determine accurate reset time when available.
+	 * Returns true if a credential was blocked, enabling automatic fallback to the next credential.
+	 */
+	async markUsageLimitReached(
+		provider: string,
+		sessionId: string | undefined,
+		options?: { retryAfterMs?: number; baseUrl?: string },
+	): Promise<boolean> {
+		const sessionCredential = this.#getSessionCredential(provider, sessionId);
+		if (!sessionCredential) return false;
+
+		const providerKey = this.#getProviderTypeKey(provider, sessionCredential.type);
+		const now = Date.now();
+		let blockedUntil = now + (options?.retryAfterMs ?? AuthStorage.#defaultBackoffMs);
+
+		if (sessionCredential.type === "oauth" && this.#rankingStrategyResolver?.(provider)) {
+			const credential = this.#getCredentialsForProvider(provider)[sessionCredential.index];
+			if (credential?.type === "oauth") {
+				const report = await this.#getUsageReport(provider, credential, options);
+				if (report && this.#isUsageLimitReached(report)) {
+					const resetAtMs = this.#getUsageResetAtMs(report, Date.now());
+					if (resetAtMs && resetAtMs > blockedUntil) {
+						blockedUntil = resetAtMs;
+					}
+				}
+			}
+		}
+
+		this.#markCredentialBlocked(providerKey, sessionCredential.index, blockedUntil);
+
+		const remainingCredentials = this.#getCredentialsForProvider(provider)
+			.map((credential, index) => ({ credential, index }))
+			.filter(
+				(entry): entry is { credential: AuthCredential; index: number } =>
+					entry.credential.type === sessionCredential.type && entry.index !== sessionCredential.index,
+			);
+
+		return remainingCredentials.some(candidate => !this.#isCredentialBlocked(providerKey, candidate.index));
+	}
+
+	#resolveWindowResetAt(window: UsageLimit["window"]): number | undefined {
+		if (!window) return undefined;
+		if (typeof window.resetsAt === "number" && Number.isFinite(window.resetsAt)) {
+			return window.resetsAt;
+		}
+		return undefined;
+	}
+
+	#normalizeUsageFraction(limit: UsageLimit | undefined): number {
+		const usedFraction = limit?.amount.usedFraction;
+		if (typeof usedFraction !== "number" || !Number.isFinite(usedFraction)) {
+			return 0.5;
+		}
+		return Math.min(Math.max(usedFraction, 0), 1);
+	}
+
+	/** Computes `usedFraction / elapsedHours` — consumption rate per hour within the current window. Lower drain rate = less pressure = preferred. */
+	#computeWindowDrainRate(limit: UsageLimit | undefined, nowMs: number, fallbackDurationMs: number): number {
+		const usedFraction = this.#normalizeUsageFraction(limit);
+		const durationMs = limit?.window?.durationMs ?? fallbackDurationMs;
+		if (!Number.isFinite(durationMs) || durationMs <= 0) {
+			return usedFraction;
+		}
+		const resetAt = this.#resolveWindowResetAt(limit?.window);
+		if (!Number.isFinite(resetAt)) {
+			return usedFraction;
+		}
+		const remainingWindowMs = (resetAt as number) - nowMs;
+		const clampedRemainingWindowMs = Math.min(Math.max(remainingWindowMs, 0), durationMs);
+		const elapsedMs = durationMs - clampedRemainingWindowMs;
+		if (elapsedMs <= 0) {
+			return usedFraction;
+		}
+		const elapsedHours = elapsedMs / (60 * 60 * 1000);
+		if (!Number.isFinite(elapsedHours) || elapsedHours <= 0) {
+			return usedFraction;
+		}
+		return usedFraction / elapsedHours;
+	}
+
+	async #rankOAuthSelections(args: {
+		providerKey: string;
+		provider: string;
+		order: number[];
+		credentials: Array<{ credential: OAuthCredential; index: number }>;
+		options?: AuthApiKeyOptions;
+		strategy: CredentialRankingStrategy;
+	}): Promise<
+		Array<{
+			selection: { credential: OAuthCredential; index: number };
+			usage: UsageReport | null;
+			usageChecked: boolean;
+		}>
+	> {
+		const nowMs = Date.now();
+		const { strategy } = args;
+		const ranked: Array<{
+			selection: { credential: OAuthCredential; index: number };
+			usage: UsageReport | null;
+			usageChecked: boolean;
+			blocked: boolean;
+			blockedUntil?: number;
+			hasPriorityBoost: boolean;
+			secondaryUsed: number;
+			secondaryDrainRate: number;
+			primaryUsed: number;
+			primaryDrainRate: number;
+			orderPos: number;
+		}> = [];
+		// Pre-fetch usage reports in parallel for non-blocked credentials
+		const usageResults = await Promise.all(
+			args.order.map(async idx => {
+				const selection = args.credentials[idx];
+				if (!selection) return null;
+				const blockedUntil = this.#getCredentialBlockedUntil(args.providerKey, selection.index);
+				if (blockedUntil !== undefined) return { selection, usage: null, usageChecked: false, blockedUntil };
+				const usage = await this.#getUsageReport(args.provider, selection.credential, {
+					...args.options,
+					timeoutMs: this.#usageRequestTimeoutMs,
+				});
+				return { selection, usage, usageChecked: true, blockedUntil: undefined as number | undefined };
+			}),
+		);
+
+		for (let orderPos = 0; orderPos < usageResults.length; orderPos += 1) {
+			const result = usageResults[orderPos];
+			if (!result) continue;
+			const { selection, usage, usageChecked } = result;
+			let { blockedUntil } = result;
+			let blocked = blockedUntil !== undefined;
+			if (!blocked && usage && this.#isUsageLimitReached(usage)) {
+				const resetAtMs = this.#getUsageResetAtMs(usage, nowMs);
+				blockedUntil = resetAtMs ?? Date.now() + AuthStorage.#defaultBackoffMs;
+				this.#markCredentialBlocked(args.providerKey, selection.index, blockedUntil);
+				blocked = true;
+			}
+			const windows = usage ? strategy.findWindowLimits(usage) : undefined;
+			const primary = windows?.primary;
+			const secondary = windows?.secondary;
+			const secondaryTarget = secondary ?? primary;
+			ranked.push({
+				selection,
+				usage,
+				usageChecked,
+				blocked,
+				blockedUntil,
+				hasPriorityBoost: strategy.hasPriorityBoost?.(primary) ?? false,
+				secondaryUsed: this.#normalizeUsageFraction(secondaryTarget),
+				secondaryDrainRate: this.#computeWindowDrainRate(
+					secondaryTarget,
+					nowMs,
+					strategy.windowDefaults.secondaryMs,
+				),
+				primaryUsed: this.#normalizeUsageFraction(primary),
+				primaryDrainRate: this.#computeWindowDrainRate(primary, nowMs, strategy.windowDefaults.primaryMs),
+				orderPos,
+			});
+		}
+		ranked.sort((left, right) => {
+			if (left.blocked !== right.blocked) return left.blocked ? 1 : -1;
