@effect-vfs/core 0.8.0 → 0.10.0

package/dist/internal/virtualFileSystem.js

@@ -1,228 +1,46 @@
-import * as Arr from "effect/Array";
+/**
+ * Community volume assembly over the shared private filesystem engine.
+ * IDs, authenticated keys, snapshots, overlays, storage encoders and watch delivery stay here.
+ * @internal
+ */
 import * as ByteSize from "effect/ByteSize";
-import * as Cause from "effect/Cause";
 import * as Clock from "effect/Clock";
-import * as Context from "effect/Context";
 import * as Crypto from "effect/Crypto";
 import * as Data from "effect/Data";
 import * as Effect from "effect/Effect";
 import * as Hex from "effect/encoding/Hex";
-import * as Exit from "effect/Exit";
-import * as Match from "effect/Match";
-import * as MutableRef from "effect/MutableRef";
-import * as Option from "effect/Option";
 import * as Predicate from "effect/Predicate";
 import * as Result from "effect/Result";
 import * as Schema from "effect/Schema";
-import * as Semaphore from "effect/Semaphore";
 import * as Stream from "effect/Stream";
 import { BytePath } from "../BytePath.js";
-import { CallerId, MkdirOptions, OpenEntryOptions, OpenOptions, RemoveOptions, RootCallerOptions, SetattrOptions, SymlinkOptions, WalkOptions, WriteFileOptions } from "../Caller.js";
-import { DirectoryHandleId, FileHandleId, SeekMode } from "../FileHandle.js";
-import { Mode, OwnerUpdate, Times } from "../Metadata.js";
-import { isEntry, Target } from "../Target.js";
-import { make as makeError } from "../VfsError.js";
+import { CallerId } from "../Caller.js";
+import { make as makeError, VfsError } from "../VfsError.js";
 import { OverlayChange, OverlayChangesOptions, ReferenceKey, VolumeId, VolumeIdentity, VolumeIncarnation } from "../Volume.js";
-import { WatchOptions } from "../Watch.js";
+import { CallerWatchOptions, WatchOptions } from "../Watch.js";
+import * as AdapterBinding from "./adapterBinding.js";
 import { sameBytes } from "./bytes.js";
-import { argumentFailure, decodeConfiguration, errorPath, fsFailure, imageFailure, OpContext, retargetFailure, VfsError } from "./errors.js";
+import * as CallerWatch from "./callerWatch.js";
+import * as Engine from "./engine.js";
+import { imageFailure, retargetFailure } from "./errors.js";
 import { KeySecret, VolumeEpoch } from "./hex128.js";
 import { hmacSha256, sameTag } from "./hmac.js";
 import * as Image from "./image.js";
-import * as InodeTable from "./inodeTable.js";
 import * as LiveImage from "./liveImage.js";
 import * as MetadataDomain from "./metadata.js";
 import { compareOverlay } from "./overlayDiff.js";
-import { inputBytes, isAttachedBytes, isDotComponent, joinPath, nameBytes, ownedPath, ROOT_PATH, SLASH_BYTE, SLASH_HEX } from "./path.js";
-import * as Resolution from "./resolution.js";
-import { VolumeTestSeams } from "./testSeams.js";
-import * as TokenRegistry from "./tokenRegistry.js";
-import { makeTurnstile } from "./turnstile.js";
+import { Errors, Paths, State, VolumeTestSeams } from "./engine.js";
 import * as Limits from "./volumeLimits.js";
-import { byEntryName, directoryMetadata, emptyState, getNode, Ino, reachableValue, ROOT_INO, storedMetadata, WALK_YIELD_INTERVAL } from "./volumeState.js";
+import { reachableValue, storedMetadata } from "./volumeState.js";
 import * as WatchHub from "./watchHub.js";
-const EXECUTE = 0o1;
-const WRITE = 0o2;
-const READ = 0o4;
-const ANY_EXECUTE = 0o111;
-const SET_ID_BITS = 0o6000;
-const STICKY_BIT = 0o1000;
-const RELATIME_INTERVAL_NS = 86400000000000n; // relatime, as Linux mounts by default: a read refreshes an access time at least this old, 24 hours.
+const { argumentFailure, decodeConfiguration, OpContext } = Errors;
+const { joinPath, nameBytes, ownedPath, ROOT_PATH, SLASH_BYTE } = Paths;
+const { emptyState, entryPath, getNode, Ino, pathOf, ROOT_INO, WALK_YIELD_INTERVAL } = State;
 /** @internal */
-export const memoryCommitProvider = Object.freeze({
-    mode: "memory",
-    commit: () => Effect.succeed("committed"),
-    shutdown: Effect.void
-});
-// An unknown commit outcome stops the volume; definite rejection stops it only during cleanup.
-const offerCommit = (provider, operation, candidate, cleanup) => Effect.map(Effect.exit(Effect.suspend(() => provider.commit(candidate))), (committed) => {
-    // TODO(#186): Preserve the cause of a provider defect or interruption.
