@emasoft/svg-matrix 1.0.18 → 1.0.20

package/src/bezier-analysis.js

@@ -0,0 +1,1626 @@
+/**
+ * @fileoverview Arbitrary-Precision Bezier Curve Analysis
+ *
+ * Superior implementation of differential geometry operations on Bezier curves
+ * using Decimal.js for 80-digit precision (configurable to 10^9 digits).
+ *
+ * This module provides mathematically exact computations where possible,
+ * and controlled-precision numerical methods where necessary.
+ *
+ * @module bezier-analysis
+ * @version 1.0.0
+ *
+ * Advantages over svgpathtools (float64):
+ * - 10^65x better precision (80 vs 15 digits)
+ * - Exact polynomial arithmetic
+ * - Verified mathematical correctness
+ * - No accumulating round-off errors
+ * - Handles extreme coordinate ranges
+ */
+
+import Decimal from 'decimal.js';
+
+// Ensure high precision is set
+Decimal.set({ precision: 80 });
+
+/**
+ * Convert any numeric input to Decimal
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} x - Value to convert
+ * @returns {Decimal}
+ */
+const D = x => (x instanceof Decimal ? x : new Decimal(x));
+
+/**
+ * Validate that a value is a finite number (not NaN or Infinity).
+ * WHY: Prevents invalid calculations from propagating through the system.
+ * Non-finite values indicate numerical errors that should be caught early.
+ * @param {Decimal} val - Value to check
+ * @param {string} context - Function name for error message
+ * @throws {Error} If value is not finite
+ */
+function assertFinite(val, context) {
+  if (!val.isFinite()) {
+    throw new Error(`${context}: encountered non-finite value ${val}`);
+  }
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// NUMERICAL CONSTANTS (documented magic numbers)
+// ============================================================================
+// WHY: Magic numbers scattered throughout code make maintenance difficult.
+// Named constants improve readability and allow easy adjustment of precision thresholds.
+
+/** Threshold below which derivative magnitude is considered zero (cusp detection).
+ * WHY: Prevents division by zero in tangent/normal calculations at cusps. */
+const DERIVATIVE_ZERO_THRESHOLD = new Decimal('1e-50');
+
+/** Threshold for curvature denominator to detect cusps.
+ * WHY: Curvature formula has (x'^2 + y'^2)^(3/2) in denominator; this threshold
+ * prevents division by near-zero values that would produce spurious infinities. */
+const CURVATURE_SINGULARITY_THRESHOLD = new Decimal('1e-100');
+
+/** Threshold for finite difference step size.
+ * WHY: Used in numerical derivative approximations. Balance between truncation error
+ * (too large) and cancellation error (too small). */
+const FINITE_DIFFERENCE_STEP = new Decimal('1e-8');
+
+/** Newton-Raphson convergence threshold.
+ * WHY: Iteration stops when change is below this threshold, indicating convergence. */
+const NEWTON_CONVERGENCE_THRESHOLD = new Decimal('1e-40');
+
+/** Near-zero threshold for general comparisons.
+ * WHY: Used throughout for detecting effectively zero values in high-precision arithmetic. */
+const NEAR_ZERO_THRESHOLD = new Decimal('1e-60');
+
+/** Threshold for degenerate quadratic equations.
+ * WHY: When 'a' coefficient is below this relative to other coefficients,
+ * equation degenerates to linear case, avoiding division by near-zero. */
+const QUADRATIC_DEGENERATE_THRESHOLD = new Decimal('1e-70');
+
+/** Subdivision convergence threshold for root finding.
+ * WHY: When interval becomes smaller than this, subdivision has converged to a root. */
+const SUBDIVISION_CONVERGENCE_THRESHOLD = new Decimal('1e-15');
+
+/** Threshold for arc length comparison in curvature verification.
+ * WHY: Arc lengths below this are too small for reliable finite difference approximation. */
+const ARC_LENGTH_THRESHOLD = new Decimal('1e-50');
+
+/** Relative error threshold for curvature comparison.
+ * WHY: Curvature verification uses relative error; this threshold balances precision vs noise. */
+const CURVATURE_RELATIVE_ERROR_THRESHOLD = new Decimal('1e-10');
+
+/** Finite difference step for derivative verification (higher order).
+ * WHY: Smaller step than general finite difference for more accurate verification. */
+const DERIVATIVE_VERIFICATION_STEP = new Decimal('1e-10');
+
+/** Threshold for magnitude comparison in derivative verification.
+ * WHY: Used to determine if derivative magnitude is large enough for relative error. */
+const DERIVATIVE_MAGNITUDE_THRESHOLD = new Decimal('1e-20');
+
+/**
+ * 2D Point represented as [Decimal, Decimal]
+ * @typedef {[Decimal, Decimal]} Point2D
+ */
+
+/**
+ * Bezier control points array
+ * @typedef {Point2D[]} BezierPoints
+ */
+
+// ============================================================================
+// BEZIER CURVE EVALUATION
+// ============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * Evaluate a Bezier curve at parameter t using de Casteljau's algorithm.
+ *
+ * de Casteljau is numerically stable and works for any degree.
+ * Complexity: O(n^2) where n is the number of control points.
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Control points [[x0,y0], [x1,y1], ...]
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} t - Parameter in [0, 1]
+ * @returns {Point2D} Point on curve at parameter t
+ *
+ * @example
+ * // Cubic Bezier
+ * const p = [[0,0], [100,200], [200,200], [300,0]];
+ * const [x, y] = bezierPoint(p, 0.5);
+ */
+export function bezierPoint(points, t) {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION: Ensure points array is valid
+  // WHY: Empty or invalid arrays would cause crashes in the de Casteljau iteration
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('bezierPoint: points must be an array with at least 2 control points');
+  }
+
+  const tD = D(t);
+  // PARAMETER VALIDATION: Warn if t is outside [0,1] but still compute
+  // WHY: Values slightly outside [0,1] may occur in numerical algorithms
+  // and should still produce valid extrapolations, but large deviations
+  // indicate bugs in calling code
+  if (tD.lt(-0.01) || tD.gt(1.01)) {
+    console.warn(`bezierPoint: t=${tD} is significantly outside [0,1]`);
+  }
+
+  const oneMinusT = D(1).minus(tD);
+
+  // Convert all points to Decimal
+  let pts = points.map(([x, y]) => [D(x), D(y)]);
+
+  // de Casteljau's algorithm: recursively interpolate
+  while (pts.length > 1) {
+    const newPts = [];
+    for (let i = 0; i < pts.length - 1; i++) {
+      const x = pts[i][0].times(oneMinusT).plus(pts[i + 1][0].times(tD));
+      const y = pts[i][1].times(oneMinusT).plus(pts[i + 1][1].times(tD));
+      newPts.push([x, y]);
+    }
+    pts = newPts;
+  }
+
+  return pts[0];
+}
+
+/**
+ * Evaluate Bezier using Horner's rule (optimized for cubics).
+ *
+ * For cubic: B(t) = P0 + t(c1 + t(c2 + t*c3))
+ * where c1, c2, c3 are derived from control points.
+ *
+ * This is faster than de Casteljau but equivalent.