+			if (left.blocked && right.blocked) {
+				const leftBlockedUntil = left.blockedUntil ?? Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY;
+				const rightBlockedUntil = right.blockedUntil ?? Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY;
+				if (leftBlockedUntil !== rightBlockedUntil) return leftBlockedUntil - rightBlockedUntil;
+				return left.orderPos - right.orderPos;
+			}
+			if (requiresOpenAICodexProModel(args.provider, args.options?.modelId)) {
+				const leftPlanPriority = getOpenAICodexPlanPriority(left.usage);
+				const rightPlanPriority = getOpenAICodexPlanPriority(right.usage);
+				if (leftPlanPriority !== rightPlanPriority) return leftPlanPriority - rightPlanPriority;
+			}
+			if (left.hasPriorityBoost !== right.hasPriorityBoost) return left.hasPriorityBoost ? -1 : 1;
+			if (left.secondaryDrainRate !== right.secondaryDrainRate)
+				return left.secondaryDrainRate - right.secondaryDrainRate;
+			if (left.secondaryUsed !== right.secondaryUsed) return left.secondaryUsed - right.secondaryUsed;
+			if (left.primaryDrainRate !== right.primaryDrainRate) return left.primaryDrainRate - right.primaryDrainRate;
+			if (left.primaryUsed !== right.primaryUsed) return left.primaryUsed - right.primaryUsed;
+			return left.orderPos - right.orderPos;
+		});
+		return ranked.map(candidate => ({
+			selection: candidate.selection,
+			usage: candidate.usage,
+			usageChecked: candidate.usageChecked,
+		}));
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Resolves an OAuth API key, trying credentials in priority order.
+	 * Skips blocked credentials and checks usage limits for providers with usage data.
+	 * Falls back to earliest-unblocking credential if all are blocked.
+	 */
+	async #resolveOAuthApiKey(
+		provider: string,
+		sessionId?: string,
+		options?: AuthApiKeyOptions,
+	): Promise<string | undefined> {
+		const credentials = this.#getCredentialsForProvider(provider)
+			.map((credential, index) => ({ credential, index }))
+			.filter((entry): entry is { credential: OAuthCredential; index: number } => entry.credential.type === "oauth");
+
+		if (credentials.length === 0) return undefined;
+
+		const providerKey = this.#getProviderTypeKey(provider, "oauth");
+		const order = this.#getCredentialOrder(providerKey, sessionId, credentials.length);
+		const strategy = this.#rankingStrategyResolver?.(provider);
+		const checkUsage = strategy !== undefined && credentials.length > 1;
+		const sessionCredential = this.#getSessionCredential(provider, sessionId);
+		const sessionPreferredIndex = sessionCredential?.type === "oauth" ? sessionCredential.index : undefined;
+		// Skip ranking only when the session already has a working preferred credential — re-ranking
+		// mid-session causes account switches that cold-start the server-side prompt cache. New sessions
+		// (no preference) and sessions whose preferred is blocked still rank, so we pick the account
+		// with the most headroom proactively and fall back intelligently when rate-limited.
+		const requiresProModel = requiresOpenAICodexProModel(provider, options?.modelId);
+		const sessionPreferredIsAvailable =
+			sessionPreferredIndex !== undefined && !this.#isCredentialBlocked(providerKey, sessionPreferredIndex);
+		const shouldRank = checkUsage && (!sessionPreferredIsAvailable || requiresProModel);
+		const candidates = shouldRank
+			? await this.#rankOAuthSelections({ providerKey, provider, order, credentials, options, strategy: strategy! })
+			: order
+					.map(idx => credentials[idx])
+					.filter((selection): selection is { credential: OAuthCredential; index: number } => Boolean(selection))
+					.map(selection => ({ selection, usage: null, usageChecked: false }));
+
+		if (sessionPreferredIndex !== undefined && !requiresProModel) {
+			const sessionPreferredCandidate = candidates.findIndex(
+				candidate =>
+					!this.#isCredentialBlocked(providerKey, candidate.selection.index) &&
+					candidate.selection.index === sessionPreferredIndex,
+			);
+			if (sessionPreferredCandidate > 0) {
+				const [preferred] = candidates.splice(sessionPreferredCandidate, 1);
+				candidates.unshift(preferred);
+			}
+		}
+		await Promise.all(
+			candidates.map(async candidate => {
+				if (Date.now() < candidate.selection.credential.expires) return;
+				const latestCredential = this.#getCredentialsForProvider(provider)[candidate.selection.index];
+				if (latestCredential?.type === "oauth" && Date.now() < latestCredential.expires) {
+					candidate.selection.credential = latestCredential;
+					return;
+				}
+				try {
+					const refreshedCredentials = await this.#refreshOAuthCredential(
+						provider,
+						candidate.selection.credential,
+					);
+					candidate.selection.credential = {
+						...candidate.selection.credential,
+						...refreshedCredentials,
+						type: "oauth",
+					};
+				} catch {}
+			}),
+		);
+
+		const fallback = candidates[0];
+
+		for (const candidate of candidates) {
+			const apiKey = await this.#tryOAuthCredential(provider, candidate.selection, providerKey, sessionId, options, {
+				checkUsage,
+				allowBlocked: false,
+				prefetchedUsage: candidate.usage,
+				usagePrechecked: candidate.usageChecked,
+			});
+			if (apiKey) return apiKey;
+		}
+
+		if (fallback && this.#isCredentialBlocked(providerKey, fallback.selection.index)) {
+			return this.#tryOAuthCredential(provider, fallback.selection, providerKey, sessionId, options, {
+				checkUsage,
+				allowBlocked: true,
+				prefetchedUsage: fallback.usage,
+				usagePrechecked: fallback.usageChecked,
+			});
+		}
+
+		return undefined;
+	}
+
+	async #refreshOAuthCredential(provider: Provider, credential: OAuthCredential): Promise<OAuthCredentials> {
+		if (Date.now() < credential.expires) return credential;
+		const customProvider = getOAuthProvider(provider);
+		let refreshPromise: Promise<OAuthCredentials>;
+		if (customProvider) {
+			if (!customProvider.refreshToken) {
+				throw new Error(`OAuth provider "${provider}" does not support token refresh`);
+			}
+			refreshPromise = customProvider.refreshToken(credential);
+		} else {
+			refreshPromise = refreshOAuthToken(provider as OAuthProvider, credential);
+		}
+		// Bound the refresh so a slow/hanging token endpoint cannot stall credential selection.