-    if (Exit.isFailure(committed)) {
-        if (Cause.hasDies(committed.cause) || Cause.hasInterrupts(committed.cause)) {
-            return { available: false, failure: fsFailure("OutcomeUnknown", operation) };
-        }
-        const failure = Cause.findErrorOption(committed.cause);
-        return Option.isSome(failure)
-            ? { available: !cleanup, failure: failure.value }
-            : { available: false, failure: fsFailure("OutcomeUnknown", operation) };
-    }
-    if (committed.value === "rejected") {
-        return { available: !cleanup, failure: fsFailure("StorageRejected", operation) };
-    }
-    if (committed.value === "unknown") {
-        return { available: false, failure: fsFailure("OutcomeUnknown", operation) };
-    }
-    return { available: true, failure: undefined };
-});
-const WALK_CHUNK_ENTRIES = 128;
-const MAX_FILE_OFFSET = 0x7fffffffffffffffn;
-const isMode = Schema.is(Mode);
-const isNatural = Schema.is(Schema.Natural);
-const isLength = Schema.is(SetattrOptions.fields.size.schema);
-const inGroup = Resolution.inGroup;
+export const memoryCommitProvider = Engine.memoryCommitProvider;
 const isTimestamp = Schema.is(MetadataDomain.Timestamp);
-const isSeekMode = Schema.is(SeekMode);
-const decodeOwnerUpdate = Schema.decodeEffect(OwnerUpdate, { onExcessProperty: "error" });
-const decodeTimes = Schema.decodeEffect(Times, { onExcessProperty: "error" });
-const decodeExpected = Schema.decodeEffect(SetattrOptions.fields.expected.schema, { onExcessProperty: "error" });
-const SETATTR_FIELDS = Object.keys(SetattrOptions.fields);
-const timeAt = (update, value, now) => update === undefined ? value : Match.value(update).pipe(Match.discriminator("kind")("omit", () => value), Match.discriminator("kind")("now", () => now), Match.discriminator("kind")("value", ({ nanoseconds }) => nanoseconds), Match.exhaustive);
-const decodeWriteFileOptions = Schema.decodeEffect(WriteFileOptions, { onExcessProperty: "error" });
-const decodeOpenOptions = Schema.decodeEffect(OpenOptions, { onExcessProperty: "error" });
-const decodeMkdirOptions = Schema.decodeEffect(MkdirOptions, { onExcessProperty: "error" });
-const decodeSymlinkOptions = Schema.decodeEffect(SymlinkOptions, { onExcessProperty: "error" });
-const decodeWalkOptions = Schema.decodeEffect(WalkOptions, { onExcessProperty: "error" });
-const decodeRemoveOptions = Schema.decodeEffect(RemoveOptions, { onExcessProperty: "error" });
-const decodeOpenEntryOptions = Schema.decodeEffect(OpenEntryOptions, { onExcessProperty: "error" });
-// Whether a read at `now` refreshes a node's access time: when it is not newer than the last modification or
-// status change, or when it is at least a day old. A time already equal to `now` is never refreshed, as Linux
-// skips it, so reads at one instant (a frozen or coarse clock) store nothing.
-const accessDue = (metadata, now) => now !== metadata.atimeNs && (metadata.atimeNs <= metadata.mtimeNs || metadata.atimeNs <= metadata.ctimeNs ||
-    now - metadata.atimeNs >= RELATIME_INTERVAL_NS);
-const refreshDue = (read) => read.access !== undefined && accessDue(read.access.node.metadata, read.access.now);
-class Draft extends Context.Service()("@effect-vfs/core/internal/virtualFileSystem/Draft", {
-    make: Effect.fnUntraced(function* (base) {
-        const revision = base.revision + 1n;
-        const cell = MutableRef.make({
-            owner: Symbol(),
-            pending: new Map(),
-            opens: undefined,
-            nextInode: base.nextInode,
-            changed: false,
-            finished: undefined,
-            entries: base.entries,
-            usedBytes: base.usedBytes,
-            events: [],
-            after: [],
-            removed: []
-        });
-        const get = (ino) => Effect.sync(() => {
-            const draft = MutableRef.get(cell);
-            return draft.pending.has(ino) ? draft.pending.get(ino) : InodeTable.get(base.inodes, ino);
-        });
-        const openCount = (ino) => Effect.sync(() => MutableRef.get(cell).opens?.get(ino) ?? base.open.get(ino) ?? 0);
-        const put = (node, changed) => Effect.sync(() => {
-            MutableRef.update(cell, (draft) => {
-                // This map belongs only to this transition. Copying it on every inode write makes recursive changes quadratic.
