@effect/sql-pg 4.0.0-rc.111 → 4.0.0-rc.112

package/src/PgProtocol.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,1820 @@
+/**
+ * Wire codec for the PostgreSQL frontend/backend protocol, version 3.0.
+ *
+ * The module encodes frontend messages and decodes backend messages. Every
+ * function is pure: bytes in, bytes or plain data out. Nothing here opens a
+ * socket, negotiates TLS, or tracks session state, and nothing here decodes
+ * column values - `DataRow` fields stay raw bytes for `PgTypes` to interpret.
+ *
+ * Typed messages are a type byte, an `int32` length that counts itself but not
+ * the type byte, and a payload. Integers are big-endian and strings are
+ * NUL-terminated UTF-8 unless they are explicitly length-prefixed.
+ *
+ * Encoded frames and decoded byte fields are views into pooled buffers that
+ * are written once and never rewritten. They stay valid for as long as they
+ * are held, but holding one keeps its whole pool buffer alive, so copy
+ * anything that has to outlive the message it came from.
+ *
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+import * as Data from "effect/Data"
+import * as Result from "effect/Result"
+
+/**
+ * Default `maxMessageSize` for `makeParser`: 16 MiB.
+ *
+ * @category constants
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export const defaultMaxMessageSize = 16 * 1024 * 1024
+
+/** Where a parser stops growing its buffer pool. */
+const maxBufferSize = 64 * 1024
+
+/**
+ * An incremental decoder for the post-startup backend message stream.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface Parser<A = Uint8Array | null> {
+  /**
+   * Reads each `DataRow` field, for a parser built with one. A result's
+   * columns are only known from its `RowDescription`, which arrives on the
+   * same stream, so this is settable: replace it when the columns change.
+   */
+  readField: FieldReader<A> | undefined
+
+  /**
+   * Feeds the next chunk of socket bytes and returns every message that is now
+   * complete. A partial trailing message is retained until the bytes that
+   * finish it arrive. A thrown parse or field-reader error is terminal and the
+   * parser cannot be reused afterward; any messages decoded earlier in the
+   * failing push are discarded.
+   *
+   * Byte fields on the returned messages - `DataRow` values, `CopyData` and
+   * `Unknown` payloads - are views into an internal buffer that the parser
+   * never rewrites, so they stay valid for as long as they are held. They are
+   * meant to be consumed before the next `push`: holding one keeps its whole
+   * buffer alive, so copy it if it has to outlive the row.
+   */
+  readonly push: (chunk: Uint8Array) => ReadonlyArray<BackendMessage<A>>
+}
+
+/**
+ * Creates a `Parser`.
+ *
+ * Special pre-startup replies have no type byte and are not handled here; use
+ * `decodeSslResponse` for those.
+ *
+ * @category constructors
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export const makeParser = <A = Uint8Array | null>(options?: {
+  readonly maxMessageSize?: number | undefined
+  /**
+   * Reads each `DataRow` field as it is parsed, so a client that decodes its
+   * columns never needs a view per column. Without one every field is handed
+   * out as a view, which is the default.
+   */
+  readonly readField?: FieldReader<A> | undefined
+}): Parser<A> => {
+  const maxMessageSize = options?.maxMessageSize ?? defaultMaxMessageSize
+  const reader = new Reader()
+  let bufferSize = 8192
+  let buffer = new Uint8Array(bufferSize)
+  let store = buffer.buffer
+  let start = 0
+  let end = 0
+  let failed = false
+
+  // Bytes already handed to the caller are never overwritten, so a full buffer
+  // is replaced rather than compacted in place. That lets `DataRow` fields be
+  // views instead of copies, which is the difference between one allocation per
+  // buffer and one per column.
+  //
+  // Every refill therefore allocates, so the pool doubles up to
+  // `maxBufferSize`: a busy connection spreads the allocation over more
+  // messages while a low-volume one stays small. A single oversized message
+  // grows its buffer beyond the pool without raising the pool itself.
+  const append = (chunk: Uint8Array): void => {
+    if (end + chunk.length > buffer.length) {
+      const pending = end - start
+      if (bufferSize < maxBufferSize) bufferSize *= 2
+      let capacity = bufferSize
+      while (capacity < pending + chunk.length) capacity *= 2
+      const next = new Uint8Array(capacity)
+      next.set(buffer.subarray(start, end))
+      buffer = next
+      store = next.buffer
+      start = 0
+      end = pending
+    }
+    buffer.set(chunk, end)
+    end += chunk.length
+  }
+
+  return {
+    readField: options?.readField,
+    push(chunk) {
+      if (failed) {
+        throw new ParseError({ message: "Parser cannot be reused after a failure" })
+      }
+      try {
+        append(chunk)
+        const messages: Array<BackendMessage<A>> = []
+        while (end - start >= 5) {
+          const length = (buffer[start + 1] << 24) | (buffer[start + 2] << 16) | (buffer[start + 3] << 8) |
+            buffer[start + 4]
+          if (length < 4) {
+            throw new ParseError({ message: `Invalid message length: ${length}` })
+          }
+          if (length > maxMessageSize) {
+            throw new ParseError({
+              message: `Message length ${length} exceeds maxMessageSize ${maxMessageSize}`
+            })
+          }
+          if (end - start < length + 1) break
+          const type = buffer[start]
+          const body = start + 5
+          const limit = start + 1 + length
+          start = limit
+          if (type === BackendType.DataRow) {
+            // `buffer` always starts at byte 0 of `store`, so offsets index both.
+            messages.push(decodeDataRow<A>(buffer, store, 0, body, limit, this.readField))
+          } else {
+            reader.reset(buffer, body, limit)
+            const message = decodeBackend(type, reader)
+            if (reader.offset !== limit) {
+              throw new ParseError({ message: `Message has ${limit - reader.offset} trailing byte(s)` })
+            }
+            messages.push(message as BackendMessage<A>)
+          }
+        }
+        return messages
+      } catch (error) {
+        failed = true
+        throw error
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+// -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// frontend messages
+// -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+/**
+ * Prepares a named or unnamed statement.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface Parse {
+  readonly _tag: "Parse"
+  readonly name: string
+  readonly query: string
+  readonly parameterTypes: ReadonlyArray<number>
+}
+
+/**
+ * Binds parameter values to a prepared statement, creating a portal.