+		let timeout: NodeJS.Timeout | undefined;
+		const timeoutPromise = new Promise<never>((_, reject) => {
+			timeout = setTimeout(
+				() => reject(new Error(`OAuth token refresh timed out for provider: ${provider}`)),
+				DEFAULT_OAUTH_REFRESH_TIMEOUT_MS,
+			);
+		});
+		try {
+			return await Promise.race([refreshPromise, timeoutPromise]);
+		} finally {
+			if (timeout) clearTimeout(timeout);
+		}
+	}
+
+	/** Attempts to use a single OAuth credential, checking usage and refreshing token. */
+	async #tryOAuthCredential(
+		provider: Provider,
+		selection: { credential: OAuthCredential; index: number },
+		providerKey: string,
+		sessionId: string | undefined,
+		options: AuthApiKeyOptions | undefined,
+		usageOptions: {
+			checkUsage: boolean;
+			allowBlocked: boolean;
+			prefetchedUsage?: UsageReport | null;
+			usagePrechecked?: boolean;
+		},
+	): Promise<string | undefined> {
+		const { checkUsage, allowBlocked, prefetchedUsage = null, usagePrechecked = false } = usageOptions;
+		if (!allowBlocked && this.#isCredentialBlocked(providerKey, selection.index)) {
+			return undefined;
+		}
+
+		let usage: UsageReport | null = null;
+		let usageChecked = false;
+
+		if (checkUsage && !allowBlocked) {
+			if (usagePrechecked) {
+				usage = prefetchedUsage;
+				usageChecked = true;
+			} else {
+				usage = await this.#getUsageReport(provider, selection.credential, {
+					...options,
+					timeoutMs: this.#usageRequestTimeoutMs,
+				});
+				usageChecked = true;
+			}
+			if (usage && this.#isUsageLimitReached(usage)) {
+				const resetAtMs = this.#getUsageResetAtMs(usage, Date.now());
+				this.#markCredentialBlocked(
+					providerKey,
+					selection.index,
+					resetAtMs ?? Date.now() + AuthStorage.#defaultBackoffMs,
+				);
+				return undefined;
+			}
+		}
+
+		try {
+			let result: { newCredentials: OAuthCredentials; apiKey: string } | null;
+			const customProvider = getOAuthProvider(provider);
+			if (customProvider) {
+				const refreshedCredentials = await this.#refreshOAuthCredential(provider, selection.credential);
+				const apiKey = customProvider.getApiKey
+					? customProvider.getApiKey(refreshedCredentials)
+					: refreshedCredentials.access;
+				result = { newCredentials: refreshedCredentials, apiKey };
+			} else {
+				const oauthCreds: Record<string, OAuthCredentials> = {
+					[provider]: selection.credential,
+				};
+				result = await getOAuthApiKey(provider as OAuthProvider, oauthCreds);
+			}
+			if (!result) return undefined;
+			const updated: OAuthCredential = {
+				type: "oauth",
+				access: result.newCredentials.access,
+				refresh: result.newCredentials.refresh,
+				expires: result.newCredentials.expires,
+				accountId: result.newCredentials.accountId ?? selection.credential.accountId,
+				email: result.newCredentials.email ?? selection.credential.email,
+				projectId: result.newCredentials.projectId ?? selection.credential.projectId,
+				enterpriseUrl: result.newCredentials.enterpriseUrl ?? selection.credential.enterpriseUrl,
+			};
+			this.#replaceCredentialAt(provider, selection.index, updated);
+			if (checkUsage && !allowBlocked) {
+				const sameAccount = selection.credential.accountId === updated.accountId;
+				if (!usageChecked || !sameAccount) {
+					usage = await this.#getUsageReport(provider, updated, {
+						...options,
+						timeoutMs: this.#usageRequestTimeoutMs,
+					});
+				}
+				if (usage && this.#isUsageLimitReached(usage)) {
+					const resetAtMs = this.#getUsageResetAtMs(usage, Date.now());
+					this.#markCredentialBlocked(
+						providerKey,
+						selection.index,
+						resetAtMs ?? Date.now() + AuthStorage.#defaultBackoffMs,
+					);
+					return undefined;
+				}
+			}
+			this.#recordSessionCredential(provider, sessionId, "oauth", selection.index);
+			return result.apiKey;
+		} catch (error) {
+			const errorMsg = String(error);
+			// Only remove credentials for definitive auth failures
+			// Keep credentials for transient errors (network, 5xx) and block temporarily
+			const isDefinitiveFailure =
+				/invalid_grant|invalid_token|revoked|unauthorized|expired.*refresh|refresh.*expired/i.test(errorMsg) ||
+				(/\b(401|403)\b/.test(errorMsg) && !/timeout|network|fetch failed|ECONNREFUSED/i.test(errorMsg));
+
+			logger.warn("OAuth token refresh failed", {
+				provider,
+				index: selection.index,
+				error: errorMsg,
+				isDefinitiveFailure,
+			});
+
+			if (isDefinitiveFailure) {
+				// Permanently disable invalid credentials with an explicit cause for inspection/debugging
+				this.#disableCredentialAt(provider, selection.index, `oauth refresh failed: ${errorMsg}`);
+				if (this.#getCredentialsForProvider(provider).some(credential => credential.type === "oauth")) {
+					return this.getApiKey(provider, sessionId, options);
+				}
+			} else {
+				// Block temporarily for transient failures (5 minutes)
+				this.#markCredentialBlocked(providerKey, selection.index, Date.now() + 5 * 60 * 1000);
+			}
+		}
+
+		return undefined;
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Peek at API key for a provider without refreshing OAuth tokens.