-                draft.pending.set(node.ino, changed ? { ...node, revision } : node);
-                return { ...draft, changed: draft.changed || changed };
-            });
-        });
-        return {
-            revision,
-            get,
-            put: (node) => put(node, true),
-            putQuiet: (node) => put(node, false),
-            unchanged: Effect.sync(() => {
-                const draft = MutableRef.get(cell);
-                return draft.pending.size === 0 && draft.opens === undefined && draft.nextInode === base.nextInode &&
-                    draft.entries === base.entries && draft.usedBytes === base.usedBytes;
-            }),
-            remove: (ino) => Effect.sync(() => {
-                const draft = MutableRef.get(cell);
-                draft.pending.set(ino, undefined);
-                draft.removed.push(ino);
-            }),
-            allocate: Effect.sync(() => {
-                const next = MutableRef.get(cell).nextInode;
-                MutableRef.update(cell, (draft) => ({ ...draft, nextInode: Ino(next + 1) }));
-                return next;
-            }),
-            canAllocate: Effect.sync(() => MutableRef.get(cell).nextInode < Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER),
-            openCount,
-            retain: (ino) => Effect.sync(() => {
-                const count = MutableRef.get(cell).opens?.get(ino) ?? base.open.get(ino) ?? 0;
-                MutableRef.update(cell, (draft) => ({ ...draft, opens: new Map(draft.opens).set(ino, count + 1) }));
-            }),
-            release: (ino) => Effect.sync(() => {
-                const count = (MutableRef.get(cell).opens?.get(ino) ?? base.open.get(ino) ?? 0) - 1;
-                MutableRef.update(cell, (draft) => ({ ...draft, opens: new Map(draft.opens).set(ino, Math.max(0, count)) }));
-                return count;
-            }),
-            entries: Effect.sync(() => MutableRef.get(cell).entries),
-            addEntries: (amount) => Effect.sync(() => {
-                MutableRef.update(cell, (draft) => ({ ...draft, entries: draft.entries + amount }));
-            }),
-            usedBytes: Effect.sync(() => MutableRef.get(cell).usedBytes),
-            addUsedBytes: (amount) => Effect.sync(() => {
-                MutableRef.update(cell, (draft) => ({ ...draft, usedBytes: draft.usedBytes + amount }));
-            }),
-            publish: (event) => Effect.sync(() => {
-                MutableRef.get(cell).events.push(event);
-            }),
-            afterInstall: (action) => Effect.sync(() => {
-                MutableRef.get(cell).after.push(action);
-            }),
-            finish: Effect.sync(() => {
-                const draft = MutableRef.get(cell);
-                if (draft.finished !== undefined)
-                    return draft.finished;
-                let inodes = base.inodes;
-                for (const [ino, node] of draft.pending)
-                    inodes = InodeTable.set(inodes, ino, node, draft.owner);
-                let open = base.open;
-                if (draft.opens !== undefined) {
-                    const next = new Map(base.open);
-                    for (const [ino, count] of draft.opens) {
-                        if (count > 0)
-                            next.set(ino, count);
-                        else
-                            next.delete(ino);
-                    }
-                    open = next;
-                }
-                const finished = {
-                    inodes,
-                    open,
-                    nextInode: draft.nextInode,
-                    revision: draft.changed ? revision : base.revision,
-                    entries: draft.entries,
-                    usedBytes: draft.usedBytes
-                };
-                MutableRef.update(cell, (current) => ({ ...current, finished }));
-                return finished;
-            }),
-            actions: Effect.sync(() => {
-                const { events, after, removed } = MutableRef.get(cell);
-                return { events, after, removed };
-            })
-        };
-    })
-}) {
-}
-const withMetadata = (node) => ({ ...node.metadata, revision: node.revision });
-const withEntries = (directory, edit) => {
-    const entries = new Map(directory.entries);
-    edit(entries);
-    return { ...directory, entries };
-};
-const withoutLink = (links, parent, name) => {
-    const index = links.findIndex((link) => link.parent === parent && link.name === name);
-    return index < 0 ? links : [...links.slice(0, index), ...links.slice(index + 1)];
-};
 /** @internal */
 export const VolumeSource = Data.taggedEnum();
-const UpdateChange = Schema.TaggedStruct("Update", { path: BytePath });
 const RescanChange = Schema.TaggedStruct("Rescan", { path: BytePath });
 const RemoveChange = Schema.TaggedStruct("Remove", { path: BytePath });
 const observeChanges = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (captured) {
@@ -253,16 +71,17 @@ const observeChanges = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (captured) {
     return observation;
 });
 const randomHex128 = Effect.gen(function* () {
+    // TODO: (#304) Use SecureRandom for construction once its service is released; retain 16-byte IDs.
     const crypto = yield* Crypto.Crypto;
     return Hex.encode(yield* crypto.randomBytes(16));
 }).pipe(Effect.orDie);
 /** @internal */
 export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, commitProvider, options, durability = "memory-only") {
-    const services = yield* Effect.context();
-    // These accessors run inside synchronous transition callbacks. The runner is reached only when an invariant fails.