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Control points (2-4 points)
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} t - Parameter in [0, 1]
+ * @returns {Point2D} Point on curve
+ */
+export function bezierPointHorner(points, t) {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION: Ensure points array is valid
+  // WHY: Horner's rule requires at least 2 points; invalid arrays cause index errors
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('bezierPointHorner: points must be an array with at least 2 control points');
+  }
+
+  const tD = D(t);
+  const n = points.length - 1; // Degree
+
+  if (n === 1) {
+    // Line: P0 + t(P1 - P0)
+    const [x0, y0] = [D(points[0][0]), D(points[0][1])];
+    const [x1, y1] = [D(points[1][0]), D(points[1][1])];
+    return [
+      x0.plus(tD.times(x1.minus(x0))),
+      y0.plus(tD.times(y1.minus(y0)))
+    ];
+  }
+
+  if (n === 2) {
+    // Quadratic: P0 + t(2(P1-P0) + t(P0 - 2P1 + P2))
+    const [x0, y0] = [D(points[0][0]), D(points[0][1])];
+    const [x1, y1] = [D(points[1][0]), D(points[1][1])];
+    const [x2, y2] = [D(points[2][0]), D(points[2][1])];
+
+    const c1x = x1.minus(x0).times(2);
+    const c1y = y1.minus(y0).times(2);
+    const c2x = x0.minus(x1.times(2)).plus(x2);
+    const c2y = y0.minus(y1.times(2)).plus(y2);
+
+    return [
+      x0.plus(tD.times(c1x.plus(tD.times(c2x)))),
+      y0.plus(tD.times(c1y.plus(tD.times(c2y))))
+    ];
+  }
+
+  if (n === 3) {
+    // Cubic: P0 + t(c1 + t(c2 + t*c3))
+    const [x0, y0] = [D(points[0][0]), D(points[0][1])];
+    const [x1, y1] = [D(points[1][0]), D(points[1][1])];
+    const [x2, y2] = [D(points[2][0]), D(points[2][1])];
+    const [x3, y3] = [D(points[3][0]), D(points[3][1])];
+
+    // c1 = 3(P1 - P0)
+    const c1x = x1.minus(x0).times(3);
+    const c1y = y1.minus(y0).times(3);
+
+    // c2 = 3(P0 - 2P1 + P2)
+    const c2x = x0.minus(x1.times(2)).plus(x2).times(3);
+    const c2y = y0.minus(y1.times(2)).plus(y2).times(3);
+
+    // c3 = -P0 + 3P1 - 3P2 + P3
+    const c3x = x0.neg().plus(x1.times(3)).minus(x2.times(3)).plus(x3);
+    const c3y = y0.neg().plus(y1.times(3)).minus(y2.times(3)).plus(y3);
+
+    return [
+      x0.plus(tD.times(c1x.plus(tD.times(c2x.plus(tD.times(c3x)))))),
+      y0.plus(tD.times(c1y.plus(tD.times(c2y.plus(tD.times(c3y))))))
+    ];
+  }
+
+  // For higher degrees, fall back to de Casteljau
+  return bezierPoint(points, t);
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// DERIVATIVES
+// ============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * Compute the nth derivative of a Bezier curve at parameter t.
+ *
+ * The derivative of a degree-n Bezier is a degree-(n-1) Bezier
+ * with control points: n * (P[i+1] - P[i])
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Control points
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} t - Parameter in [0, 1]
+ * @param {number} [n=1] - Derivative order (1 = first derivative, 2 = second, etc.)
+ * @returns {Point2D} Derivative vector at t
+ *
+ * @example
+ * const velocity = bezierDerivative(cubicPoints, 0.5, 1);  // First derivative
+ * const acceleration = bezierDerivative(cubicPoints, 0.5, 2);  // Second derivative
+ */
+export function bezierDerivative(points, t, n = 1) {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION: Ensure points array is valid
+  // WHY: Derivative computation requires iterating over control points
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('bezierDerivative: points must be an array with at least 2 control points');
+  }
+
+  if (n === 0) {
+    return bezierPoint(points, t);
+  }
+
+  const degree = points.length - 1;
+
+  if (n > degree) {
+    // Derivative of order > degree is zero
+    return [D(0), D(0)];
+  }
+
+  // Compute derivative control points
+  let derivPoints = points.map(([x, y]) => [D(x), D(y)]);
+
+  for (let d = 0; d < n; d++) {
+    const currentDegree = derivPoints.length - 1;
+    const newPoints = [];
+
+    for (let i = 0; i < currentDegree; i++) {
+      const dx = derivPoints[i + 1][0].minus(derivPoints[i][0]).times(currentDegree);
+      const dy = derivPoints[i + 1][1].minus(derivPoints[i][1]).times(currentDegree);
+      newPoints.push([dx, dy]);
+    }
+
+    derivPoints = newPoints;
+  }
+
+  // Evaluate the derivative Bezier at t
+  if (derivPoints.length === 1) {
+    return derivPoints[0];
+  }
+
+  return bezierPoint(derivPoints, t);
+}
+
+/**
+ * Get the derivative control points (hodograph) of a Bezier curve.
+ *
+ * Useful for repeated derivative evaluations at different t values.
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Original control points
+ * @returns {BezierPoints} Derivative control points (one fewer point)
+ */
+export function bezierDerivativePoints(points) {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION: Ensure points array is valid
+  // WHY: Need at least 2 points to compute derivative control points
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('bezierDerivativePoints: points must be an array with at least 2 control points');
+  }
+
+  const n = points.length - 1;
+  const result = [];
+
+  for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
+    const dx = D(points[i + 1][0]).minus(D(points[i][0])).times(n);
+    const dy = D(points[i + 1][1]).minus(D(points[i][1])).times(n);
+    result.push([dx, dy]);
+  }
+
+  return result;
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// TANGENT AND NORMAL VECTORS
+// ============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * Compute the unit tangent vector at parameter t.
+ *
+ * The tangent is the normalized first derivative.
+ * Handles the edge case where derivative is zero (cusps) by using
+ * higher-order derivatives or returning [1, 0] as fallback.
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Control points
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} t - Parameter in [0, 1]
+ * @returns {Point2D} Unit tangent vector
+ */
+export function bezierTangent(points, t) {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION: Ensure points array is valid
+  // WHY: Tangent calculation requires derivative computation which needs valid points
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('bezierTangent: points must be an array with at least 2 control points');
+  }
+
+  const [dx, dy] = bezierDerivative(points, t, 1);
+
+  // Compute magnitude
+  const mag = dx.times(dx).plus(dy.times(dy)).sqrt();
+
+  // Handle zero derivative (cusp or degenerate case)
+  // WHY: Use named constant for clarity and consistency across codebase
+  if (mag.isZero() || mag.lt(DERIVATIVE_ZERO_THRESHOLD)) {
+    // Try second derivative
+    const [d2x, d2y] = bezierDerivative(points, t, 2);
+    const mag2 = d2x.times(d2x).plus(d2y.times(d2y)).sqrt();
+
+    if (mag2.isZero() || mag2.lt(DERIVATIVE_ZERO_THRESHOLD)) {
+      // Fallback to direction from start to end
+      const [x0, y0] = [D(points[0][0]), D(points[0][1])];
+      const [xn, yn] = [D(points[points.length - 1][0]), D(points[points.length - 1][1])];
+      const ddx = xn.minus(x0);
+      const ddy = yn.minus(y0);
+      const magFallback = ddx.times(ddx).plus(ddy.times(ddy)).sqrt();
+
+      if (magFallback.isZero()) {
+        return [D(1), D(0)]; // Degenerate curve, return arbitrary direction
+      }
+      return [ddx.div(magFallback), ddy.div(magFallback)];
+    }
+
+    return [d2x.div(mag2), d2y.div(mag2)];
+  }
+
+  return [dx.div(mag), dy.div(mag)];
+}
+
+/**
+ * Compute the unit normal vector at parameter t.
+ *
+ * The normal is perpendicular to the tangent, using the right-hand rule:
+ * normal = rotate tangent by 90 degrees counter-clockwise.
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Control points
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} t - Parameter in [0, 1]
+ * @returns {Point2D} Unit normal vector
+ */
+export function bezierNormal(points, t) {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION: Ensure points array is valid
+  // WHY: Normal is computed from tangent which requires valid points
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('bezierNormal: points must be an array with at least 2 control points');
+  }
+
+  const [tx, ty] = bezierTangent(points, t);
+
+  // Rotate 90 degrees counter-clockwise: (x, y) -> (-y, x)
+  return [ty.neg(), tx];
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// CURVATURE
+// ============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * Compute the curvature at parameter t.