+	 * Used for model discovery where we only need to know if credentials exist
+	 * and get a best-effort token. For GitHub Copilot we preserve enterprise
+	 * routing metadata so discovery can hit the correct host.
+	 */
+	async peekApiKey(provider: string): Promise<string | undefined> {
+		const runtimeKey = this.#runtimeOverrides.get(provider);
+		if (runtimeKey) {
+			return runtimeKey;
+		}
+
+		const apiKeySelection = this.#selectCredentialByType(provider, "api_key");
+		if (apiKeySelection) {
+			return this.#configValueResolver(apiKeySelection.credential.key);
+		}
+
+		// Return current OAuth access token only if it is not already expired.
+		const oauthSelection = this.#selectCredentialByType(provider, "oauth");
+		if (oauthSelection) {
+			const expiresAt = oauthSelection.credential.expires;
+			if (Number.isFinite(expiresAt) && expiresAt > Date.now()) {
+				if (provider === "github-copilot") {
+					return JSON.stringify({
+						token: oauthSelection.credential.access,
+						enterpriseUrl: oauthSelection.credential.enterpriseUrl,
+					});
+				}
+				return oauthSelection.credential.access;
+			}
+		}
+
+		const envKey = getEnvApiKey(provider);
+		if (envKey) return envKey;
+
+		return this.#fallbackResolver?.(provider) ?? undefined;
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Get API key for a provider.
+	 * Priority:
+	 * 1. Runtime override (CLI --api-key)
+	 * 2. API key from storage
+	 * 3. OAuth token from storage (auto-refreshed)
+	 * 4. Environment variable
+	 * 5. Fallback resolver (models.json custom providers)
+	 */
+	async getApiKey(provider: string, sessionId?: string, options?: AuthApiKeyOptions): Promise<string | undefined> {
+		// Runtime override takes highest priority
+		const runtimeKey = this.#runtimeOverrides.get(provider);
+		if (runtimeKey) {
+			return runtimeKey;
+		}
+
+		const apiKeySelection = this.#selectCredentialByType(provider, "api_key", sessionId);
+		if (apiKeySelection) {
+			this.#recordSessionCredential(provider, sessionId, "api_key", apiKeySelection.index);
+			return this.#configValueResolver(apiKeySelection.credential.key);
+		}
+
+		const oauthKey = await this.#resolveOAuthApiKey(provider, sessionId, options);
+		if (oauthKey) {
+			return oauthKey;
+		}
+
+		// Fall back to environment variable
+		const envKey = getEnvApiKey(provider);
+		if (envKey) return envKey;
+
+		// Fall back to custom resolver (e.g., models.json custom providers)
+		return this.#fallbackResolver?.(provider) ?? undefined;
+	}
+}
+
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// AuthCredentialStore
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+/** Row shape for auth_credentials table queries */
+type AuthRow = {
+	id: number;
+	provider: string;
+	credential_type: string;
+	data: string;
+	disabled_cause: string | null;
+	identity_key: string | null;
+};
+
+type SerializedCredentialRecord = {
+	credentialType: AuthCredential["type"];
+	data: string;
+	identityKey: string | null;
+};
+
+const AUTH_SCHEMA_VERSION = 4;
+const SQLITE_NOW_EPOCH = "CAST(strftime('%s','now') AS INTEGER)";
+
+function normalizeStoredAccountId(accountId: string | null | undefined): string | null {
+	const normalized = accountId?.trim();
+	return normalized && normalized.length > 0 ? normalized : null;
+}
+
+function normalizeStoredEmail(email: string | null | undefined): string | null {
+	const normalized = email?.trim().toLowerCase();
+	return normalized && normalized.length > 0 ? normalized : null;
+}
+
+function normalizeStoredIdentityKey(identityKey: string | null | undefined): string | null {
+	const normalized = identityKey?.trim();
+	return normalized && normalized.length > 0 ? normalized : null;
+}
+
+function serializeCredential(provider: string, credential: AuthCredential): SerializedCredentialRecord | null {
+	if (credential.type === "api_key") {
+		return {
+			credentialType: "api_key",
+			data: JSON.stringify({ key: credential.key }),
+			identityKey: null,
+		};
+	}
+	if (credential.type === "oauth") {
+		const { type: _type, ...rest } = credential;
+		return {
+			credentialType: "oauth",
+			data: JSON.stringify(rest),
+			identityKey: resolveCredentialIdentityKey(provider, credential),
+		};
+	}
+	return null;
+}
+
+function deserializeCredential(row: AuthRow): AuthCredential | null {
+	let parsed: unknown;
+	try {
+		parsed = JSON.parse(row.data);
+	} catch {
+		return null;
+	}
+	if (!parsed || typeof parsed !== "object" || Array.isArray(parsed)) {
+		return null;
+	}
+	if (row.credential_type === "api_key") {
+		const data = parsed as Record<string, unknown>;
+		if (typeof data.key === "string") {
+			return { type: "api_key", key: data.key };
+		}
+	}
+	if (row.credential_type === "oauth") {
+		return { type: "oauth", ...(parsed as Record<string, unknown>) } as AuthCredential;
+	}
+	return null;
+}
+
+function normalizeDisabledCause(disabledCause: string): string {
+	const normalized = disabledCause.trim();
+	return normalized.length > 0 ? normalized : "disabled";
+}
+
+function toStoredAuthCredential(row: AuthRow, credential: AuthCredential): StoredAuthCredential {
+	return { id: row.id, provider: row.provider, credential, disabledCause: row.disabled_cause };
+}
+
+function resolveProviderCredentialIdentityKey(provider: string, identifiers: string[]): string | null {
+	const emailIdentifier = identifiers.find(identifier => identifier.startsWith("email:"));
+	if ((provider === "openai-codex" || provider === "anthropic") && emailIdentifier) return emailIdentifier;
+	const accountIdentifier = identifiers.find(identifier => identifier.startsWith("account:"));
+	if (accountIdentifier) return accountIdentifier;
+	if (emailIdentifier) return emailIdentifier;
+	return null;
+}
+
+function resolveCredentialIdentityKey(provider: string, credential: AuthCredential): string | null {
+	if (credential.type === "api_key") return null;