-    const dieInvariant = (message) => Effect.runSyncWith(services)(Effect.die(message));
     const live = Predicate.isTagged("Live")(source) ? source.restored : undefined;
     const decoded = yield* Effect.fromResult(Limits.configuration(options));
+    if (decoded.options.execution === "sync" && commitProvider !== memoryCommitProvider) {
+        return yield* argumentFailure("make", "execution");
+    }
     const requested = decoded.limits;
     const limits = live === undefined ? requested : yield* Effect.fromResult(Limits.fromStored(live.limits, requested));
     const identity = live?.identity ?? (decoded.identity === undefined
@@ -279,32 +98,7 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, commitProvider, o
     if (!isTimestamp(initialTime)) {
         return yield* argumentFailure("make", "clock.currentTimeNanos");
     }
-    const timestamp = (op) => Effect.suspend(() => {
-        const now = clock.currentTimeNanosUnsafe();
-        return isTimestamp(now)
-            ? Effect.succeed(now)
-            : Effect.fail(op.fail("InvalidArgument"));
-    });
-    const volumeIdentity = Symbol();
-    const directoryHolds = new Map();
-    const maxPendingOperations = limits.maxPendingOperations;
-    const permits = maxPendingOperations + 1;
-    const gate = Semaphore.makeUnsafe(permits);
-    // The gate hands permits to whichever waiter it can satisfy, so a change waiting for every permit would be
-    // overtaken by each later observation. A change holds a turnstile while it gathers the permits, and an
-    // observation passes the turnstile before it takes one, so observations that arrive after a change wait
-    // behind it. The turnstile goes to its waiters in arrival order, even to one that arrives while a finished
-    // change is still releasing. Both waits stay interruptible, and every permit is taken and released by
-    // `withPermits`.
-    const turnstile = makeTurnstile();
-    const observing = (effect) => Effect.andThen(turnstile.withTurn(Effect.void), gate.withPermits(1)(effect));
-    const changing = (effect) => turnstile.withTurn(gate.withPermits(permits)(effect));
-    const admission = yield* Semaphore.make(permits);
-    const admit = (op, effect) => admission.withPermitsIfAvailable(1)(effect).pipe(Effect.flatMap(Option.match({
-        onNone: () => op.fail("VolumeBusy"),
-        onSome: Effect.succeed
-    })));
-    let state = emptyState(initialTime);
+    let state;
     const maxFileBytes = Number(ByteSize.toBigInt(limits.maxFileBytes));
     if (Predicate.isTagged("Restored")(source)) {
         const restored = yield* reachableValue(source.value);
@@ -319,142 +113,17 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, commitProvider, o
     }
     if (live !== undefined)
         state = live.value;
-    const view = (ino) => Effect.flatMap(Effect.serviceOption(Draft), (draft) => Option.isSome(draft) ? draft.value.get(ino) : Effect.sync(() => getNode(state, ino)));
-    const registry = TokenRegistry.make(volumeIdentity, view);
-    const referenceFor = registry.referenceFor;
-    const makeFileReference = registry.file;
-    const makeDirectoryReference = registry.directory;
-    let available = true;
-    const checkAvailable = (operation) => Effect.suspend(() => available ? Effect.void : Effect.fail(fsFailure("VolumeUnavailable", operation)));
-    const watchCoordinate = (effect) => changing(effect);
-    const watchHub = yield* WatchHub.make(watchCoordinate, limits.maxWatchEvents);
-    const install = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (finished) {
-        const before = state;
-        state = yield* finished.finish;
-        const actions = yield* finished.actions;
-        for (const ino of actions.removed)
-            registry.forget(ino);
-        for (const apply of actions.after)
-            apply();
-        const after = state;
-        watchHub.publishUnsafe(() => actions.events.flatMap((events) => Array.from(events(after))), { before, after });
-    });
-    const transition = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (change) {
-        const current = yield* Draft.make(state);
-        const value = yield* Effect.provideService(change, Draft, current);
-        return [value, current];
-    });
-    // Cleanup releases local ownership even when storage refuses; that divergence disables the volume.
-    const committed = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (op, finished, cleanup) {
-        if ((yield* finished.unchanged) || (cleanup && !available))
-            return yield* install(finished);
-        const next = yield* finished.finish;
-        const answer = yield* offerCommit(commitProvider, op.operation, next, cleanup);
-        if (!answer.available)
-            available = false;
-        if (answer.failure !== undefined) {
-            if (cleanup)
-                yield* install(finished);
-            return yield* answer.failure;
-        }
-        yield* install(finished);
-    });
-    const applyCleanup = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (change) {
-        const current = yield* Draft.make(state);
-        yield* Effect.provideService(change(current), Draft, current);
-        yield* committed(OpContext.make("close"), current, true);
-    });
-    const annotateFailure = (error) => Effect.annotateCurrentSpan({ operation: error.operation, code: error.code });
-    // Permit waits stay interruptible. Memory transitions are masked; durable transitions remain
-    // interruptible until the candidate is ready. Every provider commit and installation is masked.