+ *
+ * Curvature formula: k = (x'y'' - y'x'') / (x'^2 + y'^2)^(3/2)
+ *
+ * Positive curvature = curve bends left (counter-clockwise)
+ * Negative curvature = curve bends right (clockwise)
+ * Zero curvature = straight line
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Control points
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} t - Parameter in [0, 1]
+ * @returns {Decimal} Signed curvature
+ */
+export function bezierCurvature(points, t) {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION: Ensure points array is valid
+  // WHY: Curvature requires first and second derivatives which need valid points
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('bezierCurvature: points must be an array with at least 2 control points');
+  }
+
+  const [dx, dy] = bezierDerivative(points, t, 1);
+  const [d2x, d2y] = bezierDerivative(points, t, 2);
+
+  // Numerator: x'y'' - y'x''
+  const numerator = dx.times(d2y).minus(dy.times(d2x));
+
+  // Denominator: (x'^2 + y'^2)^(3/2)
+  const speedSquared = dx.times(dx).plus(dy.times(dy));
+
+  // WHY: Use named constant for curvature singularity detection
+  if (speedSquared.isZero() || speedSquared.lt(CURVATURE_SINGULARITY_THRESHOLD)) {
+    // At a cusp, curvature is undefined (infinity)
+    return new Decimal(Infinity);
+  }
+
+  const denominator = speedSquared.sqrt().pow(3);
+
+  return numerator.div(denominator);
+}
+
+/**
+ * Compute the radius of curvature at parameter t.
+ *
+ * Radius = 1 / |curvature|
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Control points
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} t - Parameter in [0, 1]
+ * @returns {Decimal} Radius of curvature (positive, or Infinity for straight segments)
+ */
+export function bezierRadiusOfCurvature(points, t) {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION: Ensure points array is valid
+  // WHY: Radius computation requires curvature which needs valid points
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('bezierRadiusOfCurvature: points must be an array with at least 2 control points');
+  }
+
+  const k = bezierCurvature(points, t);
+
+  if (k.isZero()) {
+    return new Decimal(Infinity);
+  }
+
+  return D(1).div(k.abs());
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// DE CASTELJAU SPLITTING
+// ============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * Split a Bezier curve at parameter t using de Casteljau's algorithm.
+ *
+ * Returns two Bezier curves that together form the original curve.
+ * This is mathematically exact (no approximation).
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Control points
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} t - Split parameter in [0, 1]
+ * @returns {{left: BezierPoints, right: BezierPoints}} Two Bezier curves
+ *
+ * @example
+ * const { left, right } = bezierSplit(cubicPoints, 0.5);
+ * // left covers t in [0, 0.5], right covers t in [0.5, 1]
+ */
+export function bezierSplit(points, t) {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION: Ensure points array is valid
+  // WHY: de Casteljau algorithm requires iterating over control points
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('bezierSplit: points must be an array with at least 2 control points');
+  }
+
+  const tD = D(t);
+  // PARAMETER VALIDATION: Warn if t is outside [0,1] but still compute
+  // WHY: Values slightly outside [0,1] may occur in numerical algorithms
+  // and should still produce valid extrapolations, but large deviations
+  // indicate bugs in calling code
+  if (tD.lt(-0.01) || tD.gt(1.01)) {
+    console.warn(`bezierSplit: t=${tD} is significantly outside [0,1]`);
+  }
+
+  const oneMinusT = D(1).minus(tD);
+
+  // Convert to Decimal
+  let pts = points.map(([x, y]) => [D(x), D(y)]);
+
+  const left = [pts[0]];  // First point of left curve
+  const right = [];
+
+  // de Casteljau iterations, saving the edges
+  while (pts.length > 1) {
+    right.unshift(pts[pts.length - 1]); // Last point goes to right curve
+
+    const newPts = [];
+    for (let i = 0; i < pts.length - 1; i++) {
+      const x = pts[i][0].times(oneMinusT).plus(pts[i + 1][0].times(tD));
+      const y = pts[i][1].times(oneMinusT).plus(pts[i + 1][1].times(tD));
+      newPts.push([x, y]);
+    }
+
+    if (newPts.length > 0) {
+      left.push(newPts[0]); // First point of each level goes to left
+    }
+
+    pts = newPts;
+  }
+
+  // The final point is shared by both curves
+  if (pts.length === 1) {
+    right.unshift(pts[0]);
+  }
+
+  return { left, right };
+}
+
+/**
+ * Split a Bezier curve at t = 0.5 (optimized).
+ *
+ * This is a common operation and can be slightly optimized.
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Control points
+ * @returns {{left: BezierPoints, right: BezierPoints}} Two Bezier curves
+ */
+export function bezierHalve(points) {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION: Ensure points array is valid
+  // WHY: bezierHalve delegates to bezierSplit which needs valid points
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('bezierHalve: points must be an array with at least 2 control points');
+  }
+
+  return bezierSplit(points, 0.5);
+}
+
+/**
+ * Extract a portion of a Bezier curve between t0 and t1.
+ *
+ * Uses two splits: first at t0, then adjust and split at (t1-t0)/(1-t0).
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Control points
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} t0 - Start parameter
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} t1 - End parameter
+ * @returns {BezierPoints} Control points for the cropped curve
+ */
+export function bezierCrop(points, t0, t1) {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION: Ensure points array is valid
+  // WHY: bezierCrop uses bezierSplit which requires valid points
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('bezierCrop: points must be an array with at least 2 control points');
+  }
+
+  const t0D = D(t0);
+  const t1D = D(t1);
+
+  if (t0D.gte(t1D)) {
+    throw new Error('bezierCrop: t0 must be less than t1');
+  }
+
+  // PARAMETER BOUNDS: Ensure t0 and t1 are within valid range [0, 1]
+  // WHY: Parameters outside [0,1] don't correspond to points on the curve segment
+  if (t0D.lt(0) || t0D.gt(1)) {
+    throw new Error('bezierCrop: t0 must be in range [0, 1]');
+  }
+  if (t1D.lt(0) || t1D.gt(1)) {
+    throw new Error('bezierCrop: t1 must be in range [0, 1]');
+  }
+
+  // First split at t0, take the right portion
+  const { right: afterT0 } = bezierSplit(points, t0);
+
+  // Adjust t1 to the new parameter space: (t1 - t0) / (1 - t0)
+  const adjustedT1 = t1D.minus(t0D).div(D(1).minus(t0D));
+
+  // Split at adjusted t1, take the left portion
+  const { left: cropped } = bezierSplit(afterT0, adjustedT1);
+
+  return cropped;
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// BOUNDING BOX
+// ============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * Compute the axis-aligned bounding box of a Bezier curve.
+ *
+ * Finds exact bounds by:
+ * 1. Computing derivative polynomial
+ * 2. Finding roots (critical points where derivative = 0)
+ * 3. Evaluating curve at t=0, t=1, and all critical points
+ * 4. Taking min/max of all evaluated points
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Control points
+ * @returns {{xmin: Decimal, xmax: Decimal, ymin: Decimal, ymax: Decimal}}
+ */
+export function bezierBoundingBox(points) {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION: Ensure points array is valid
+  // WHY: Bounding box computation requires accessing control points and computing derivatives
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('bezierBoundingBox: points must be an array with at least 2 control points');
+  }
+
+  const n = points.length;
+
+  // Start with endpoints
+  const [x0, y0] = [D(points[0][0]), D(points[0][1])];
+  const [xn, yn] = [D(points[n - 1][0]), D(points[n - 1][1])];
+
+  let xmin = Decimal.min(x0, xn);
+  let xmax = Decimal.max(x0, xn);
+  let ymin = Decimal.min(y0, yn);
+  let ymax = Decimal.max(y0, yn);
+
+  if (n <= 2) {
+    // Line segment: endpoints are sufficient
+    return { xmin, xmax, ymin, ymax };
+  }
+
+  // Get derivative control points
+  const derivPts = bezierDerivativePoints(points);
+
+  // Find critical points (where derivative = 0) for x and y separately
+  const criticalTs = findBezierRoots1D(derivPts, 'x')
+    .concat(findBezierRoots1D(derivPts, 'y'))
+    .filter(t => t.gt(0) && t.lt(1));
+
+  // Evaluate at critical points
+  for (const t of criticalTs) {
+    const [x, y] = bezierPoint(points, t);
+    xmin = Decimal.min(xmin, x);
+    xmax = Decimal.max(xmax, x);
+    ymin = Decimal.min(ymin, y);
+    ymax = Decimal.max(ymax, y);
+  }
+
+  return { xmin, xmax, ymin, ymax };
+}
+
+/**
+ * Find roots of a 1D Bezier curve (where either x or y component = 0).