+ *
+ * Parameters and results always use the binary format code.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface Bind {
+  readonly _tag: "Bind"
+  readonly portal: string
+  readonly statement: string
+  readonly parameters: ReadonlyArray<Uint8Array | null>
+}
+
+/**
+ * Runs a portal, optionally limiting the number of rows returned.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface Execute {
+  readonly _tag: "Execute"
+  readonly portal: string
+  readonly maxRows: number
+}
+
+/**
+ * Which kind of object a `Describe` or `Close` message names.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export type DescribeTarget = "statement" | "portal"
+
+/**
+ * Asks for the parameter and row shape of a statement or portal.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface Describe {
+  readonly _tag: "Describe"
+  readonly target: DescribeTarget
+  readonly name: string
+}
+
+/**
+ * Drops a prepared statement or portal.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface Close {
+  readonly _tag: "Close"
+  readonly target: DescribeTarget
+  readonly name: string
+}
+
+/**
+ * Closes the current transaction block and requests a `ReadyForQuery`.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface Sync {
+  readonly _tag: "Sync"
+}
+
+/**
+ * Asks the backend to deliver buffered output without ending the transaction.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface Flush {
+  readonly _tag: "Flush"
+}
+
+/**
+ * Ends the session.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface Terminate {
+  readonly _tag: "Terminate"
+}
+
+/**
+ * Answers a cleartext or MD5 password request.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface PasswordMessage {
+  readonly _tag: "PasswordMessage"
+  readonly password: string
+}
+
+/**
+ * Selects a SASL mechanism and carries its opaque initial response.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface SASLInitialResponse {
+  readonly _tag: "SASLInitialResponse"
+  readonly mechanism: string
+  readonly initialResponse: Uint8Array | null
+}
+
+/**
+ * Carries an opaque SASL continuation payload.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface SASLResponse {
+  readonly _tag: "SASLResponse"
+  readonly data: Uint8Array
+}
+
+/**
+ * Any message the client sends after startup.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export type FrontendMessage =
+  | Parse
+  | Bind
+  | Execute
+  | Describe
+  | Close
+  | Sync
+  | Flush
+  | Terminate
+  | PasswordMessage
+  | SASLInitialResponse
+  | SASLResponse
+
+/**
+ * Error produced when bytes cannot be interpreted as a protocol message.
+ *
+ * @category errors
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export class ParseError extends Data.TaggedError("PgProtocolParseError")<{
+  readonly message: string
+}> {}
+
+/**
+ * Error returned when a frontend message cannot be encoded.
+ *
+ * @category errors
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export class EncodeError extends Data.TaggedError("PgProtocolEncodeError")<{
+  readonly message: string
+}> {}
+
+const textEncoder = new TextEncoder()
+const textDecoder = new TextDecoder("utf-8", { fatal: true })
+
+/**
+ * Above this length `TextEncoder.encodeInto` beats a per-character loop, below
+ * it the call overhead dominates. Measured on V8: the loop runs at about a
+ * nanosecond per character and `encodeInto` costs about 50 ns whatever the
+ * length, so the crossover is around 50 characters.
+ */
+const asciiEncodeLimit = 48
+
+/**
+ * A view over part of a cached backing store. Slicing runs once per column of
+ * every row, and both obvious spellings are slower than this one: `subarray`
+ * consults the constructor's `Symbol.species` before it can allocate, and
+ * reading `.buffer` off a typed array is an accessor call rather than a field
+ * load. Callers hold the store and the array's byte offset instead.
+ */
+const view = (store: ArrayBufferLike, offset: number, length: number): Uint8Array =>
+  new Uint8Array(store, offset, length)
+
+/** Up to this many bytes a copy loop beats `Uint8Array.prototype.set`. */
+const smallCopyLimit = 8
+
+/**
+ * Writes messages back to back into a pooled buffer and hands out a view of
+ * each one, so encoding a message costs no allocation of its own. Bytes below
+ * `start` have already been handed out and are never rewritten; when the pool
+ * runs out it is replaced rather than reused.
+ */
+class Writer {
+  readonly poolSize: number
+  bytes: Uint8Array
+  view: DataView
+  /** Where the message currently being written begins. */
+  start = 0
+  offset = 0
+  /** Set by `sqlNull`, read and cleared by the `makeBindEncoder` loop. */
+  isNull = false
+
+  constructor(poolSize: number) {
+    this.poolSize = poolSize
+    this.bytes = new Uint8Array(poolSize)
+    this.view = new DataView(this.bytes.buffer)
+  }
+
+  reserve(size: number): void {
+    if (this.offset + size <= this.bytes.length) return
+    const pending = this.offset - this.start
+    let capacity = this.poolSize
+    while (capacity < pending + size) capacity *= 2
+    const next = new Uint8Array(capacity)
+    next.set(this.bytes.subarray(this.start, this.offset))
+    this.bytes = next
+    this.view = new DataView(next.buffer)
+    this.start = 0
+    this.offset = pending
+  }
+
+  /** Starts a message, dropping anything a failed write left behind. */
+  begin(): void {
+    this.start = this.offset
+  }
+
+  uint8(value: number): void {
+    this.reserve(1)
+    this.bytes[this.offset++] = value
+  }
+
+  int16(value: number): void {
+    this.reserve(2)
+    const bytes = this.bytes
+    const offset = this.offset
+    bytes[offset] = value >>> 8
+    bytes[offset + 1] = value
+    this.offset = offset + 2
+  }
+
+  int32(value: number): void {
+    this.reserve(4)
+    this.setInt32(this.offset, value)
+    this.offset += 4
+  }
+
+  setInt32(offset: number, value: number): void {
+    const bytes = this.bytes
+    bytes[offset] = value >>> 24
+    bytes[offset + 1] = value >>> 16
+    bytes[offset + 2] = value >>> 8
+    bytes[offset + 3] = value
+  }
+
+  float32(value: number): void {
+    this.reserve(4)
+    this.view.setFloat32(this.offset, value)
+    this.offset += 4
+  }
+
+  float64(value: number): void {
+    this.reserve(8)
+    this.view.setFloat64(this.offset, value)
+    this.offset += 8
+  }
+
+  bigInt64(value: bigint): void {
+    this.reserve(8)
+    this.view.setBigInt64(this.offset, value)
+    this.offset += 8
+  }
+
+  raw(value: Uint8Array): void {
+    const length = value.length
+    this.reserve(length)
+    const bytes = this.bytes
+    const offset = this.offset
+    if (length <= smallCopyLimit) {
+      for (let index = 0; index < length; index++) bytes[offset + index] = value[index]
+    } else {
+      bytes.set(value, offset)
+    }
+    this.offset = offset + length
+  }
+
+  sqlNull(): void {
+    this.isNull = true
+  }
+
+  beginLength(): number {
+    // Relative to `start`, because a later write may move the message to a new
+    // pool buffer, which rebases `start` and `offset` but not the distance
+    // between them.