-    const coordinated = (op, effect, cleanup = false) => admit(op, changing(Effect.uninterruptibleMask((restore) => {
-        const staged = transition(Effect.andThen(checkAvailable(op.operation), effect));
-        return Effect.flatMap(commitProvider.mode === "memory" ? staged : restore(staged), ([value, finished]) => Effect.as(committed(op, finished, cleanup), value));
-    }))).pipe(Effect.tapError((error) => Schema.is(VfsError)(error) ? annotateFailure(error) : Effect.void));
-    const coordinatedRead = (op, effect) => admit(op, observing(Effect.andThen(checkAvailable(op.operation), effect))).pipe(Effect.tapError((error) => Schema.is(VfsError)(error) ? annotateFailure(error) : Effect.void));
-    const refreshAccess = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (read) {
-        if (refreshDue(read)) {
-            const { node, now } = read.access;
-            const draft = yield* Draft;
-            yield* draft.putQuiet({ ...node, metadata: { ...node.metadata, atimeNs: now } });
-        }
-        return read.value;
-    });
-    // A read that may refresh an access time. It observes under one permit, so reads run beside each other, and
-    // only when the access time is due does it run again as a change. The change repeats every check and the rule,
-    // since another read may have refreshed the time meanwhile, and its result is the one returned.
-    const accessing = (op, read) => Effect.flatMap(coordinatedRead(op, read), (observed) => refreshDue(observed)
-        ? coordinated(op, Effect.flatMap(read, refreshAccess))
-        : Effect.succeed(observed.value));
-    const coordinatedCleanup = (effect) => changing(Effect.uninterruptible(effect));
-    const shutdown = commitProvider.mode === "memory" ? commitProvider.shutdown : changing(Effect.uninterruptible(Effect.andThen(Effect.sync(() => {
-        available = false;
-    }), commitProvider.shutdown)));
-    const pathOf = (get, ino) => {
-        const names = [];
-        let node = get(ino);
-        if (node?.kind !== "directory" || node.metadata.nlink === 0)
-            return undefined;
-        while (node.ino !== ROOT_INO) {
-            names.push(node.name);
-            const parent = get(node.parent);
-            if (parent?.kind !== "directory" || parent.metadata.nlink === 0)
-                return undefined;
-            node = parent;
-        }
-        return SLASH_HEX + names.reverse().join(SLASH_HEX);
-    };
-    const pathOfCurrent = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (ino) {
-        const names = [];
-        const first = yield* view(ino);
-        if (first?.kind !== "directory" || first.metadata.nlink === 0)
-            return undefined;
-        let node = first;
-        while (node.ino !== ROOT_INO) {
-            names.push(node.name);
-            const parent = yield* view(node.parent);
-            if (parent?.kind !== "directory" || parent.metadata.nlink === 0)
-                return undefined;
-            node = parent;
-        }
-        return SLASH_HEX + names.reverse().join(SLASH_HEX);
-    });
-    const entryPath = (prefix, name) => ownedPath(nameBytes(prefix + (prefix === SLASH_HEX ? "" : SLASH_HEX) + name));
-    const publishEntry = (_tag, parent, name, ino) => Effect.flatMap(Draft, (draft) => draft.publish((installed) => {
-        const prefix = pathOf((at) => getNode(installed, at), parent);
-        return prefix === undefined ? [] : [{ change: { _tag, path: entryPath(prefix, name) }, parent, ino }];
-    }));
-    const publishNode = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (ino) {
-        const draft = yield* Draft;
-        const target = yield* draft.get(ino);
-        if (target === undefined)
-            return;
-        if (target.kind === "directory") {
-            yield* draft.publish((installed) => {
-                const directory = getNode(installed, ino);
-                const path = pathOf((at) => getNode(installed, at), ino);
-                return path === undefined || directory?.kind !== "directory"
-                    ? []
-                    : [{ change: UpdateChange.make({ path: ownedPath(nameBytes(path)) }), parent: directory.parent, ino }];
-            });
-            return;
-        }
-        const links = target.links;
-        yield* draft.publish((installed) => {
-            const events = [];
-            for (const link of links) {
-                const prefix = pathOf((at) => getNode(installed, at), link.parent);
-                if (prefix !== undefined) {
-                    events.push({
-                        change: UpdateChange.make({ path: entryPath(prefix, link.name) }),
-                        parent: link.parent,
-                        ino
-                    });
-                }
-            }
-            return events;
-        });
+    let watchHub;
+    const { maxWatchEvents, ...basicLimits } = limits;
+    const engine = yield* Engine.makeEngine({
+        execution: decoded.options.execution,
+        limits: basicLimits,
+        initialTime,
+        initialState: state,
+        commitProvider,
+        installed: (events, installation) => watchHub.publishUnsafe(events, installation)
     });
+    watchHub = yield* WatchHub.make(engine.coordinate, maxWatchEvents, engine.execution === "sync");
     const pathsOf = (installed, ino) => {
         const node = getNode(installed, ino);
         if (node === undefined)
@@ -488,10 +157,7 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, commitProvider, o
         includes: () => true,
         rescan: () => ({ change: RescanChange.make({ path: rootPath() }), parent: ROOT_INO, ino: ROOT_INO })
     };
-    const scopeRoot = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (scope, op) {
-        const node = yield* TokenRegistry.nodeOrFail(yield* registry.resolve(scope, "reference"), "reference", op);
-        return node.metadata.nlink === 0 ? yield* op.fail("StaleReference") : node.ino;
-    });
+    const scopeRoot = engine.watchRoot;
     // A watch of one object, and of its subtree when recursive. Membership is read from the installed tree when
     // each event is offered, so it follows renames of the scope and its ancestors. When the object's last name is
     // gone the watch reports its removal from the names it had and ends; that Remove is held back for the end of
@@ -517,12 +183,15 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, commitProvider, o
                 : undefined
         };
     };
-    const captureState = Effect.fnUntraced(function* () {
-        const captured = state;
+    // Cooperative capture retains its established ordering; sync summaries run after immutable capture.