+	return resolveProviderCredentialIdentityKey(provider, extractOAuthCredentialIdentifiers(credential));
+}
+
+function resolveRowCredentialIdentityKey(provider: string, row: AuthRow): string | null {
+	const identityKey = normalizeStoredIdentityKey(row.identity_key);
+	if (identityKey) return identityKey;
+	const credential = deserializeCredential(row);
+	return credential?.type === "oauth" ? resolveCredentialIdentityKey(provider, credential) : null;
+}
+
+function matchesReplacementCredential(
+	provider: string,
+	existing: AuthCredential | null,
+	existingIdentityKey: string | null,
+	incoming: AuthCredential,
+): boolean {
+	if (!existing || existing.type !== incoming.type) return false;
+	if (incoming.type === "api_key") {
+		return existing.type === "api_key" && existing.key === incoming.key;
+	}
+	const incomingIdentityKey = resolveCredentialIdentityKey(provider, incoming);
+	return incomingIdentityKey !== null && incomingIdentityKey === existingIdentityKey;
+}
+
+function extractOAuthCredentialIdentifiers(credential: OAuthCredential): string[] {
+	const identifiers = new Set<string>();
+	const accountId = normalizeStoredAccountId(credential.accountId);
+	if (accountId) identifiers.add(`account:${accountId}`);
+	const email = normalizeStoredEmail(credential.email);
+	if (email) identifiers.add(`email:${email}`);
+	const accessIdentifiers = extractOAuthTokenIdentifiers(credential.access) ?? [];
+	for (const identifier of accessIdentifiers) {
+		identifiers.add(identifier);
+	}
+	const refreshIdentifiers = extractOAuthTokenIdentifiers(credential.refresh) ?? [];
+	for (const identifier of refreshIdentifiers) {
+		identifiers.add(identifier);
+	}
+	return [...identifiers];
+}
+
+function extractOAuthTokenIdentifiers(token: string | undefined): string[] | undefined {
+	if (!token) return undefined;
+	const parts = token.split(".");
+	if (parts.length !== 3) return undefined;
+	try {
+		const payload = JSON.parse(
+			new TextDecoder("utf-8").decode(Uint8Array.fromBase64(parts[1], { alphabet: "base64url" })),
+		) as Record<string, unknown>;
+		const identifiers = new Set<string>();
+		const directEmail = normalizeStoredEmail(typeof payload.email === "string" ? payload.email : undefined);
+		if (directEmail) identifiers.add(`email:${directEmail}`);
+		const openAiProfile = payload["https://api.openai.com/profile"];
+		if (typeof openAiProfile === "object" && openAiProfile !== null && !Array.isArray(openAiProfile)) {
+			const claimEmail = normalizeStoredEmail(
+				(openAiProfile as Record<string, unknown>).email as string | undefined,
+			);
+			if (claimEmail) identifiers.add(`email:${claimEmail}`);
+		}
+		const openAiAuth = payload["https://api.openai.com/auth"];
+		const authClaims =
+			typeof openAiAuth === "object" && openAiAuth !== null && !Array.isArray(openAiAuth)
+				? (openAiAuth as Record<string, unknown>)
+				: undefined;
+		const accountId = normalizeStoredAccountId(
+			typeof payload.account_id === "string"
+				? payload.account_id
+				: typeof payload.accountId === "string"
+					? payload.accountId
+					: typeof payload.user_id === "string"
+						? payload.user_id
+						: typeof payload.sub === "string"
+							? payload.sub
+							: typeof authClaims?.chatgpt_account_id === "string"
+								? authClaims.chatgpt_account_id
+								: undefined,
+		);
+		if (accountId) identifiers.add(`account:${accountId}`);
+		return identifiers.size > 0 ? [...identifiers] : undefined;
+	} catch {
+		return undefined;
+	}
+}
+/**
+ * Standalone SQLite-backed implementation of AuthCredentialStore interface.
+ * Used by the pi-ai CLI and as the default store for AuthStorage.create().
+ * Also has convenience methods for simple CRUD (saveOAuth, getOAuth, etc.).
+ */
+export class AuthCredentialStore {
+	#db: Database;
+	#listActiveStmt: Statement;
+	#listActiveByProviderStmt: Statement;
+	#listDisabledByProviderStmt: Statement;
+	#insertStmt: Statement;
+	#updateStmt: Statement;
+	#deleteStmt: Statement;
+	#deleteByProviderStmt: Statement;
+	#hardDeleteStmt: Statement;
+	#getCacheStmt: Statement;
+	#upsertCacheStmt: Statement;
+	#deleteExpiredCacheStmt: Statement;
+	#closed = false;
+
+	constructor(db: Database) {
+		this.#db = db;
+		this.#initializeSchema();
+
+		this.#listActiveStmt = this.#db.prepare(
+			"SELECT id, provider, credential_type, data, disabled_cause, identity_key FROM auth_credentials WHERE disabled_cause IS NULL ORDER BY id ASC",
+		);
+		this.#listActiveByProviderStmt = this.#db.prepare(
+			"SELECT id, provider, credential_type, data, disabled_cause, identity_key FROM auth_credentials WHERE provider = ? AND disabled_cause IS NULL ORDER BY id ASC",
+		);
+		this.#listDisabledByProviderStmt = this.#db.prepare(
+			"SELECT id, provider, credential_type, data, disabled_cause, identity_key FROM auth_credentials WHERE provider = ? AND disabled_cause IS NOT NULL ORDER BY id ASC",
+		);
+		this.#insertStmt = this.#db.prepare(
+			`INSERT INTO auth_credentials (provider, credential_type, data, identity_key, created_at, updated_at) VALUES (?, ?, ?, ?, ${SQLITE_NOW_EPOCH}, ${SQLITE_NOW_EPOCH}) RETURNING id`,
+		);
+		this.#updateStmt = this.#db.prepare(
+			`UPDATE auth_credentials SET credential_type = ?, data = ?, identity_key = ?, updated_at = ${SQLITE_NOW_EPOCH} WHERE id = ?`,
+		);
+		this.#deleteStmt = this.#db.prepare(
+			`UPDATE auth_credentials SET disabled_cause = ?, updated_at = ${SQLITE_NOW_EPOCH} WHERE id = ?`,
+		);
+		this.#deleteByProviderStmt = this.#db.prepare(
+			`UPDATE auth_credentials SET disabled_cause = ?, updated_at = ${SQLITE_NOW_EPOCH} WHERE provider = ? AND disabled_cause IS NULL`,
+		);
+		this.#hardDeleteStmt = this.#db.prepare("DELETE FROM auth_credentials WHERE id = ?");
+		this.#getCacheStmt = this.#db.prepare(
+			`SELECT value FROM cache WHERE key = ? AND expires_at > ${SQLITE_NOW_EPOCH}`,
+		);
+		this.#upsertCacheStmt = this.#db.prepare(