+ *
+ * Uses subdivision method for robustness.
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Control points of derivative
+ * @param {'x'|'y'} component - Which component to find roots for
+ * @returns {Decimal[]} Array of t values where component = 0
+ */
+function findBezierRoots1D(points, component) {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length === 0) {
+    return []; // No roots possible for empty input
+  }
+
+  const idx = component === 'x' ? 0 : 1;
+  const roots = [];
+
+  // Extract 1D control points
+  const coeffs = points.map(p => D(p[idx]));
+
+  // For quadratic (2 points) and cubic (3 points), use analytical solutions
+  if (coeffs.length === 2) {
+    // Linear: a + t(b - a) = 0  =>  t = -a / (b - a)
+    const a = coeffs[0];
+    const b = coeffs[1];
+    const denom = b.minus(a);
+
+    if (!denom.isZero()) {
+      const t = a.neg().div(denom);
+      if (t.gt(0) && t.lt(1)) {
+        roots.push(t);
+      }
+    }
+  } else if (coeffs.length === 3) {
+    // Quadratic derivative from cubic Bezier
+    // B(t) = (1-t)^2 * P0 + 2(1-t)t * P1 + t^2 * P2
+    // Expanding: a*t^2 + b*t + c where
+    // a = P0 - 2P1 + P2
+    // b = 2(P1 - P0)
+    // c = P0
+    const P0 = coeffs[0];
+    const P1 = coeffs[1];
+    const P2 = coeffs[2];
+
+    const a = P0.minus(P1.times(2)).plus(P2);
+    const b = P1.minus(P0).times(2);
+    const c = P0;
+
+    const quadRoots = solveQuadratic(a, b, c);
+    for (const t of quadRoots) {
+      if (t.gt(0) && t.lt(1)) {
+        roots.push(t);
+      }
+    }
+  } else {
+    // Higher degree: use subdivision
+    const subdivisionRoots = findRootsBySubdivision(coeffs, D(0), D(1), 50);
+    roots.push(...subdivisionRoots.filter(t => t.gt(0) && t.lt(1)));
+  }
+
+  return roots;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Solve quadratic equation ax^2 + bx + c = 0 with arbitrary precision.
+ * Uses numerically stable formula to avoid catastrophic cancellation.
+ *
+ * WHY: Standard quadratic formula can lose precision when b^2 >> 4ac due to
+ * subtracting nearly equal numbers. This implementation uses the numerically
+ * stable formula that avoids that cancellation.
+ *
+ * @param {Decimal} a - Quadratic coefficient
+ * @param {Decimal} b - Linear coefficient
+ * @param {Decimal} c - Constant
+ * @returns {Decimal[]} Real roots
+ */
+function solveQuadratic(a, b, c) {
+  // NUMERICAL STABILITY: Use threshold relative to coefficient magnitudes
+  // to determine if 'a' is effectively zero (degenerate to linear equation)
+  // WHY: Absolute thresholds fail when coefficients are scaled; relative threshold adapts
+  const coeffMag = Decimal.max(a.abs(), b.abs(), c.abs());
+
+  if (coeffMag.gt(0) && a.abs().div(coeffMag).lt(QUADRATIC_DEGENERATE_THRESHOLD)) {
+    // Linear equation: bx + c = 0
+    if (b.isZero()) return [];
+    return [c.neg().div(b)];
+  }
+
+  if (a.isZero()) {
+    if (b.isZero()) return [];
+    return [c.neg().div(b)];
+  }
+
+  const discriminant = b.times(b).minus(a.times(c).times(4));
+
+  if (discriminant.lt(0)) {
+    return []; // No real roots
+  }
+
+  if (discriminant.isZero()) {
+    return [b.neg().div(a.times(2))];
+  }
+
+  const sqrtD = discriminant.sqrt();
+  const twoA = a.times(2);
+
+  // NUMERICAL STABILITY: Use Vieta's formula to compute the second root
+  // when catastrophic cancellation would occur in the standard formula.
+  // When b and sqrt(D) have similar magnitudes and the same sign,
+  // -b + sqrt(D) or -b - sqrt(D) can lose precision.
+  //
+  // Solution: Compute the larger root directly, use Vieta's for the other
+  // x1 * x2 = c/a, so x2 = (c/a) / x1
+
+  let root1, root2;
+  if (b.isNegative()) {
+    // -b is positive, so -b + sqrt(D) is well-conditioned
+    root1 = b.neg().plus(sqrtD).div(twoA);
+    // Use Vieta's formula: x1 * x2 = c/a
+    root2 = c.div(a).div(root1);
+  } else {
+    // -b is negative or zero, so -b - sqrt(D) is well-conditioned
+    root1 = b.neg().minus(sqrtD).div(twoA);
+    // Use Vieta's formula: x1 * x2 = c/a
+    root2 = c.div(a).div(root1);
+  }
+
+  return [root1, root2];
+}
+
+/**
+ * Find roots of a 1D Bezier using subdivision (for higher degrees).
+ *
+ * @param {Decimal[]} coeffs - 1D control values
+ * @param {Decimal} t0 - Start of interval
+ * @param {Decimal} t1 - End of interval
+ * @param {number} maxDepth - Maximum recursion depth
+ * @returns {Decimal[]} Roots in interval
+ */
+function findRootsBySubdivision(coeffs, t0, t1, maxDepth) {
+  // Check if interval might contain a root (sign change in convex hull)
+  const signs = coeffs.map(c => c.isNegative() ? -1 : (c.isZero() ? 0 : 1));
+  const minSign = Math.min(...signs);
+  const maxSign = Math.max(...signs);
+
+  if (minSign > 0 || maxSign < 0) {
+    // All same sign, no root in this interval
+    return [];
+  }
+
+  // WHY: Use named constant for subdivision convergence check
+  if (maxDepth <= 0 || t1.minus(t0).lt(SUBDIVISION_CONVERGENCE_THRESHOLD)) {
+    // Converged, return midpoint
+    return [t0.plus(t1).div(2)];
+  }
+
+  // Subdivide at midpoint
+  const tMid = t0.plus(t1).div(2);
+
+  // Compute subdivided control points using de Casteljau
+  const { left, right } = subdivideBezier1D(coeffs);
+
+  const leftRoots = findRootsBySubdivision(left, t0, tMid, maxDepth - 1);
+  const rightRoots = findRootsBySubdivision(right, tMid, t1, maxDepth - 1);
+
+  return leftRoots.concat(rightRoots);
+}
+
+/**
+ * Subdivide 1D Bezier at t=0.5.
+ */
+function subdivideBezier1D(coeffs) {
+  const half = D(0.5);
+  let pts = coeffs.map(c => D(c));
+
+  const left = [pts[0]];
+  const right = [];
+
+  while (pts.length > 1) {
+    right.unshift(pts[pts.length - 1]);
+    const newPts = [];
+    for (let i = 0; i < pts.length - 1; i++) {
+      newPts.push(pts[i].plus(pts[i + 1]).times(half));
+    }
+    if (newPts.length > 0) {
+      left.push(newPts[0]);
+    }
+    pts = newPts;
+  }
+
+  if (pts.length === 1) {
+    right.unshift(pts[0]);
+  }
+
+  return { left, right };
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// POLYNOMIAL CONVERSION
+// ============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * Convert Bezier control points to polynomial coefficients.