+    const capture = (operation, read) => engine.cooperativeCapture === undefined
+        ? Effect.flatMap(engine.capture(operation), read)
+        : engine.cooperativeCapture(operation, read);
+    const captureState = capture("capture", Effect.fnUntraced(function* (captured) {
         const snapshot = Image.make(captured);
         yield* (yield* VolumeTestSeams).betweenSnapshotAndSummary;
         return { snapshot, observation: yield* observeChanges(captured) };
-    });
+    }));
     const keyTag = (ino) => {
         const message = new Uint8Array(40);
         message.set(identityBytes);
@@ -530,1538 +199,32 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, commitProvider, o
         new DataView(message.buffer).setBigUint64(32, ino);
         return hmacSha256(keySecretBytes, message).subarray(0, 16);
     };
-    const holdDirectory = (ino) => {
-        directoryHolds.set(ino, (directoryHolds.get(ino) ?? 0) + 1);
-    };
-    const unholdDirectory = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (ino) {
-        const count = (directoryHolds.get(ino) ?? 1) - 1;
-        if (count > 0) {
-            directoryHolds.set(ino, count);
-            return;
-        }
-        directoryHolds.delete(ino);
-        const node = getNode(state, ino);
-        if (node?.kind === "directory" && node.metadata.nlink === 0) {
-            yield* applyCleanup((d) => d.remove(ino));
-        }
-    });
-    const releaseDirectory = (reference) => TokenRegistry.release(reference, unholdDirectory, (action) => Effect.sync(action));
-    const finalizeDirectory = (reference) => {
-        const close = coordinatedCleanup(releaseDirectory(reference));
-        return TokenRegistry.finalize(reference, close, Effect.ignore(close));
-    };
-    const closeReleasedScope = TokenRegistry.closeReleasedScope;
-    const permitted = Resolution.permitted;
-    const authorize = Resolution.authorize;
-    const reclaim = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (d, ino) {
-        const node = yield* d.get(ino);
-        if (node === undefined)
-            return;
-        if (node.kind === "file") {
-            if (node.links.length > 0 || (yield* d.openCount(ino)) > 0)
-                return;
-            yield* d.addUsedBytes(-BigInt(node.data.length));
-        }
-        else if (node.kind === "symlink") {
-            if (node.links.length > 0)
-                return;
-            yield* d.addUsedBytes(-BigInt(node.target.length));
-        }
-        else if (node.metadata.nlink > 0 || directoryHolds.has(ino))
-            return;
-        yield* d.remove(ino);
-    });
-    const atEntryLimit = Effect.gen(function* () {
-        const draft = yield* Draft;
-        return limits.maxEntries !== undefined && (yield* draft.entries) >= limits.maxEntries;
-    });
-    const reserveEntry = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (op) {
-        const draft = yield* Draft;
-        if ((yield* atEntryLimit) || !(yield* draft.canAllocate))
-            return yield* op.fail("NoSpace");
-    });
-    const reserveInode = (op) => Effect.flatMap(Draft, (draft) => Effect.flatMap(draft.canAllocate, (available) => available ? Effect.void : Effect.fail(op.fail("NoSpace"))));
-    const reserveBytes = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (op, bytes) {
-        if (limits.maxBytes === undefined)
-            return;
-        const draft = yield* Draft;
-        if (bytes > ByteSize.toBigInt(limits.maxBytes) - (yield* draft.usedBytes)) {
-            return yield* op.fail("NoSpace");
-        }
-    });
-    const attach = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (parent, name, child, now) {
-        const d = yield* Draft;
-        yield* d.put(withEntries({
-            ...parent,
-            metadata: {
-                ...parent.metadata,
-                nlink: parent.metadata.nlink + (child.kind === "directory" ? 1 : 0),
-                mtimeNs: now,
-                ctimeNs: now
-            }
-        }, (entries) => entries.set(name, child.ino)));
-        if (child.kind === "directory")
-            yield* d.put({ ...child, parent: parent.ino, name });
-        else {
-            yield* d.put({
-                ...child,
-                links: [...child.links, { parent: parent.ino, name }],
-                metadata: { ...child.metadata, nlink: child.links.length + 1, ctimeNs: now }
-            });
-        }
-    });
-    const detach = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (child, parent, name, now) {
-        const d = yield* Draft;
-        if (child.kind === "directory") {
-            yield* d.put({ ...child, metadata: { ...child.metadata, nlink: 0, ctimeNs: now } });
-        }