+    const token = this.offset - this.start
+    this.int32(0)
+    return token
+  }
+
+  endLength(token: number): void {
+    this.setInt32(this.start + token, this.offset - this.start - token - 4)
+  }
+
+  utf8(value: string, nul = false): void {
+    const length = value.length
+    if (length <= asciiEncodeLimit) {
+      this.reserve(length + (nul ? 1 : 0))
+      const bytes = this.bytes
+      const start = this.offset
+      let i = 0
+      for (; i < length; i++) {
+        const code = value.charCodeAt(i)
+        if (code > 0x7f) break
+        bytes[start + i] = code
+      }
+      if (i === length) {
+        const offset = start + length
+        if (nul) bytes[offset] = 0
+        this.offset = offset + (nul ? 1 : 0)
+        return
+      }
+    }
+    // UTF-8 takes at most three bytes per UTF-16 code unit, and four for the
+    // two units of a surrogate pair, so this covers any string.
+    this.reserve(length * 3 + (nul ? 1 : 0))
+    this.offset += textEncoder.encodeInto(value, this.bytes.subarray(this.offset)).written
+    if (nul) this.bytes[this.offset++] = 0
+  }
+
+  cString(value: string): void {
+    this.utf8(value, true)
+  }
+
+  finish(): Uint8Array {
+    const value = view(this.bytes.buffer, this.bytes.byteOffset + this.start, this.offset - this.start)
+    if (this.bytes.length > this.poolSize) {
+      // An oversized message grew the pool; do not keep the rest of it around.
+      this.bytes = new Uint8Array(this.poolSize)
+      this.view = new DataView(this.bytes.buffer)
+      this.start = 0
+      this.offset = 0
+    } else {
+      this.start = this.offset
+    }
+    return value
+  }
+}
+
+const emptyBytes = new Uint8Array(0)
+
+/**
+ * A cursor over a message payload. The parser reuses one instance pointed at a
+ * window of its own buffer, so decoding a message allocates nothing beyond the
+ * message itself.
+ */
+class Reader {
+  bytes: Uint8Array = emptyBytes
+  /** The backing store of `bytes` and its offset into it, resolved per message. */
+  store: ArrayBufferLike = emptyBytes.buffer
+  base = 0
+  offset = 0
+  limit = 0
+
+  reset(bytes: Uint8Array, offset: number, limit: number): void {
+    this.bytes = bytes
+    this.store = bytes.buffer
+    this.base = bytes.byteOffset
+    this.offset = offset
+    this.limit = limit
+  }
+
+  require(size: number): void {
+    if (size < 0) {
+      throw new ParseError({ message: `Invalid read of ${size} byte(s)` })
+    }
+    if (this.offset + size > this.limit) {
+      throw new ParseError({ message: `Truncated message: expected ${size} more byte(s)` })
+    }
+  }
+
+  uint8(): number {
+    this.require(1)
+    return this.bytes[this.offset++]
+  }
+
+  int16(): number {
+    this.require(2)
+    const bytes = this.bytes
+    const offset = this.offset
+    this.offset = offset + 2
+    return ((bytes[offset] << 8) | bytes[offset + 1]) << 16 >> 16
+  }
+
+  int32(): number {
+    this.require(4)
+    const bytes = this.bytes
+    const offset = this.offset
+    this.offset = offset + 4
+    return (bytes[offset] << 24) | (bytes[offset + 1] << 16) | (bytes[offset + 2] << 8) | bytes[offset + 3]
+  }
+
+  uint32(): number {
+    return this.int32() >>> 0
+  }
+
+  raw(size: number): Uint8Array {
+    this.require(size)
+    const value = view(this.store, this.base + this.offset, size)
+    this.offset += size
+    return value
+  }
+
+  rest(): Uint8Array {
+    return this.raw(this.limit - this.offset)
+  }
+
+  cString(): string {
+    const end = this.bytes.indexOf(0, this.offset)
+    if (end === -1 || end >= this.limit) {
+      throw new ParseError({ message: "Unterminated string" })
+    }
+    const value = decodeUtf8(this.bytes, this.offset, end - this.offset)
+    this.offset = end + 1
+    return value
+  }
+}
+
+/** Below this length a per-character loop beats `TextDecoder.decode`. */
+const asciiDecodeLimit = 10
+
+/**
+ * Node's own UTF-8 decoder; see the note on its `PgTypes` counterpart. A
+ * result containing a replacement character goes to the strict decoder, so
+ * invalid bytes still fail exactly as they did.
+ */
+const utf8Slice: ((this: Uint8Array, start: number, end: number) => string) | undefined = (globalThis as any).Buffer
+  ?.prototype?.utf8Slice
+
+const decodeUtf8 = (bytes: Uint8Array, offset: number, size: number): string => {
+  if (size <= asciiDecodeLimit) {
+    let text = ""
+    let index = 0
+    for (; index < size; index++) {
+      const code = bytes[offset + index]
+      if (code > 0x7f) break
+      text += String.fromCharCode(code)
+    }
+    if (index === size) return text
+  }
+  if (utf8Slice !== undefined) {
+    const text = utf8Slice.call(bytes, offset, offset + size)
+    if (text.indexOf("\ufffd") === -1) return text
+  }
+  try {
+    return textDecoder.decode(view(bytes.buffer, bytes.byteOffset + offset, size))
+  } catch {
+    throw new ParseError({ message: "Invalid UTF-8 in message" })
+  }
+}
+
+const sharedWriter = new Writer(8192)
+
+/**
+ * Opens a typed message and leaves room for its length. Paired with `end`,
+ * which backfills it. A pair rather than a `write` callback, because a
+ * callback allocates a closure over the caller's options on every message.
+ */
+const begin = (type: number): Writer => {
+  const writer = sharedWriter
+  writer.begin()
+  writer.reserve(5)
+  const bytes = writer.bytes
+  const offset = writer.offset
+  bytes[offset] = type
+  writer.offset = offset + 5
+  return writer
+}
+
+const end = (): Uint8Array => {
+  // Relative to `start`, because writing may have moved the message to a new
+  // pool buffer. The length counts itself but not the type byte.