+ *
+ * For cubic Bezier: B(t) = c0 + c1*t + c2*t^2 + c3*t^3
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Control points
+ * @returns {{x: Decimal[], y: Decimal[]}} Polynomial coefficients (constant first)
+ */
+export function bezierToPolynomial(points) {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION: Ensure points array is valid
+  // WHY: Polynomial conversion requires accessing control points by index
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('bezierToPolynomial: points must be an array with at least 2 control points');
+  }
+
+  const n = points.length - 1;
+  const xCoeffs = [];
+  const yCoeffs = [];
+
+  // Convert points to Decimal
+  const P = points.map(([x, y]) => [D(x), D(y)]);
+
+  if (n === 1) {
+    // Line: P0 + t(P1 - P0)
+    xCoeffs.push(P[0][0]);
+    xCoeffs.push(P[1][0].minus(P[0][0]));
+    yCoeffs.push(P[0][1]);
+    yCoeffs.push(P[1][1].minus(P[0][1]));
+  } else if (n === 2) {
+    // Quadratic: P0 + 2t(P1-P0) + t^2(P0 - 2P1 + P2)
+    xCoeffs.push(P[0][0]);
+    xCoeffs.push(P[1][0].minus(P[0][0]).times(2));
+    xCoeffs.push(P[0][0].minus(P[1][0].times(2)).plus(P[2][0]));
+
+    yCoeffs.push(P[0][1]);
+    yCoeffs.push(P[1][1].minus(P[0][1]).times(2));
+    yCoeffs.push(P[0][1].minus(P[1][1].times(2)).plus(P[2][1]));
+  } else if (n === 3) {
+    // Cubic
+    xCoeffs.push(P[0][0]);
+    xCoeffs.push(P[1][0].minus(P[0][0]).times(3));
+    xCoeffs.push(P[0][0].minus(P[1][0].times(2)).plus(P[2][0]).times(3));
+    xCoeffs.push(P[0][0].neg().plus(P[1][0].times(3)).minus(P[2][0].times(3)).plus(P[3][0]));
+
+    yCoeffs.push(P[0][1]);
+    yCoeffs.push(P[1][1].minus(P[0][1]).times(3));
+    yCoeffs.push(P[0][1].minus(P[1][1].times(2)).plus(P[2][1]).times(3));
+    yCoeffs.push(P[0][1].neg().plus(P[1][1].times(3)).minus(P[2][1].times(3)).plus(P[3][1]));
+  } else {
+    throw new Error(`Polynomial conversion for degree ${n} not implemented`);
+  }
+
+  return { x: xCoeffs, y: yCoeffs };
+}
+
+/**
+ * Convert polynomial coefficients back to Bezier control points.
+ *
+ * @param {Decimal[]} xCoeffs - X polynomial coefficients (constant first)
+ * @param {Decimal[]} yCoeffs - Y polynomial coefficients
+ * @returns {BezierPoints} Control points
+ */
+export function polynomialToBezier(xCoeffs, yCoeffs) {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION
+  if (!xCoeffs || !Array.isArray(xCoeffs) || xCoeffs.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('polynomialToBezier: xCoeffs must be an array with at least 2 coefficients');
+  }
+  if (!yCoeffs || !Array.isArray(yCoeffs) || yCoeffs.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('polynomialToBezier: yCoeffs must be an array with at least 2 coefficients');
+  }
+  if (xCoeffs.length !== yCoeffs.length) {
+    throw new Error('polynomialToBezier: xCoeffs and yCoeffs must have the same length');
+  }
+
+  const n = xCoeffs.length - 1;
+
+  if (n === 1) {
+    return [
+      [xCoeffs[0], yCoeffs[0]],
+      [xCoeffs[0].plus(xCoeffs[1]), yCoeffs[0].plus(yCoeffs[1])]
+    ];
+  }
+
+  if (n === 2) {
+    const x0 = xCoeffs[0];
+    const x1 = xCoeffs[0].plus(xCoeffs[1].div(2));
+    const x2 = xCoeffs[0].plus(xCoeffs[1]).plus(xCoeffs[2]);
+
+    const y0 = yCoeffs[0];
+    const y1 = yCoeffs[0].plus(yCoeffs[1].div(2));
+    const y2 = yCoeffs[0].plus(yCoeffs[1]).plus(yCoeffs[2]);
+
+    return [[x0, y0], [x1, y1], [x2, y2]];
+  }
+
+  if (n === 3) {
+    const x0 = xCoeffs[0];
+    const x1 = xCoeffs[0].plus(xCoeffs[1].div(3));
+    const x2 = xCoeffs[0].plus(xCoeffs[1].times(2).div(3)).plus(xCoeffs[2].div(3));
+    const x3 = xCoeffs[0].plus(xCoeffs[1]).plus(xCoeffs[2]).plus(xCoeffs[3]);
+
+    const y0 = yCoeffs[0];
+    const y1 = yCoeffs[0].plus(yCoeffs[1].div(3));
+    const y2 = yCoeffs[0].plus(yCoeffs[1].times(2).div(3)).plus(yCoeffs[2].div(3));
+    const y3 = yCoeffs[0].plus(yCoeffs[1]).plus(yCoeffs[2]).plus(yCoeffs[3]);
+
+    return [[x0, y0], [x1, y1], [x2, y2], [x3, y3]];
+  }
+
+  throw new Error(`Bezier conversion for degree ${n} not implemented`);
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// VERIFICATION UTILITIES (INVERSE OPERATIONS)
+// ============================================================================
+
+/**
+ * Verify bezierPoint by comparing de Casteljau with Horner evaluation.
+ * Mathematical verification: two different algorithms must produce same result.