+			"INSERT INTO cache (key, value, expires_at) VALUES (?, ?, ?) ON CONFLICT(key) DO UPDATE SET value = excluded.value, expires_at = excluded.expires_at",
+		);
+		this.#deleteExpiredCacheStmt = this.#db.prepare(`DELETE FROM cache WHERE expires_at <= ${SQLITE_NOW_EPOCH}`);
+	}
+
+	static async open(dbPath: string = getAgentDbPath()): Promise<AuthCredentialStore> {
+		const dir = path.dirname(dbPath);
+		const dirExists = await fs
+			.stat(dir)
+			.then(s => s.isDirectory())
+			.catch(() => false);
+		if (!dirExists) {
+			await fs.mkdir(dir, { recursive: true, mode: 0o700 });
+		}
+
+		const db = new Database(dbPath);
+		try {
+			await fs.chmod(dbPath, 0o600);
+		} catch {
+			// Ignore chmod failures (e.g., Windows)
+		}
+
+		return new AuthCredentialStore(db);
+	}
+
+	#initializeSchema(): void {
+		this.#db.run(`
+			PRAGMA journal_mode=WAL;
+			PRAGMA synchronous=NORMAL;
+			PRAGMA busy_timeout=5000;
+			CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS auth_schema_version (
+				id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY CHECK (id = 1),
+				version INTEGER NOT NULL
+			);
+			CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS cache (
+				key TEXT PRIMARY KEY,
+				value TEXT NOT NULL,
+				expires_at INTEGER NOT NULL
+			);
+			CREATE INDEX IF NOT EXISTS idx_cache_expires ON cache(expires_at);
+		`);
+
+		if (!this.#authCredentialsTableExists()) {
+			this.#createAuthCredentialsTable();
+			this.#writeAuthSchemaVersion(AUTH_SCHEMA_VERSION);
+			return;
+		}
+
+		const schemaVersion = this.#readAuthSchemaVersion() ?? this.#inferAuthSchemaVersion();
+		const shouldWriteSchemaVersion = schemaVersion <= AUTH_SCHEMA_VERSION;
+		if (schemaVersion > AUTH_SCHEMA_VERSION) {
+			logger.warn("AuthCredentialStore schema version mismatch", {
+				current: schemaVersion,
+				expected: AUTH_SCHEMA_VERSION,
+			});
+		} else if (schemaVersion < AUTH_SCHEMA_VERSION) {
+			this.#migrateAuthSchema(schemaVersion);
+		}
+
+		this.#createAuthCredentialIndexes();
+		this.#backfillCredentialIdentityKeys();
+		if (shouldWriteSchemaVersion) {
+			this.#writeAuthSchemaVersion(AUTH_SCHEMA_VERSION);
+		}
+	}
+
+	#authCredentialsTableExists(): boolean {
+		const row = this.#db
+			.prepare("SELECT 1 AS present FROM sqlite_master WHERE type = 'table' AND name = 'auth_credentials'")
+			.get() as { present?: number } | undefined;
+		return row?.present === 1;
+	}
+
+	#readAuthSchemaVersion(): number | null {
+		const row = this.#db.prepare("SELECT version FROM auth_schema_version WHERE id = 1").get() as
+			| { version?: number }
+			| undefined;
+		return typeof row?.version === "number" ? row.version : null;
+	}
+
+	#writeAuthSchemaVersion(version: number): void {
+		this.#db.prepare("INSERT OR REPLACE INTO auth_schema_version(id, version) VALUES (1, ?)").run(version);
+	}
+
+	#inferAuthSchemaVersion(): number {
+		const cols = this.#db.prepare("PRAGMA table_info(auth_credentials)").all() as Array<{ name?: string }>;
+		const hasDisabledCause = cols.some(column => column.name === "disabled_cause");
+		const hasIdentityKey = cols.some(column => column.name === "identity_key");
+		const hasAccountId = cols.some(column => column.name === "account_id");
+		const hasEmail = cols.some(column => column.name === "email");
+		if (hasIdentityKey) return 3;
+		if (hasAccountId || hasEmail) return 2;
+		if (hasDisabledCause) return 1;
+		return 0;
+	}
+
+	#createAuthCredentialsTable(): void {
+		this.#db.run(`
+			CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS auth_credentials (
+				id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT,
+				provider TEXT NOT NULL,
+				credential_type TEXT NOT NULL,
+				data TEXT NOT NULL,
+				disabled_cause TEXT DEFAULT NULL,
+				identity_key TEXT DEFAULT NULL,
+				created_at INTEGER NOT NULL DEFAULT (${SQLITE_NOW_EPOCH}),
+				updated_at INTEGER NOT NULL DEFAULT (${SQLITE_NOW_EPOCH})
+			);
+		`);
+		this.#createAuthCredentialIndexes();
+	}
+
+	#createAuthCredentialIndexes(): void {
+		this.#db.run(`
+			CREATE INDEX IF NOT EXISTS idx_auth_provider ON auth_credentials(provider);
+			CREATE INDEX IF NOT EXISTS idx_auth_provider_identity ON auth_credentials(provider, identity_key) WHERE identity_key IS NOT NULL;
+		`);
+	}
+
+	#migrateAuthSchema(fromVersion: number): void {
+		if (fromVersion < 1) {
+			this.#migrateAuthSchemaV0ToV1();
+		}
+		if (fromVersion < 3) {
+			this.#migrateAuthSchemaV1OrV2ToV3();
+		}
+		if (fromVersion < 4) {
+			this.#migrateAuthSchemaV3ToV4();
+		}
+	}
+
+	#migrateAuthSchemaV0ToV1(): void {
+		const migrate = this.#db.transaction(() => {
+			const v0Cols = this.#db.prepare("PRAGMA table_info(auth_credentials)").all() as Array<{ name?: string }>;
+			const hasDisabled = v0Cols.some(col => col.name === "disabled");
+
+			this.#db.run("ALTER TABLE auth_credentials RENAME TO auth_credentials_v0");
+			this.#db.run(`
+				CREATE TABLE auth_credentials (
+					id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT,
+					provider TEXT NOT NULL,
+					credential_type TEXT NOT NULL,
+					data TEXT NOT NULL,
+					disabled_cause TEXT DEFAULT NULL,
+					created_at INTEGER NOT NULL DEFAULT (${SQLITE_NOW_EPOCH}),
+					updated_at INTEGER NOT NULL DEFAULT (${SQLITE_NOW_EPOCH})
+				);
+			`);
+			this.#db.run(`
+				INSERT INTO auth_credentials (id, provider, credential_type, data, disabled_cause, created_at, updated_at)
+				SELECT
+					id,
+					provider,
+					credential_type,
+					data,
+					${hasDisabled ? "CASE WHEN disabled = 1 THEN 'disabled' ELSE NULL END" : "NULL"},
+					created_at,
+					updated_at
+				FROM auth_credentials_v0
+			`);
+			this.#db.run("DROP TABLE auth_credentials_v0");
+		});
+		migrate();
+	}
+
+	#migrateAuthSchemaV1OrV2ToV3(): void {
+		const migrate = this.#db.transaction(() => {
+			this.#db.run("ALTER TABLE auth_credentials RENAME TO auth_credentials_legacy");
+			this.#createAuthCredentialsTable();