+  sharedWriter.setInt32(sharedWriter.start + 1, sharedWriter.offset - sharedWriter.start - 1)
+  return sharedWriter.finish()
+}
+
+const empty = (type: number): Uint8Array => {
+  const writer = begin(type)
+  writer.setInt32(writer.start + 1, 4)
+  return writer.finish()
+}
+
+const targetByte = (target: DescribeTarget): number => target === "statement" ? 0x53 : 0x50
+
+const requireInt16Count = (count: number, name: string): number => {
+  if (count > 0x7fff) throw new EncodeError({ message: `${name} count exceeds 32767: ${count}` })
+  return count
+}
+
+const encodeResult = <A>(evaluate: () => A): Result.Result<A, EncodeError> => {
+  try {
+    return Result.succeed(evaluate())
+  } catch (error) {
+    if (error instanceof EncodeError) return Result.fail(error)
+    throw error
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Encodes a `Parse` message, returning `EncodeError` when its parameter count
+ * is outside the signed int16 wire range.
+ *
+ * @category encoding
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+const encodeParseUnsafe = (options: Omit<Parse, "_tag">): Uint8Array => {
+  const writer = begin(0x50)
+  writer.cString(options.name)
+  writer.cString(options.query)
+  const parameterTypes = options.parameterTypes
+  const count = requireInt16Count(parameterTypes.length, "Parse parameter type")
+  writer.reserve(2 + count * 4)
+  const bytes = writer.bytes
+  let offset = writer.offset
+  bytes[offset] = count >>> 8
+  bytes[offset + 1] = count
+  offset += 2
+  for (let index = 0; index < count; index++) {
+    const oid = parameterTypes[index]
+    bytes[offset] = oid >>> 24
+    bytes[offset + 1] = oid >>> 16
+    bytes[offset + 2] = oid >>> 8
+    bytes[offset + 3] = oid
+    offset += 4
+  }
+  writer.offset = offset
+  return end()
+}
+
+export const encodeParse = (options: Omit<Parse, "_tag">): Result.Result<Uint8Array, EncodeError> =>
+  encodeResult(() => encodeParseUnsafe(options))
+
+/**
+ * Encodes a `Bind` message using the binary format code for parameters and
+ * results, returning `EncodeError` when its parameter count is outside the
+ * signed int16 wire range.
+ *
+ * @category encoding
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+const encodeBindUnsafe = (options: Omit<Bind, "_tag">): Uint8Array => {
+  const writer = begin(0x42)
+  writer.cString(options.portal)
+  writer.cString(options.statement)
+  const parameters = options.parameters
+  const count = requireInt16Count(parameters.length, "Bind parameter")
+  // Sizing the rest of the frame up front turns every remaining write into a
+  // plain store: one bounds check for the message instead of one per field.
+  let size = 10 + count * 4
+  for (let index = 0; index < count; index++) {
+    const parameter = parameters[index]
+    if (parameter !== null) size += parameter.length
+  }
+  writer.reserve(size)
+  const bytes = writer.bytes
+  let offset = writer.offset
+  // One parameter format code, binary, for every parameter.
+  bytes[offset] = 0
+  bytes[offset + 1] = 1
+  bytes[offset + 2] = 0
+  bytes[offset + 3] = 1
+  bytes[offset + 4] = count >>> 8
+  bytes[offset + 5] = count
+  offset += 6
+  for (let index = 0; index < count; index++) {
+    const parameter = parameters[index]
+    if (parameter === null) {
+      bytes[offset] = 0xff
+      bytes[offset + 1] = 0xff
+      bytes[offset + 2] = 0xff
+      bytes[offset + 3] = 0xff
+      offset += 4
+    } else {
+      const length = parameter.length
+      bytes[offset] = length >>> 24
+      bytes[offset + 1] = length >>> 16
+      bytes[offset + 2] = length >>> 8
+      bytes[offset + 3] = length
+      offset += 4
+      if (length <= smallCopyLimit) {
+        for (let byte = 0; byte < length; byte++) bytes[offset + byte] = parameter[byte]
+      } else {
+        bytes.set(parameter, offset)
+      }
+      offset += length
+    }
+  }
+  // One result format code, binary, for every column.
+  bytes[offset] = 0
+  bytes[offset + 1] = 1
+  bytes[offset + 2] = 0
+  bytes[offset + 3] = 1
+  writer.offset = offset + 4
+  return end()
+}
+
+export const encodeBind = (options: Omit<Bind, "_tag">): Result.Result<Uint8Array, EncodeError> =>
+  encodeResult(() => encodeBindUnsafe(options))
+
+/**
+ * Where a value writes its wire bytes. `Bind` frames a parameter by leaving
+ * room for its length, letting the sink fill in the body, and backfilling the
+ * length from what was written, so a value never needs an array of its own.
+ *
+ * `PgTypes.writeParameter` is the implementation for OID-typed values.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface ValueSink {
+  readonly uint8: (value: number) => void
+  readonly int16: (value: number) => void
+  readonly int32: (value: number) => void
+  readonly float32: (value: number) => void
+  readonly float64: (value: number) => void
+  readonly bigInt64: (value: bigint) => void
+  readonly raw: (value: Uint8Array) => void
+  readonly utf8: (value: string) => void
+  /** Writes SQL NULL. The value must write nothing else. */
+  readonly sqlNull: () => void
+  /**
+   * Leaves room for an int32 length and returns a token for `endLength`, so a
+   * value that contains other values can frame them without knowing their
+   * sizes up front. Tokens nest, and must be closed in the order they were
+   * opened.
+   */
+  readonly beginLength: () => number
+  /** Backfills the length of everything written since its `beginLength`. */
+  readonly endLength: (token: number) => void
+}
+
+/**
+ * Builds a `Bind` encoder that writes parameters straight into the frame,
+ * skipping the array per parameter that `encodeBind` has to copy from.