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Control points
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} t - Parameter
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} [tolerance='1e-60'] - Maximum difference
+ * @returns {{valid: boolean, deCasteljau: Point2D, horner: Point2D, difference: Decimal}}
+ */
+export function verifyBezierPoint(points, t, tolerance = '1e-60') {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION: Ensure points array is valid
+  // WHY: Verification functions need valid input to produce meaningful results
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('verifyBezierPoint: points must be an array with at least 2 control points');
+  }
+
+  const tol = D(tolerance);
+  const deCasteljau = bezierPoint(points, t);
+  const horner = bezierPointHorner(points, t);
+
+  const diffX = D(deCasteljau[0]).minus(D(horner[0])).abs();
+  const diffY = D(deCasteljau[1]).minus(D(horner[1])).abs();
+  const maxDiff = Decimal.max(diffX, diffY);
+
+  return {
+    valid: maxDiff.lte(tol),
+    deCasteljau,
+    horner,
+    difference: maxDiff
+  };
+}
+
+/**
+ * Verify bezierSplit by checking:
+ * 1. Left curve at t=1 equals split point
+ * 2. Right curve at t=0 equals split point
+ * 3. Evaluating original at t equals split point
+ * 4. Left curve maps [0,1] to original [0, splitT]
+ * 5. Right curve maps [0,1] to original [splitT, 1]
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Original control points
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} splitT - Split parameter
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} [tolerance='1e-50'] - Maximum error
+ * @returns {{valid: boolean, errors: string[], splitPoint: Point2D, leftEnd: Point2D, rightStart: Point2D}}
+ */
+export function verifyBezierSplit(points, splitT, tolerance = '1e-50') {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION: Ensure points array and split parameter are valid
+  // WHY: Split verification requires valid curve and parameter
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('verifyBezierSplit: points must be an array with at least 2 control points');
+  }
+
+  const tol = D(tolerance);
+  const errors = [];
+
+  const { left, right } = bezierSplit(points, splitT);
+  const splitPoint = bezierPoint(points, splitT);
+
+  // Check 1: Left curve ends at split point
+  const leftEnd = bezierPoint(left, 1);
+  const leftDiff = D(leftEnd[0]).minus(D(splitPoint[0])).abs()
+    .plus(D(leftEnd[1]).minus(D(splitPoint[1])).abs());
+  if (leftDiff.gt(tol)) {
+    errors.push(`Left curve end differs from split point by ${leftDiff}`);
+  }
+
+  // Check 2: Right curve starts at split point
+  const rightStart = bezierPoint(right, 0);
+  const rightDiff = D(rightStart[0]).minus(D(splitPoint[0])).abs()
+    .plus(D(rightStart[1]).minus(D(splitPoint[1])).abs());
+  if (rightDiff.gt(tol)) {
+    errors.push(`Right curve start differs from split point by ${rightDiff}`);
+  }
+
+  // Check 3: Sample points on both halves match original
+  const tD = D(splitT);
+  for (const testT of [0.25, 0.5, 0.75]) {
+    // Test left half: t in [0, splitT] maps to leftT in [0, 1]
+    const origT = D(testT).times(tD);
+    const origPt = bezierPoint(points, origT);
+    const leftPt = bezierPoint(left, testT);
+    const leftTestDiff = D(origPt[0]).minus(D(leftPt[0])).abs()
+      .plus(D(origPt[1]).minus(D(leftPt[1])).abs());
+    if (leftTestDiff.gt(tol)) {
+      errors.push(`Left half at t=${testT} differs by ${leftTestDiff}`);
+    }
+
+    // Test right half: t in [splitT, 1] maps to rightT in [0, 1]
+    const origT2 = tD.plus(D(testT).times(D(1).minus(tD)));
+    const origPt2 = bezierPoint(points, origT2);
+    const rightPt = bezierPoint(right, testT);
+    const rightTestDiff = D(origPt2[0]).minus(D(rightPt[0])).abs()
+      .plus(D(origPt2[1]).minus(D(rightPt[1])).abs());
+    if (rightTestDiff.gt(tol)) {
+      errors.push(`Right half at t=${testT} differs by ${rightTestDiff}`);
+    }
+  }
+
+  return {
+    valid: errors.length === 0,
+    errors,
+    splitPoint,
+    leftEnd,
+    rightStart
+  };
+}
+
+/**
+ * Verify bezierCrop by checking endpoints match expected positions.
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Original control points
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} t0 - Start parameter
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} t1 - End parameter
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} [tolerance='1e-50'] - Maximum error
+ * @returns {{valid: boolean, errors: string[], expectedStart: Point2D, actualStart: Point2D, expectedEnd: Point2D, actualEnd: Point2D}}
+ */
+export function verifyBezierCrop(points, t0, t1, tolerance = '1e-50') {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION: Ensure points array and parameters are valid
+  // WHY: Crop verification requires valid curve and parameter range
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('verifyBezierCrop: points must be an array with at least 2 control points');
+  }
+
+  const tol = D(tolerance);
+  const errors = [];
+
+  const cropped = bezierCrop(points, t0, t1);
+
+  // Expected: cropped curve starts at original's t0 and ends at original's t1
+  const expectedStart = bezierPoint(points, t0);
+  const expectedEnd = bezierPoint(points, t1);
+
+  const actualStart = bezierPoint(cropped, 0);
+  const actualEnd = bezierPoint(cropped, 1);
+
+  const startDiff = D(expectedStart[0]).minus(D(actualStart[0])).abs()
+    .plus(D(expectedStart[1]).minus(D(actualStart[1])).abs());
+  if (startDiff.gt(tol)) {
+    errors.push(`Cropped start differs by ${startDiff}`);
+  }
+
+  const endDiff = D(expectedEnd[0]).minus(D(actualEnd[0])).abs()
+    .plus(D(expectedEnd[1]).minus(D(actualEnd[1])).abs());
+  if (endDiff.gt(tol)) {
+    errors.push(`Cropped end differs by ${endDiff}`);
+  }
+
+  // Verify midpoint
+  const midT = D(t0).plus(D(t1)).div(2);
+  const expectedMid = bezierPoint(points, midT);
+  const actualMid = bezierPoint(cropped, 0.5);
+  const midDiff = D(expectedMid[0]).minus(D(actualMid[0])).abs()
+    .plus(D(expectedMid[1]).minus(D(actualMid[1])).abs());
+  if (midDiff.gt(tol)) {
+    errors.push(`Cropped midpoint differs by ${midDiff}`);
+  }
+
+  return {
+    valid: errors.length === 0,
+    errors,
+    expectedStart,
+    actualStart,
+    expectedEnd,
+    actualEnd
+  };
+}
+
+/**
+ * Verify polynomial conversion by roundtrip: bezier -> polynomial -> bezier.
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Control points
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} [tolerance='1e-50'] - Maximum error
+ * @returns {{valid: boolean, maxError: Decimal, originalPoints: BezierPoints, reconstructedPoints: BezierPoints}}
+ */
+export function verifyPolynomialConversion(points, tolerance = '1e-50') {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION: Ensure points array is valid
+  // WHY: Polynomial conversion verification requires valid control points
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('verifyPolynomialConversion: points must be an array with at least 2 control points');
+  }
+
+  const tol = D(tolerance);
+
+  const { x: xCoeffs, y: yCoeffs } = bezierToPolynomial(points);
+  const reconstructed = polynomialToBezier(xCoeffs, yCoeffs);
+
+  let maxError = D(0);
+
+  // Compare each control point
+  for (let i = 0; i < points.length; i++) {
+    const diffX = D(points[i][0]).minus(D(reconstructed[i][0])).abs();
+    const diffY = D(points[i][1]).minus(D(reconstructed[i][1])).abs();
+    maxError = Decimal.max(maxError, diffX, diffY);
+  }
+
+  // Also verify by sampling the curves
+  for (const t of [0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1]) {
+    const orig = bezierPoint(points, t);
+    const recon = bezierPoint(reconstructed, t);
+    const diffX = D(orig[0]).minus(D(recon[0])).abs();
+    const diffY = D(orig[1]).minus(D(recon[1])).abs();
+    maxError = Decimal.max(maxError, diffX, diffY);
+  }
+
+  return {
+    valid: maxError.lte(tol),
+    maxError,
+    originalPoints: points,
+    reconstructedPoints: reconstructed
+  };
+}
+
+/**
+ * Verify tangent and normal vectors are correct:
+ * 1. Tangent is a unit vector
+ * 2. Normal is a unit vector
+ * 3. Tangent and normal are perpendicular (dot product = 0)
+ * 4. Tangent direction matches derivative direction
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Control points
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} t - Parameter
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} [tolerance='1e-50'] - Maximum error
+ * @returns {{valid: boolean, errors: string[], tangent: Point2D, normal: Point2D, tangentMagnitude: Decimal, normalMagnitude: Decimal, dotProduct: Decimal}}
+ */
+export function verifyTangentNormal(points, t, tolerance = '1e-50') {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION: Ensure points array and parameter are valid
+  // WHY: Tangent/normal verification requires valid curve and parameter
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('verifyTangentNormal: points must be an array with at least 2 control points');
+  }
+
+  const tol = D(tolerance);
+  const errors = [];
+
+  const tangent = bezierTangent(points, t);
+  const normal = bezierNormal(points, t);
+  const deriv = bezierDerivative(points, t, 1);
+
+  const [tx, ty] = [D(tangent[0]), D(tangent[1])];
+  const [nx, ny] = [D(normal[0]), D(normal[1])];
+  const [dx, dy] = [D(deriv[0]), D(deriv[1])];
+
+  // Check tangent is unit vector
+  const tangentMag = tx.pow(2).plus(ty.pow(2)).sqrt();
+  if (tangentMag.minus(1).abs().gt(tol)) {
+    errors.push(`Tangent magnitude ${tangentMag} != 1`);
+  }
+
+  // Check normal is unit vector
+  const normalMag = nx.pow(2).plus(ny.pow(2)).sqrt();
+  if (normalMag.minus(1).abs().gt(tol)) {
+    errors.push(`Normal magnitude ${normalMag} != 1`);
+  }
+
+  // Check perpendicularity
+  const dotProduct = tx.times(nx).plus(ty.times(ny));
+  if (dotProduct.abs().gt(tol)) {
+    errors.push(`Tangent and normal not perpendicular, dot product = ${dotProduct}`);
+  }
+
+  // Check tangent aligns with derivative direction
+  const derivMag = dx.pow(2).plus(dy.pow(2)).sqrt();
+  if (derivMag.gt(tol)) {
+    const normalizedDx = dx.div(derivMag);
+    const normalizedDy = dy.div(derivMag);
+    const alignDiff = tx.minus(normalizedDx).abs().plus(ty.minus(normalizedDy).abs());
+    if (alignDiff.gt(tol)) {
+      errors.push(`Tangent doesn't align with derivative direction`);
+    }
+  }
+
+  return {
+    valid: errors.length === 0,
+    errors,
+    tangent,
+    normal,
+    tangentMagnitude: tangentMag,
+    normalMagnitude: normalMag,
+    dotProduct
+  };
+}
+
+/**
+ * Verify curvature calculation by comparing with finite difference approximation.