+			this.#db.run(`
+				INSERT INTO auth_credentials (id, provider, credential_type, data, disabled_cause, identity_key, created_at, updated_at)
+				SELECT
+					id,
+					provider,
+					credential_type,
+					data,
+					disabled_cause,
+					NULL,
+					created_at,
+					updated_at
+				FROM auth_credentials_legacy
+			`);
+			this.#db.run("DROP TABLE auth_credentials_legacy");
+		});
+		migrate();
+	}
+
+	#migrateAuthSchemaV3ToV4(): void {
+		const migrate = this.#db.transaction(() => {
+			this.#db.run("ALTER TABLE auth_credentials RENAME TO auth_credentials_v3");
+			this.#createAuthCredentialsTable();
+			this.#db.run(`
+				INSERT INTO auth_credentials (id, provider, credential_type, data, disabled_cause, identity_key, created_at, updated_at)
+				SELECT
+					id,
+					provider,
+					credential_type,
+					data,
+					disabled_cause,
+					identity_key,
+					created_at,
+					updated_at
+				FROM auth_credentials_v3
+			`);
+			this.#db.run("DROP TABLE auth_credentials_v3");
+		});
+		migrate();
+	}
+
+	#backfillCredentialIdentityKeys(): void {
+		const rows = this.#db
+			.prepare(
+				"SELECT id, provider, credential_type, data, disabled_cause, identity_key FROM auth_credentials WHERE identity_key IS NULL ORDER BY id ASC",
+			)
+			.all() as AuthRow[];
+		if (rows.length === 0) return;
+
+		const updateIdentity = this.#db.prepare("UPDATE auth_credentials SET identity_key = ? WHERE id = ?");
+		for (const row of rows) {
+			const identityKey = resolveRowCredentialIdentityKey(row.provider, row);
+			updateIdentity.run(identityKey, row.id);
+		}
+	}
+
+	// ─── AuthCredentialStore interface ──────────────────────────────────────
+
+	listAuthCredentials(provider?: string): StoredAuthCredential[] {
+		const rows =
+			(provider
+				? (this.#listActiveByProviderStmt.all(provider) as AuthRow[])
+				: (this.#listActiveStmt.all() as AuthRow[])) ?? [];
+
+		const results: StoredAuthCredential[] = [];
+		for (const row of rows) {
+			const credential = deserializeCredential(row);
+			if (!credential) continue;
+			results.push(toStoredAuthCredential(row, credential));
+		}
+		return results;
+	}
+
+	replaceAuthCredentialsForProvider(provider: string, credentials: AuthCredential[]): StoredAuthCredential[] {
+		const replace = this.#db.transaction((providerName: string, items: AuthCredential[]) => {
+			const existingRows = this.#listActiveByProviderStmt.all(providerName) as AuthRow[];
+			const existing = existingRows.map(row => ({
+				id: row.id,
+				credential: deserializeCredential(row),
+				identityKey: resolveRowCredentialIdentityKey(providerName, row),
+			}));
+
+			const result: StoredAuthCredential[] = [];
+			const matchedExistingIds = new Set<number>();
+
+			for (const credential of items) {
+				const serialized = serializeCredential(providerName, credential);
+				if (!serialized) continue;
+				const match = existing.find(
+					entry =>
+						!matchedExistingIds.has(entry.id) &&
+						matchesReplacementCredential(providerName, entry.credential, entry.identityKey, credential),
+				);
+				if (match) {
+					matchedExistingIds.add(match.id);
+					this.#updateStmt.run(serialized.credentialType, serialized.data, serialized.identityKey, match.id);
+					result.push({ id: match.id, provider: providerName, credential, disabledCause: null });
+				} else {
+					const row = this.#insertStmt.get(
+						providerName,
+						serialized.credentialType,
+						serialized.data,
+						serialized.identityKey,
+					) as { id?: number } | undefined;
+					if (row?.id) {
+						result.push({ id: row.id, provider: providerName, credential, disabledCause: null });
+					}
+				}
+			}
+
+			for (const row of existing) {
+				if (!matchedExistingIds.has(row.id)) {
+					this.#deleteStmt.run("replaced by newer credential", row.id);
+				}
+			}
+
+			return result;
+		});
+
+		const result = replace(provider, credentials);
+		this.#purgeSupersededDisabledRows(provider, result);
+		return result;
+	}
+
+	upsertAuthCredentialForProvider(provider: string, credential: AuthCredential): StoredAuthCredential[] {
+		const upsert = this.#db.transaction((providerName: string, item: AuthCredential) => {
+			const serialized = serializeCredential(providerName, item);
+			if (!serialized) return this.listAuthCredentials(providerName);
+			const existingRows = this.#listActiveByProviderStmt.all(providerName) as AuthRow[];
+			const existing = existingRows.map(row => ({
+				id: row.id,
+				credential: deserializeCredential(row),
+				identityKey: resolveRowCredentialIdentityKey(providerName, row),
+			}));
+
+			let targetId: number | null = null;
+			for (const row of existing) {
+				if (!matchesReplacementCredential(providerName, row.credential, row.identityKey, item)) continue;
+				if (targetId === null) {
+					targetId = row.id;
+					this.#updateStmt.run(serialized.credentialType, serialized.data, serialized.identityKey, row.id);
+					continue;
+				}
+				this.#deleteStmt.run("replaced by newer credential", row.id);
+			}
+
+			if (targetId === null) {
+				const row = this.#insertStmt.get(
+					providerName,
+					serialized.credentialType,
+					serialized.data,
+					serialized.identityKey,
+				) as { id?: number } | undefined;
+				targetId = row?.id ?? null;
+			}
+
+			const activeRows = this.#listActiveByProviderStmt.all(providerName) as AuthRow[];
+			const result: StoredAuthCredential[] = [];
+			for (const row of activeRows) {
+				const activeCredential = deserializeCredential(row);
+				if (!activeCredential) continue;
+				result.push(toStoredAuthCredential(row, activeCredential));
+			}
+			return result;
+		});
+
+		const result = upsert(provider, credential);
+		this.#purgeSupersededDisabledRows(provider, result);
+		return result;
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Hard-deletes disabled rows for a provider when an active row with the same identity exists.