+ *
+ * ```ts
+ * import { PgProtocol, PgTypes } from "@effect/sql-pg"
+ *
+ * const encodeBind = PgProtocol.makeBindEncoder(PgTypes.writeParameter)
+ * const frame = encodeBind({ portal: "", statement: "s1", parameters: [PgTypes.int4(1)] })
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @category encoding
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+const valueWriterUnsafe = Symbol.for("@effect/sql-pg/PgProtocol/ValueWriter/unsafe")
+
+export const makeBindEncoder = <A, E = never>(
+  writeParameter: (sink: ValueSink, value: A) => Result.Result<void, E>
+) =>
+(options: {
+  readonly portal: string
+  readonly statement: string
+  readonly parameters: ReadonlyArray<A>
+}): Result.Result<Uint8Array, EncodeError | E> => {
+  try {
+    const writer = begin(0x42)
+    writer.cString(options.portal)
+    writer.cString(options.statement)
+    const parameters = options.parameters
+    const count = requireInt16Count(parameters.length, "Bind parameter")
+    writer.reserve(6)
+    const header = writer.bytes
+    const headerOffset = writer.offset
+    header[headerOffset] = 0
+    header[headerOffset + 1] = 1
+    header[headerOffset + 2] = 0
+    header[headerOffset + 3] = 1
+    header[headerOffset + 4] = count >>> 8
+    header[headerOffset + 5] = count
+    writer.offset = headerOffset + 6
+    const writeUnsafe = (writeParameter as any)[valueWriterUnsafe] as
+      | ((sink: ValueSink, value: A) => void)
+      | undefined
+    for (let index = 0; index < count; index++) {
+      const token = writer.beginLength()
+      writer.isNull = false
+      if (writeUnsafe === undefined) {
+        const written = writeParameter(writer, parameters[index])
+        if (Result.isFailure(written)) return Result.fail(written.failure)
+      } else {
+        writeUnsafe(writer, parameters[index])
+      }
+      if (writer.isNull) {
+        writer.isNull = false
+        writer.offset = writer.start + token
+        writer.int32(-1)
+      } else {
+        writer.endLength(token)
+      }
+    }
+    writer.reserve(4)
+    const trailer = writer.bytes
+    const trailerOffset = writer.offset
+    trailer[trailerOffset] = 0
+    trailer[trailerOffset + 1] = 1
+    trailer[trailerOffset + 2] = 0
+    trailer[trailerOffset + 3] = 1
+    writer.offset = trailerOffset + 4
+    return Result.succeed(end())
+  } catch (error) {
+    if (error instanceof EncodeError) return Result.fail(error)
+    throw error
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Encodes an `Execute` message.
+ *
+ * @category encoding
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export const encodeExecute = (options: Omit<Execute, "_tag">): Uint8Array => {
+  const writer = begin(0x45)
+  writer.cString(options.portal)
+  writer.int32(options.maxRows)
+  return end()
+}
+
+/**
+ * Encodes a `Describe` message.
+ *
+ * @category encoding
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export const encodeDescribe = (options: Omit<Describe, "_tag">): Uint8Array => {
+  const writer = begin(0x44)
+  writer.uint8(targetByte(options.target))
+  writer.cString(options.name)
+  return end()
+}
+
+/**
+ * Encodes a `Close` message.
+ *
+ * @category encoding
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export const encodeClose = (options: Omit<Close, "_tag">): Uint8Array => {
+  const writer = begin(0x43)
+  writer.uint8(targetByte(options.target))
+  writer.cString(options.name)
+  return end()
+}
+
+/**
+ * Encodes a `Sync` message.
+ *
+ * @category encoding
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export const encodeSync = (): Uint8Array => empty(0x53)
+
+/**
+ * Encodes a `Flush` message.
+ *
+ * @category encoding
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export const encodeFlush = (): Uint8Array => empty(0x48)
+
+/**
+ * Encodes a `Terminate` message.
+ *
+ * @category encoding
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export const encodeTerminate = (): Uint8Array => empty(0x58)
+
+/**
+ * Encodes a `PasswordMessage`. The password is sent verbatim, so MD5 hashing
+ * belongs to the caller - see `PgAuth.md5Password`.
+ *
+ * @category encoding
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export const encodePasswordMessage = (options: Omit<PasswordMessage, "_tag">): Uint8Array => {
+  const writer = begin(0x70)
+  writer.cString(options.password)
+  return end()
+}
+
+/**
+ * Encodes a `SASLInitialResponse` message.
+ *
+ * @category encoding
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export const encodeSASLInitialResponse = (options: Omit<SASLInitialResponse, "_tag">): Uint8Array => {
+  const writer = begin(0x70)
+  writer.cString(options.mechanism)
+  if (options.initialResponse === null) {
+    writer.int32(-1)
+  } else {
+    writer.int32(options.initialResponse.length)
+    writer.raw(options.initialResponse)
+  }
+  return end()
+}
+
+/**
+ * Encodes a `SASLResponse` message.
+ *
+ * @category encoding
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export const encodeSASLResponse = (options: Omit<SASLResponse, "_tag">): Uint8Array => {
+  const writer = begin(0x70)
+  writer.raw(options.data)
+  return end()
+}
+
+/**
+ * Encodes any frontend message.
+ *
+ * @category encoding
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export const encode = (message: FrontendMessage): Result.Result<Uint8Array, EncodeError> => {
+  switch (message._tag) {
+    case "Parse":
+      return encodeParse(message)
+    case "Bind":
+      return encodeBind(message)
+    case "Execute":
+      return Result.succeed(encodeExecute(message))
+    case "Describe":
+      return Result.succeed(encodeDescribe(message))
+    case "Close":
+      return Result.succeed(encodeClose(message))
+    case "Sync":
+      return Result.succeed(encodeSync())
+    case "Flush":
+      return Result.succeed(encodeFlush())
+    case "Terminate":
+      return Result.succeed(encodeTerminate())
+    case "PasswordMessage":
+      return Result.succeed(encodePasswordMessage(message))
+    case "SASLInitialResponse":
+      return Result.succeed(encodeSASLInitialResponse(message))
+    case "SASLResponse":
+      return Result.succeed(encodeSASLResponse(message))
+  }
+}
+
+// -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// special messages
+// -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+const PROTOCOL_VERSION_3_0 = 196608
+const SSL_REQUEST_CODE = 80877103
+const CANCEL_REQUEST_CODE = 80877102
+
+/**
+ * Startup parameters. `user` is required; any other run-time parameter the
+ * server accepts may be passed alongside it.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface StartupParameters {
+  readonly [key: string]: string | undefined
+  readonly user: string
+  readonly database?: string | undefined
+  readonly application_name?: string | undefined
+}
+
+/**
+ * Encodes an `SSLRequest`. It has no type byte and is only valid before
+ * startup.
+ *
+ * @category encoding
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export const encodeSslRequest = (): Uint8Array => {
+  sharedWriter.begin()
+  sharedWriter.int32(8)
+  sharedWriter.int32(SSL_REQUEST_CODE)
+  return sharedWriter.finish()
+}
+
+/**
+ * Decodes the single byte the server sends in reply to an `SSLRequest`. `"S"`
+ * means the server will speak TLS, `"N"` means it will not.
+ *
+ * @category decoding
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export const decodeSslResponse = (byte: number): Result.Result<"S" | "N", ParseError> =>
+  byte === 0x53
+    ? Result.succeed("S")
+    : byte === 0x4e
+    ? Result.succeed("N")
+    : Result.fail(new ParseError({ message: `Invalid SSLRequest response byte: ${byte}` }))
+
+/**
+ * Encodes a `StartupMessage` for protocol 3.0. It has no type byte.
+ * `client_encoding` defaults to `UTF8` because this codec always writes UTF-8.