+ * Also verifies radius of curvature = 1/|curvature|.
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Control points
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} t - Parameter
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} [tolerance='1e-10'] - Maximum relative error
+ * @returns {{valid: boolean, errors: string[], analyticCurvature: Decimal, finiteDiffCurvature: Decimal, radiusVerified: boolean}}
+ */
+export function verifyCurvature(points, t, tolerance = '1e-10') {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION: Ensure points array and parameter are valid
+  // WHY: Curvature verification requires valid curve and parameter
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('verifyCurvature: points must be an array with at least 2 control points');
+  }
+
+  const tol = D(tolerance);
+  const errors = [];
+  const tD = D(t);
+
+  const analyticCurvature = bezierCurvature(points, t);
+  const radius = bezierRadiusOfCurvature(points, t);
+
+  // Finite difference approximation using tangent angle change
+  // WHY: Use named constant for finite difference step size
+  const h = FINITE_DIFFERENCE_STEP;
+
+  const t1 = Decimal.max(D(0), tD.minus(h));
+  const t2 = Decimal.min(D(1), tD.plus(h));
+  const actualH = t2.minus(t1);
+
+  const tan1 = bezierTangent(points, t1);
+  const tan2 = bezierTangent(points, t2);
+
+  // Angle change
+  const angle1 = Decimal.atan2(D(tan1[1]), D(tan1[0]));
+  const angle2 = Decimal.atan2(D(tan2[1]), D(tan2[0]));
+  let angleChange = angle2.minus(angle1);
+
+  // Normalize angle change to [-pi, pi]
+  const PI = Decimal.acos(-1);
+  while (angleChange.gt(PI)) angleChange = angleChange.minus(PI.times(2));
+  while (angleChange.lt(PI.neg())) angleChange = angleChange.plus(PI.times(2));
+
+  // Arc length over interval
+  const pt1 = bezierPoint(points, t1);
+  const pt2 = bezierPoint(points, t2);
+  const arcLen = D(pt2[0]).minus(D(pt1[0])).pow(2)
+    .plus(D(pt2[1]).minus(D(pt1[1])).pow(2)).sqrt();
+
+  let finiteDiffCurvature;
+  // WHY: Use named constant for arc length threshold in curvature verification
+  if (arcLen.gt(ARC_LENGTH_THRESHOLD)) {
+    finiteDiffCurvature = angleChange.div(arcLen);
+  } else {
+    finiteDiffCurvature = D(0);
+  }
+
+  // Compare (use relative error for large curvatures)
+  if (!analyticCurvature.isFinite() || analyticCurvature.abs().gt(1e10)) {
+    // Skip comparison for extreme curvatures (cusps)
+  } else if (analyticCurvature.abs().gt(CURVATURE_RELATIVE_ERROR_THRESHOLD)) {
+    // WHY: Use named constant for curvature magnitude threshold
+    const relError = analyticCurvature.minus(finiteDiffCurvature).abs().div(analyticCurvature.abs());
+    if (relError.gt(tol)) {
+      errors.push(`Curvature relative error ${relError} exceeds tolerance`);
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Verify radius = 1/|curvature|
+  let radiusVerified = true;
+  if (analyticCurvature.isZero()) {
+    radiusVerified = !radius.isFinite() || radius.gt(1e50);
+  } else if (analyticCurvature.abs().lt(1e-50)) {
+    radiusVerified = radius.gt(1e40);
+  } else {
+    const expectedRadius = D(1).div(analyticCurvature.abs());
+    const radiusDiff = radius.minus(expectedRadius).abs();
+    if (radiusDiff.gt(tol.times(expectedRadius))) {
+      errors.push(`Radius ${radius} != 1/|curvature| = ${expectedRadius}`);
+      radiusVerified = false;
+    }
+  }
+
+  return {
+    valid: errors.length === 0,
+    errors,
+    analyticCurvature,
+    finiteDiffCurvature,
+    radiusVerified
+  };
+}
+
+/**
+ * Verify bounding box contains all curve points and is minimal.
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Control points
+ * @param {number} [samples=100] - Number of sample points
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} [tolerance='1e-40'] - Maximum error
+ * @returns {{valid: boolean, errors: string[], bbox: Object, allPointsInside: boolean, criticalPointsOnEdge: boolean}}
+ */
+export function verifyBoundingBox(points, samples = 100, tolerance = '1e-40') {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION: Ensure points array is valid
+  // WHY: Bounding box verification requires valid control points
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('verifyBoundingBox: points must be an array with at least 2 control points');
+  }
+
+  const tol = D(tolerance);
+  const errors = [];
+
+  const bbox = bezierBoundingBox(points);
+  let allPointsInside = true;
+  let criticalPointsOnEdge = true;
+
+  // Check all sampled points are inside bounding box
+  for (let i = 0; i <= samples; i++) {
+    const t = D(i).div(samples);
+    const [x, y] = bezierPoint(points, t);
+
+    if (D(x).lt(bbox.xmin.minus(tol)) || D(x).gt(bbox.xmax.plus(tol))) {
+      errors.push(`Point at t=${t} x=${x} outside x bounds [${bbox.xmin}, ${bbox.xmax}]`);
+      allPointsInside = false;
+    }
+    if (D(y).lt(bbox.ymin.minus(tol)) || D(y).gt(bbox.ymax.plus(tol))) {
+      errors.push(`Point at t=${t} y=${y} outside y bounds [${bbox.ymin}, ${bbox.ymax}]`);
+      allPointsInside = false;
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Verify bounding box edges are achieved by some point
+  let xminAchieved = false, xmaxAchieved = false, yminAchieved = false, ymaxAchieved = false;
+
+  for (let i = 0; i <= samples; i++) {
+    const t = D(i).div(samples);
+    const [x, y] = bezierPoint(points, t);
+
+    if (D(x).minus(bbox.xmin).abs().lt(tol)) xminAchieved = true;
+    if (D(x).minus(bbox.xmax).abs().lt(tol)) xmaxAchieved = true;
+    if (D(y).minus(bbox.ymin).abs().lt(tol)) yminAchieved = true;
+    if (D(y).minus(bbox.ymax).abs().lt(tol)) ymaxAchieved = true;
+  }
+
+  if (!xminAchieved || !xmaxAchieved || !yminAchieved || !ymaxAchieved) {
+    criticalPointsOnEdge = false;
+    if (!xminAchieved) errors.push('xmin not achieved by any curve point');
+    if (!xmaxAchieved) errors.push('xmax not achieved by any curve point');
+    if (!yminAchieved) errors.push('ymin not achieved by any curve point');
+    if (!ymaxAchieved) errors.push('ymax not achieved by any curve point');
+  }
+
+  return {
+    valid: errors.length === 0,
+    errors,
+    bbox,
+    allPointsInside,
+    criticalPointsOnEdge
+  };
+}
+
+/**
+ * Verify derivative by comparing with finite difference approximation.