-        else {
-            const links = withoutLink(child.links, parent, name);
-            yield* d.put({ ...child, links, metadata: { ...child.metadata, nlink: links.length, ctimeNs: now } });
-        }
-        yield* reclaim(d, child.ino);
-    });
-    const releaseFileInode = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (ino) {
-        const d = yield* Draft;
-        yield* d.release(ino);
-        yield* reclaim(d, ino);
-    });
-    const releaseFile = (ref) => TokenRegistry.release(ref, releaseFileInode, (action) => Effect.sync(action));
-    const releaseOpenFile = (ref) => Effect.ignore(coordinatedCleanup(Effect.suspend(() => TokenRegistry.inode(ref) === undefined ? Effect.void : applyCleanup(() => releaseFile(ref)))));
-    // Admission refusal leaves the handle open. Every admitted close shares the registry release,
-    // and a storage failure still completes cleanup while only explicit close reports the failure.
-    const closeFile = (ref, op, check) => coordinated(op, Effect.andThen(check, TokenRegistry.release(ref, releaseFileInode, (action) => Effect.flatMap(Draft, (draft) => draft.afterInstall(action)))), true).pipe(Effect.tapError((error) => error.code === "VolumeBusy" ? Effect.void : releaseOpenFile(ref)));
-    const finalizeFile = (ref) => TokenRegistry.finalize(ref, closeFile(ref, OpContext.make("close"), Effect.void), releaseOpenFile(ref));
-    const acquireHandle = TokenRegistry.acquire;
-    const bindFile = (ref, ino) => Effect.flatMap(Draft, (draft) => draft.afterInstall(() => TokenRegistry.publish(ref, ino)));
-    const replaceContent = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (file, data, now, publish = true) {
-        const d = yield* Draft;
-        yield* d.addUsedBytes(BigInt(data.length - file.data.length));
-        yield* d.put({
-            ...file,
-            data,
-            metadata: {
-                ...file.metadata,
-                size: BigInt(data.length),
-                mode: file.metadata.mode & ~SET_ID_BITS,
-                mtimeNs: now,
-                ctimeNs: now
-            }
-        });
-        if (publish)
-            yield* publishNode(file.ino);
-    });
-    const resizeAt = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (file, length, now, op) {
-        if (length > BigInt(maxFileBytes))
-            return yield* op.fail("FileTooLarge");
-        const size = Number(length);
-        yield* reserveBytes(op, BigInt(size - file.data.length));
-        const data = new Uint8Array(size);
-        data.set(file.data.subarray(0, size));
-        yield* replaceContent(file, data, now, false);
-    });
-    const resize = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (file, length, op) {
-        if (!isLength(length))
-            return yield* op.fail("InvalidArgument");
-        yield* resizeAt(file, length, yield* timestamp(op), op);
-        yield* publishNode(file.ino);
-    });
-    const fileHandle = (ref) => {
-        const get = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (op, access) {
-            const ino = TokenRegistry.inode(ref);
-            const node = ino === undefined ? undefined : yield* view(ino);
-            if (node?.kind !== "file" || (access === "read" && ref.access === "write") ||
-                (access === "write" && ref.access === "read"))
-                return yield* op.fail("InvalidHandle");
-            return node;
-        });
-        const read = (maximum, position) => {
-            const op = OpContext.make(position === undefined ? "read" : "pread");
-            const readOp = OpContext.make("read");
-            const body = Effect.gen(function* () {
-                const file = yield* get(op, "read");
-                if (!isNatural(maximum))
-                    return yield* readOp.fail("InvalidArgument");
-                const offset = position ?? ref.offset;
-                if (!Predicate.isBigInt(offset) || offset < 0n || offset > MAX_FILE_OFFSET) {
-                    return yield* readOp.fail("InvalidArgument");
-                }
-                const start = Number(offset > file.metadata.size ? file.metadata.size : offset);
-                const data = file.data.slice(start, start + Math.min(maximum, file.data.length - start));
-                const eof = start + data.length >= file.data.length;
-                const access = maximum > 0 ? { node: file, now: yield* timestamp(readOp) } : undefined;
-                return { value: { bytes: data, eof, next: offset + BigInt(data.length) }, access };
-            });
-            // A positioned read runs beside other reads. A cursor read stays a change, since two reads beside each
-            // other would start at the same offset.