+ *
+ * @category encoding
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export const encodeStartupMessage = (parameters: StartupParameters): Uint8Array => {
+  const writer = sharedWriter
+  writer.begin()
+  writer.int32(0)
+  writer.int32(PROTOCOL_VERSION_3_0)
+  for (const [key, value] of Object.entries(parameters)) {
+    if (value === undefined) continue
+    writer.cString(key)
+    writer.cString(value)
+  }
+  if (parameters.client_encoding === undefined) {
+    writer.cString("client_encoding")
+    writer.cString("UTF8")
+  }
+  writer.uint8(0)
+  writer.setInt32(writer.start, writer.offset - writer.start)
+  return writer.finish()
+}
+
+/**
+ * Encodes a `CancelRequest`. It has no type byte and is sent on a separate
+ * connection, using the `pid` and `secret` from `BackendKeyData`.
+ *
+ * @category encoding
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export const encodeCancelRequest = (options: {
+  readonly pid: number
+  readonly secret: number
+}): Uint8Array => {
+  const writer = sharedWriter
+  writer.begin()
+  writer.int32(16)
+  writer.int32(CANCEL_REQUEST_CODE)
+  writer.int32(options.pid)
+  writer.int32(options.secret)
+  return writer.finish()
+}
+
+// -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// backend messages
+// -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+/**
+ * Authentication succeeded.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface AuthenticationOk {
+  readonly _tag: "AuthenticationOk"
+}
+
+/**
+ * The server wants the password in the clear.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface AuthenticationCleartextPassword {
+  readonly _tag: "AuthenticationCleartextPassword"
+}
+
+/**
+ * The server wants an MD5-hashed password, salted with these four bytes.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface AuthenticationMD5Password {
+  readonly _tag: "AuthenticationMD5Password"
+  readonly salt: Uint8Array
+}
+
+/**
+ * The server offers these SASL mechanisms.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface AuthenticationSASL {
+  readonly _tag: "AuthenticationSASL"
+  readonly mechanisms: ReadonlyArray<string>
+}
+
+/**
+ * An opaque SASL challenge.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface AuthenticationSASLContinue {
+  readonly _tag: "AuthenticationSASLContinue"
+  readonly data: Uint8Array
+}
+
+/**
+ * The opaque final SASL payload, carrying the server signature.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface AuthenticationSASLFinal {
+  readonly _tag: "AuthenticationSASLFinal"
+  readonly data: Uint8Array
+}
+
+/**
+ * An authentication request this codec does not model, such as GSSAPI or
+ * SSPI. The `method` is the raw sub-type integer.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface AuthenticationUnsupported {
+  readonly _tag: "AuthenticationUnsupported"
+  readonly method: number
+  readonly payload: Uint8Array
+}
+
+/**
+ * Reports a run-time parameter value, at startup or whenever it changes.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface ParameterStatus {
+  readonly _tag: "ParameterStatus"
+  readonly name: string
+  readonly value: string
+}
+
+/**
+ * The identity a `CancelRequest` needs.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface BackendKeyData {
+  readonly _tag: "BackendKeyData"
+  readonly pid: number
+  readonly secret: number
+}
+
+/**
+ * Transaction status: idle, in a transaction block, or in a failed
+ * transaction block.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export type TransactionStatus = "I" | "T" | "E"
+
+/**
+ * The backend is ready for a new query cycle.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface ReadyForQuery {
+  readonly _tag: "ReadyForQuery"
+  readonly status: TransactionStatus
+}
+
+/**
+ * One column of a `RowDescription`.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface FieldDescription {
+  readonly name: string
+  readonly tableOid: number
+  readonly columnAttributeNumber: number
+  readonly dataTypeOid: number
+  readonly dataTypeSize: number
+  readonly typeModifier: number
+  readonly format: number
+}
+
+/**
+ * Describes the columns a portal will return.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface RowDescription {
+  readonly _tag: "RowDescription"
+  readonly fields: ReadonlyArray<FieldDescription>
+}
+
+/**
+ * One result row. Values stay raw bytes; `null` is SQL NULL. Decoding them
+ * requires the OIDs from the matching `RowDescription`.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface DataRow<out A = Uint8Array | null> {
+  readonly _tag: "DataRow"
+  readonly values: ReadonlyArray<A>
+}
+
+/**
+ * Reads one `DataRow` field out of the parser's buffer, for a parser given a
+ * `readField`. `size` is -1 for SQL NULL, and `column` is the field's position
+ * in the row.
+ *
+ * The bytes are the parser's buffer rather than a view of the field, so they
+ * are only the field's for `offset` to `offset + size`, and reading outside
+ * that reads the rest of the stream. `PgTypes.makeFieldReader` is the
+ * implementation for OID-typed columns.