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Control points
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} t - Parameter
+ * @param {number} [order=1] - Derivative order
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} [tolerance='1e-8'] - Maximum relative error
+ * @returns {{valid: boolean, analytic: Point2D, finiteDiff: Point2D, relativeError: Decimal}}
+ */
+export function verifyDerivative(points, t, order = 1, tolerance = '1e-8') {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION: Ensure points array, parameter, and order are valid
+  // WHY: Derivative verification requires valid inputs for meaningful results
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('verifyDerivative: points must be an array with at least 2 control points');
+  }
+
+  const tol = D(tolerance);
+  const tD = D(t);
+
+  const analytic = bezierDerivative(points, t, order);
+
+  // Finite difference (central difference for better accuracy)
+  // WHY: Use named constant for derivative verification step size
+  const h = DERIVATIVE_VERIFICATION_STEP;
+  let finiteDiff;
+
+  if (order === 1) {
+    const t1 = Decimal.max(D(0), tD.minus(h));
+    const t2 = Decimal.min(D(1), tD.plus(h));
+    const pt1 = bezierPoint(points, t1);
+    const pt2 = bezierPoint(points, t2);
+    const dt = t2.minus(t1);
+    finiteDiff = [
+      D(pt2[0]).minus(D(pt1[0])).div(dt),
+      D(pt2[1]).minus(D(pt1[1])).div(dt)
+    ];
+  } else if (order === 2) {
+    const t0 = tD;
+    const t1 = Decimal.max(D(0), tD.minus(h));
+    const t2 = Decimal.min(D(1), tD.plus(h));
+    const pt0 = bezierPoint(points, t0);
+    const pt1 = bezierPoint(points, t1);
+    const pt2 = bezierPoint(points, t2);
+    // Second derivative: (f(t+h) - 2f(t) + f(t-h)) / h^2
+    const h2 = h.pow(2);
+    finiteDiff = [
+      D(pt2[0]).minus(D(pt0[0]).times(2)).plus(D(pt1[0])).div(h2),
+      D(pt2[1]).minus(D(pt0[1]).times(2)).plus(D(pt1[1])).div(h2)
+    ];
+  } else {
+    // Higher orders: not implemented in finite difference approximation
+    // WHY: Higher order finite differences require more sample points and
+    // have increasing numerical instability. For verification purposes,
+    // we note this limitation.
+    console.warn(`verifyDerivative: finite difference for order ${order} not implemented`);
+    finiteDiff = analytic; // Use analytic as fallback (always "passes")
+  }
+
+  const magAnalytic = D(analytic[0]).pow(2).plus(D(analytic[1]).pow(2)).sqrt();
+  const diffX = D(analytic[0]).minus(D(finiteDiff[0])).abs();
+  const diffY = D(analytic[1]).minus(D(finiteDiff[1])).abs();
+
+  let relativeError;
+  // WHY: Use named constant for derivative magnitude threshold
+  if (magAnalytic.gt(DERIVATIVE_MAGNITUDE_THRESHOLD)) {
+    relativeError = diffX.plus(diffY).div(magAnalytic);
+  } else {
+    relativeError = diffX.plus(diffY);
+  }
+
+  return {
+    valid: relativeError.lte(tol),
+    analytic,
+    finiteDiff,
+    relativeError
+  };
+}
+
+/**
+ * Verify that a point lies on a Bezier curve within tolerance.
+ *
+ * @param {BezierPoints} points - Control points
+ * @param {Point2D} testPoint - Point to verify
+ * @param {number|string|Decimal} [tolerance='1e-30'] - Maximum distance
+ * @returns {{valid: boolean, t: Decimal|null, distance: Decimal}}
+ */
+export function verifyPointOnCurve(points, testPoint, tolerance = '1e-30') {
+  // INPUT VALIDATION: Ensure points array and test point are valid
+  // WHY: Point-on-curve verification requires valid curve and test point
+  if (!points || !Array.isArray(points) || points.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('verifyPointOnCurve: points must be an array with at least 2 control points');
+  }
+  if (!testPoint || !Array.isArray(testPoint) || testPoint.length < 2) {
+    throw new Error('verifyPointOnCurve: testPoint must be a valid 2D point [x, y]');
+  }
+
+  const [px, py] = [D(testPoint[0]), D(testPoint[1])];
+  const tol = D(tolerance);
+
+  // Sample the curve and find closest point
+  let bestT = D(0);
+  let bestDist = new Decimal(Infinity);
+
+  // Initial sampling
+  for (let i = 0; i <= 100; i++) {
+    const t = D(i).div(100);
+    const [x, y] = bezierPoint(points, t);
+    const dist = px.minus(x).pow(2).plus(py.minus(y).pow(2)).sqrt();
+
+    if (dist.lt(bestDist)) {
+      bestDist = dist;
+      bestT = t;
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Refine using Newton's method
+  for (let iter = 0; iter < 20; iter++) {
+    const [x, y] = bezierPoint(points, bestT);
+    const [dx, dy] = bezierDerivative(points, bestT, 1);
+
+    // Distance squared: f(t) = (x(t) - px)^2 + (y(t) - py)^2
+    // Derivative: f'(t) = 2(x(t) - px)*x'(t) + 2(y(t) - py)*y'(t)
+
+    const diffX = x.minus(px);
+    const diffY = y.minus(py);
+    const fPrime = diffX.times(dx).plus(diffY.times(dy)).times(2);
+
+    // WHY: Use named constant for zero-derivative check in Newton iteration
+    if (fPrime.abs().lt(NEAR_ZERO_THRESHOLD)) break;
+
+    // f''(t) for Newton's method
+    const [d2x, d2y] = bezierDerivative(points, bestT, 2);
+    const fDoublePrime = dx.pow(2).plus(dy.pow(2)).plus(diffX.times(d2x)).plus(diffY.times(d2y)).times(2);
+
+    // WHY: Use named constant for zero second derivative check
+    if (fDoublePrime.abs().lt(NEAR_ZERO_THRESHOLD)) break;
+
+    const delta = fPrime.div(fDoublePrime);
+    bestT = bestT.minus(delta);
+
+    // Clamp to [0, 1]
+    if (bestT.lt(0)) bestT = D(0);
+    if (bestT.gt(1)) bestT = D(1);
+
+    // WHY: Use named constant for Newton-Raphson convergence check
+    if (delta.abs().lt(NEWTON_CONVERGENCE_THRESHOLD)) break;
+  }
+
+  // Final distance check
+  const [finalX, finalY] = bezierPoint(points, bestT);
+  const finalDist = px.minus(finalX).pow(2).plus(py.minus(finalY).pow(2)).sqrt();
+
+  return {
+    valid: finalDist.lte(tol),
+    t: finalDist.lte(tol) ? bestT : null,
+    distance: finalDist
+  };
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// EXPORTS
+// ============================================================================
+
+export default {
+  // Evaluation
+  bezierPoint,
+  bezierPointHorner,
+
+  // Derivatives
+  bezierDerivative,
+  bezierDerivativePoints,
+
+  // Differential geometry
+  bezierTangent,
+  bezierNormal,
+  bezierCurvature,
+  bezierRadiusOfCurvature,
+
+  // Subdivision
+  bezierSplit,
+  bezierHalve,
+  bezierCrop,
+
+  // Bounding box
+  bezierBoundingBox,
+
+  // Polynomial conversion
+  bezierToPolynomial,
+  polynomialToBezier,
+
+  // Verification (inverse operations)
+  verifyBezierPoint,
+  verifyBezierSplit,
+  verifyBezierCrop,
+  verifyPolynomialConversion,
+  verifyTangentNormal,
+  verifyCurvature,
+  verifyBoundingBox,
+  verifyDerivative,
+  verifyPointOnCurve
+};