+	 * This prevents unbounded accumulation of soft-deleted credentials while preserving
+	 * disabled rows that have no active replacement (safety net for recovery).
+	 */
+	#purgeSupersededDisabledRows(provider: string, activeRows: StoredAuthCredential[]): void {
+		try {
+			const activeIdentityKeys = new Set<string>();
+			for (const row of activeRows) {
+				const identityKey = resolveCredentialIdentityKey(provider, row.credential);
+				if (identityKey) activeIdentityKeys.add(identityKey);
+			}
+			if (activeIdentityKeys.size === 0) return;
+
+			const disabledRows = this.#listDisabledByProviderStmt.all(provider) as AuthRow[];
+			for (const row of disabledRows) {
+				const identityKey = resolveRowCredentialIdentityKey(provider, row);
+				if (identityKey && activeIdentityKeys.has(identityKey)) {
+					this.#hardDeleteStmt.run(row.id);
+				}
+			}
+		} catch {
+			// Best-effort cleanup; don't let it break the main operation
+		}
+	}
+
+	updateAuthCredential(id: number, credential: AuthCredential): void {
+		try {
+			const providerRow = this.#db.prepare("SELECT provider FROM auth_credentials WHERE id = ?").get(id) as
+				| { provider?: string }
+				| undefined;
+			const provider = providerRow?.provider ?? "";
+			const serialized = serializeCredential(provider, credential);
+			if (!serialized) return;
+			this.#updateStmt.run(serialized.credentialType, serialized.data, serialized.identityKey, id);
+			if (provider) {
+				this.#purgeSupersededDisabledRows(provider, this.listAuthCredentials(provider));
+			}
+		} catch {
+			// Ignore update failures
+		}
+	}
+
+	deleteAuthCredential(id: number, disabledCause: string): void {
+		try {
+			this.#deleteStmt.run(normalizeDisabledCause(disabledCause), id);
+		} catch {
+			// Ignore delete failures
+		}
+	}
+
+	deleteAuthCredentialsForProvider(provider: string, disabledCause: string): void {
+		try {
+			this.#deleteByProviderStmt.run(normalizeDisabledCause(disabledCause), provider);
+		} catch {
+			// Ignore delete failures
+		}
+	}
+
+	getCache(key: string): string | null {
+		try {
+			const row = this.#getCacheStmt.get(key) as { value?: string } | undefined;
+			return row?.value ?? null;
+		} catch {
+			return null;
+		}
+	}
+
+	setCache(key: string, value: string, expiresAtSec: number): void {
+		try {
+			this.#upsertCacheStmt.run(key, value, expiresAtSec);
+		} catch {
+			// Ignore cache set failures
+		}
+	}
+
+	cleanExpiredCache(): void {
+		try {
+			this.#deleteExpiredCacheStmt.run();
+		} catch {
+			// Ignore cleanup errors
+		}
+	}
+
+	// ─── Convenience methods for CLI ────────────────────────────────────────
+
+	/**
+	 * Save OAuth credentials for a provider.
+	 * Preserves unrelated identities and replaces only the matching credential.
+	 */
+	saveOAuth(provider: string, credentials: OAuthCredentials): void {
+		const credential: AuthCredential = { type: "oauth", ...credentials };
+		this.upsertAuthCredentialForProvider(provider, credential);
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Get OAuth credentials for a provider.
+	 */
+	getOAuth(provider: string): OAuthCredentials | null {
+		const rows = this.#listActiveByProviderStmt.all(provider) as AuthRow[];
+		for (const row of rows) {
+			const credential = deserializeCredential(row);
+			if (credential && credential.type === "oauth") {
+				const { type: _type, ...oauth } = credential;
+				return oauth as OAuthCredentials;
+			}
+		}
+		return null;
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Save API key for a provider (replaces existing).
+	 */
+	saveApiKey(provider: string, apiKey: string): void {
+		const credential: AuthCredential = { type: "api_key", key: apiKey };
+		this.replaceAuthCredentialsForProvider(provider, [credential]);
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Get API key for a provider.
+	 */
+	getApiKey(provider: string): string | null {
+		const rows = this.#listActiveByProviderStmt.all(provider) as AuthRow[];
+		for (const row of rows) {
+			const credential = deserializeCredential(row);
+			if (credential && credential.type === "api_key") {
+				return credential.key;
+			}
+		}
+		return null;
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * List all providers with credentials.
+	 */
+	listProviders(): string[] {
+		const rows = this.#listActiveStmt.all() as AuthRow[];
+		const providers = new Set<string>();
+		for (const row of rows) {
+			providers.add(row.provider);
+		}
+		return Array.from(providers);
+	}
+
+	/**
+	 * Delete all credentials for a provider.
+	 */
+	deleteProvider(provider: string): void {
+		this.deleteAuthCredentialsForProvider(provider, "deleted by user");
+	}
+
+	close(): void {
+		if (this.#closed) return;
+		this.#closed = true;
+		this.#listActiveStmt.finalize();
+		this.#listActiveByProviderStmt.finalize();
+		this.#listDisabledByProviderStmt.finalize();
+		this.#insertStmt.finalize();
+		this.#updateStmt.finalize();
+		this.#deleteStmt.finalize();
+		this.#deleteByProviderStmt.finalize();
+		this.#hardDeleteStmt.finalize();
+		this.#getCacheStmt.finalize();
+		this.#upsertCacheStmt.finalize();
+		this.#deleteExpiredCacheStmt.finalize();
+		this.#db.close();
+	}
+}