+ *
+ * A reader runs inside the stateful parser. If it throws, that failure is
+ * terminal just like a `ParseError`.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export type FieldReader<A> = (bytes: Uint8Array, offset: number, size: number, column: number) => A
+
+/**
+ * A command finished, reporting its tag such as `SELECT 3`.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface CommandComplete {
+  readonly _tag: "CommandComplete"
+  readonly commandTag: string
+}
+
+/**
+ * The query string was empty.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface EmptyQueryResponse {
+  readonly _tag: "EmptyQueryResponse"
+}
+
+/**
+ * The statement or portal returns no rows.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface NoData {
+  readonly _tag: "NoData"
+}
+
+/**
+ * A `Parse` succeeded.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface ParseComplete {
+  readonly _tag: "ParseComplete"
+}
+
+/**
+ * A `Bind` succeeded.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface BindComplete {
+  readonly _tag: "BindComplete"
+}
+
+/**
+ * A `Close` succeeded.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface CloseComplete {
+  readonly _tag: "CloseComplete"
+}
+
+/**
+ * An `Execute` stopped at its row limit; the portal can be executed again.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface PortalSuspended {
+  readonly _tag: "PortalSuspended"
+}
+
+/**
+ * The parameter OIDs of a described statement.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface ParameterDescription {
+  readonly _tag: "ParameterDescription"
+  readonly parameterTypes: ReadonlyArray<number>
+}
+
+/**
+ * The fields of an `ErrorResponse` or `NoticeResponse`. Unrecognised field
+ * codes are kept under their raw single-character key.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface ErrorFields {
+  readonly [key: string]: string | undefined
+  readonly severity?: string | undefined
+  readonly severityUnlocalized?: string | undefined
+  readonly code?: string | undefined
+  readonly message?: string | undefined
+  readonly detail?: string | undefined
+  readonly hint?: string | undefined
+  readonly position?: string | undefined
+  readonly internalPosition?: string | undefined
+  readonly internalQuery?: string | undefined
+  readonly where?: string | undefined
+  readonly schema?: string | undefined
+  readonly table?: string | undefined
+  readonly column?: string | undefined
+  readonly dataType?: string | undefined
+  readonly constraint?: string | undefined
+  readonly file?: string | undefined
+  readonly line?: string | undefined
+  readonly routine?: string | undefined
+}
+
+/**
+ * An error. `code` is the SQLSTATE.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface ErrorResponse {
+  readonly _tag: "ErrorResponse"
+  readonly fields: ErrorFields
+}
+
+/**
+ * A warning or notice. Same field set as `ErrorResponse`.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface NoticeResponse {
+  readonly _tag: "NoticeResponse"
+  readonly fields: ErrorFields
+}
+
+/**
+ * A `LISTEN`/`NOTIFY` message.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface NotificationResponse {
+  readonly _tag: "NotificationResponse"
+  readonly pid: number
+  readonly channel: string
+  readonly payload: string
+}
+
+/**
+ * The server speaks an older minor protocol version, or did not recognise
+ * some startup options.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface NegotiateProtocolVersion {
+  readonly _tag: "NegotiateProtocolVersion"
+  readonly minorVersion: number
+  readonly unrecognizedOptions: ReadonlyArray<string>
+}
+
+/**
+ * The server is ready to receive `COPY` data.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface CopyInResponse {
+  readonly _tag: "CopyInResponse"
+  readonly format: number
+  readonly columnFormats: ReadonlyArray<number>
+}
+
+/**
+ * The server is about to send `COPY` data.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface CopyOutResponse {
+  readonly _tag: "CopyOutResponse"
+  readonly format: number
+  readonly columnFormats: ReadonlyArray<number>
+}
+
+/**
+ * The connection entered bidirectional `COPY` mode, as used by replication.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface CopyBothResponse {
+  readonly _tag: "CopyBothResponse"
+  readonly format: number
+  readonly columnFormats: ReadonlyArray<number>
+}
+
+/**
+ * A chunk of `COPY` data.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface CopyData {
+  readonly _tag: "CopyData"
+  readonly data: Uint8Array
+}
+
+/**
+ * The `COPY` stream ended.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface CopyDone {
+  readonly _tag: "CopyDone"
+}
+
+/**
+ * A message whose type byte this codec does not know. The payload excludes
+ * the type byte and the length prefix.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export interface Unknown {
+  readonly _tag: "Unknown"
+  readonly type: number
+  readonly payload: Uint8Array
+}
+
+/**
+ * Any message the server sends after startup.
+ *
+ * @category models
+ * @since 4.0.0
+ */
+export type BackendMessage<A = Uint8Array | null> =
+  | AuthenticationOk
+  | AuthenticationCleartextPassword
+  | AuthenticationMD5Password
+  | AuthenticationSASL
+  | AuthenticationSASLContinue
+  | AuthenticationSASLFinal
+  | AuthenticationUnsupported
+  | ParameterStatus
+  | BackendKeyData
+  | ReadyForQuery
+  | RowDescription
+  | DataRow<A>
+  | CommandComplete
+  | EmptyQueryResponse
+  | NoData
+  | ParseComplete
+  | BindComplete
+  | CloseComplete
+  | PortalSuspended
+  | ParameterDescription
+  | ErrorResponse
+  | NoticeResponse
+  | NotificationResponse
+  | NegotiateProtocolVersion
+  | CopyInResponse
+  | CopyOutResponse
+  | CopyBothResponse
+  | CopyData
+  | CopyDone
+  | Unknown
+
+const BackendType = {
+  NotificationResponse: 0x41, // A
+  CommandComplete: 0x43, // C
+  DataRow: 0x44, // D
+  ErrorResponse: 0x45, // E
+  CopyInResponse: 0x47, // G
+  CopyOutResponse: 0x48, // H
+  EmptyQueryResponse: 0x49, // I
+  BackendKeyData: 0x4b, // K
+  NoticeResponse: 0x4e, // N
+  Authentication: 0x52, // R
+  ParameterStatus: 0x53, // S
+  RowDescription: 0x54, // T
+  CopyBothResponse: 0x57, // W
+  ReadyForQuery: 0x5a, // Z
+  CopyDone: 0x63, // c
+  CopyData: 0x64, // d
+  NoData: 0x6e, // n
+  PortalSuspended: 0x73, // s
+  ParameterDescription: 0x74, // t
+  NegotiateProtocolVersion: 0x76, // v
+  ParseComplete: 0x31, // 1
+  BindComplete: 0x32, // 2
+  CloseComplete: 0x33 // 3
+} as const
+
+const errorFieldNames: Record<string, string> = {
+  S: "severity",
+  V: "severityUnlocalized",
+  C: "code",
+  M: "message",
+  D: "detail",
+  H: "hint",
+  P: "position",
+  p: "internalPosition",
+  q: "internalQuery",
+  W: "where",
+  s: "schema",
+  t: "table",
+  c: "column",
+  d: "dataType",
+  n: "constraint",
+  F: "file",
+  L: "line",
+  R: "routine"
+}
+
+const decodeAuthentication = (reader: Reader): BackendMessage => {
+  const method = reader.int32()
+  switch (method) {
+    case 0:
+      return { _tag: "AuthenticationOk" }
+    case 3:
+      return { _tag: "AuthenticationCleartextPassword" }
+    case 5:
+      return { _tag: "AuthenticationMD5Password", salt: reader.raw(4) }
+    case 10: {
+      const mechanisms: Array<string> = []
+      for (;;) {
+        const mechanism = reader.cString()
+        if (mechanism === "") break
+        mechanisms.push(mechanism)
+      }
+      return { _tag: "AuthenticationSASL", mechanisms }
+    }
+    case 11:
+      return { _tag: "AuthenticationSASLContinue", data: reader.rest() }
+    case 12:
+      return { _tag: "AuthenticationSASLFinal", data: reader.rest() }
+    default:
+      return { _tag: "AuthenticationUnsupported", method, payload: reader.rest() }
+  }
+}
+
+const decodeErrorFields = (reader: Reader): ErrorFields => {
+  const fields: Record<string, string> = {}
+  for (;;) {
+    const code = reader.uint8()
+    if (code === 0) break
+    const key = String.fromCharCode(code)
+    fields[errorFieldNames[key] ?? key] = reader.cString()
+  }
+  return fields
+}
+
+const requireNonNegativeCount = (count: number, name: string): number => {
+  if (count < 0) {
+    throw new ParseError({ message: `Invalid ${name} count: ${count}` })
+  }
+  return count
+}
+
+const decodeCopyResponse = (
+  reader: Reader
+): { readonly format: number; readonly columnFormats: ReadonlyArray<number> } => {
+  const format = reader.uint8()
+  const count = requireNonNegativeCount(reader.int16(), "COPY column")
+  const columnFormats: Array<number> = new Array(count)
+  for (let i = 0; i < count; i++) {
+    columnFormats[i] = reader.int16()
+  }
+  return { format, columnFormats }
+}
+
+// The one message that arrives per result row, so it reads the frame directly
+// instead of going through `Reader`. Callers have already checked that the
+// whole frame is buffered, which turns every field read into one bounds check
+// against `limit`.
+const decodeDataRow = <A>(
+  bytes: Uint8Array,
+  store: ArrayBufferLike,
+  base: number,
+  offset: number,
+  limit: number,
+  readField: FieldReader<A> | undefined
+): DataRow<A> => {
+  if (offset + 2 > limit) {
+    throw new ParseError({ message: "Truncated message: expected 2 more byte(s)" })
+  }
+  const count = ((bytes[offset] << 8) | bytes[offset + 1]) << 16 >> 16
+  if (count < 0) {
+    throw new ParseError({ message: `Invalid DataRow field count: ${count}` })
+  }
+  const values: Array<any> = new Array(count)
+  let position = offset + 2
+  for (let i = 0; i < count; i++) {
+    if (position + 4 > limit) {
+      throw new ParseError({ message: "Truncated message: expected 4 more byte(s)" })
+    }
+    const size = (bytes[position] << 24) | (bytes[position + 1] << 16) | (bytes[position + 2] << 8) |
+      bytes[position + 3]
+    position += 4
+    if (size < 0) {
+      if (size < -1) {
+        throw new ParseError({ message: `Invalid DataRow field length: ${size}` })
+      }
+      values[i] = readField === undefined ? null : readField(bytes, position, -1, i)
+      continue
+    }
+    const next = position + size
+    if (next > limit) {
+      throw new ParseError({ message: `Truncated message: expected ${size} more byte(s)` })
+    }
+    values[i] = readField === undefined
+      ? view(store, base + position, size)
+      : readField(bytes, position, size, i)
+    position = next
+  }
+  if (position !== limit) {
+    throw new ParseError({ message: `DataRow has ${limit - position} trailing byte(s)` })
+  }
+  return { _tag: "DataRow", values }
+}
+
+const decodeBackend = (type: number, reader: Reader): BackendMessage => {
+  switch (type) {
+    case BackendType.Authentication:
+      return decodeAuthentication(reader)
+    case BackendType.ParameterStatus:
+      return { _tag: "ParameterStatus", name: reader.cString(), value: reader.cString() }
+    case BackendType.BackendKeyData:
+      return { _tag: "BackendKeyData", pid: reader.int32(), secret: reader.int32() }
+    case BackendType.ReadyForQuery: {
+      const status = String.fromCharCode(reader.uint8())
+      if (status !== "I" && status !== "T" && status !== "E") {
+        throw new ParseError({ message: `Invalid ReadyForQuery status: ${status}` })
+      }
+      return { _tag: "ReadyForQuery", status }
+    }
+    case BackendType.RowDescription: {
+      const count = requireNonNegativeCount(reader.int16(), "RowDescription field")
+      const fields: Array<FieldDescription> = new Array(count)
+      for (let i = 0; i < count; i++) {
+        fields[i] = {
+          name: reader.cString(),
+          tableOid: reader.uint32(),
+          columnAttributeNumber: reader.int16(),
+          dataTypeOid: reader.uint32(),
+          dataTypeSize: reader.int16(),
+          typeModifier: reader.int32(),
+          format: reader.int16()
+        }
+      }
+      return { _tag: "RowDescription", fields }
+    }
+    case BackendType.DataRow:
+      return decodeDataRow(reader.bytes, reader.store, reader.base, reader.offset, reader.limit, undefined)
+    case BackendType.CommandComplete:
+      return { _tag: "CommandComplete", commandTag: reader.cString() }
+    case BackendType.EmptyQueryResponse:
+      return { _tag: "EmptyQueryResponse" }
+    case BackendType.NoData:
+      return { _tag: "NoData" }
+    case BackendType.ParseComplete:
+      return { _tag: "ParseComplete" }
+    case BackendType.BindComplete:
+      return { _tag: "BindComplete" }
+    case BackendType.CloseComplete:
+      return { _tag: "CloseComplete" }
+    case BackendType.PortalSuspended:
+      return { _tag: "PortalSuspended" }
+    case BackendType.ParameterDescription: {
+      const count = requireNonNegativeCount(reader.int16(), "ParameterDescription parameter")
+      const parameterTypes: Array<number> = new Array(count)
+      for (let i = 0; i < count; i++) {
+        parameterTypes[i] = reader.uint32()
+      }
+      return { _tag: "ParameterDescription", parameterTypes }
+    }
+    case BackendType.ErrorResponse:
+      return { _tag: "ErrorResponse", fields: decodeErrorFields(reader) }
+    case BackendType.NoticeResponse:
+      return { _tag: "NoticeResponse", fields: decodeErrorFields(reader) }
+    case BackendType.NotificationResponse:
+      return {
+        _tag: "NotificationResponse",
+        pid: reader.int32(),
+        channel: reader.cString(),
+        payload: reader.cString()
+      }
+    case BackendType.NegotiateProtocolVersion: {
+      const minorVersion = reader.int32()
+      const count = requireNonNegativeCount(reader.int32(), "NegotiateProtocolVersion option")
+      const unrecognizedOptions: Array<string> = new Array(count)
+      for (let i = 0; i < count; i++) {
+        unrecognizedOptions[i] = reader.cString()
+      }
+      return { _tag: "NegotiateProtocolVersion", minorVersion, unrecognizedOptions }
+    }
+    case BackendType.CopyInResponse:
+      return { _tag: "CopyInResponse", ...decodeCopyResponse(reader) }
+    case BackendType.CopyOutResponse:
+      return { _tag: "CopyOutResponse", ...decodeCopyResponse(reader) }
+    case BackendType.CopyBothResponse:
+      return { _tag: "CopyBothResponse", ...decodeCopyResponse(reader) }
+    case BackendType.CopyData:
+      return { _tag: "CopyData", data: reader.rest() }
+    case BackendType.CopyDone:
+      return { _tag: "CopyDone" }
+    default:
+      return { _tag: "Unknown", type, payload: reader.rest() }
+  }
+}