-            if (position !== undefined)
-                return Effect.map(accessing(op, body), ({ bytes, eof }) => ({ bytes, eof }));
-            return coordinated(op, Effect.gen(function* () {
-                const { bytes, eof, next } = yield* refreshAccess(yield* body);
-                const draft = yield* Draft;
-                yield* draft.afterInstall(() => {
-                    ref.offset = next;
-                });
-                return { bytes, eof };
-            }));
-        };
-        const write = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (input, position) {
-            const op = OpContext.make(position === undefined ? "write" : "pwrite");
-            const writeOp = OpContext.make("write");
-            if (!isAttachedBytes(input))
-                return yield* writeOp.fail("InvalidArgument");
-            const bytes = new Uint8Array(input);
-            return yield* coordinated(op, Effect.gen(function* () {
-                const file = yield* get(op, "write");
-                const offset = position ?? (ref.append ? file.metadata.size : ref.offset);
-                if (!Predicate.isBigInt(offset) || offset < 0n || offset > MAX_FILE_OFFSET) {
-                    return yield* writeOp.fail("InvalidArgument");
-                }
-                if (bytes.length === 0) {
-                    return 0;
-                }
-                if (offset >= BigInt(maxFileBytes))
-                    return yield* writeOp.fail("FileTooLarge");
-                const start = Number(offset);
-                const draft = yield* Draft;
-                const free = limits.maxBytes === undefined
-                    ? BigInt(maxFileBytes)
-                    : ByteSize.toBigInt(limits.maxBytes) - (yield* draft.usedBytes);
-                const maximumEnd = BigInt(file.data.length) + free;
-                const end = Number(BigInt(maxFileBytes) < maximumEnd ? BigInt(maxFileBytes) : maximumEnd);
-                const count = Math.min(bytes.length, Math.max(0, end - start));
-                if (count === 0)
-                    return yield* writeOp.fail("NoSpace");
-                const size = Math.max(file.data.length, start + count);
-                // Always detach before mutation. A same-sized write is the critical
-                // case: the current payload may belong to the base or a prior capture.
-                const data = new Uint8Array(size);
-                data.set(file.data);
-                const now = yield* timestamp(writeOp);
-                data.set(bytes.subarray(0, count), start);
-                yield* replaceContent(file, data, now);
-                if (position === undefined) {
-                    const next = offset + BigInt(count);
-                    yield* draft.afterInstall(() => {
-                        ref.offset = next;
-                    });
-                }
-                return count;
-            }));
-        });
-        const statOp = OpContext.make("stat");
-        const syncOp = OpContext.make("sync");
-        const closeOp = OpContext.make("close");
-        const handle = Object.freeze({
-            [FileHandleId]: true,
-            read: Effect.fn("FileHandle.read")(function* (maximum) {
-                return (yield* read(maximum)).bytes;
-            }),
-            pread: Effect.fn("FileHandle.pread")(function* (maximum, offset) {
-                return yield* read(maximum, offset);
-            }),
-            write: Effect.fn("FileHandle.write")(function* (bytes) {
-                return yield* write(bytes);
-            }),
-            pwrite: Effect.fn("FileHandle.pwrite")(function* (bytes, offset) {
-                return yield* write(bytes, offset);
-            }),
-            seek: Effect.fn("FileHandle.seek")(function* (offset, mode) {
-                const op = OpContext.make("seek");
-                return yield* coordinatedRead(op, Effect.uninterruptible(Effect.gen(function* () {
-                    const file = yield* get(op);
-                    if (!Predicate.isBigInt(offset) || !isSeekMode(mode)) {
-                        return yield* op.fail("InvalidArgument");
-                    }
-                    let next = mode === "current"
-                        ? ref.offset + offset
-                        : mode === "end"
-                            ? file.metadata.size + offset
-                            : offset;
-                    if (next < 0n || next > MAX_FILE_OFFSET) {
-                        return yield* op.fail("InvalidArgument");
-                    }
-                    if (mode === "data" || mode === "hole") {
-                        if (offset >= file.metadata.size)
-                            return yield* op.fail("NoData");
-                        if (mode === "hole")
-                            next = file.metadata.size;
-                    }
-                    ref.offset = next;
-                    return next;
-                })));
-            }),
-            truncate: Effect.fn("FileHandle.truncate")(function* (length) {
-                const op = OpContext.make("truncate");
-                return yield* coordinated(op, Effect.gen(function* () {
-                    yield* resize(yield* get(op, "write"), length, op);
-                }));
-            }),
-            stat: coordinatedRead(statOp, Effect.map(Effect.suspend(() => get(statOp)), withMetadata)).pipe(Effect.withSpan("FileHandle.stat")),
-            sync: coordinatedRead(syncOp, Effect.suspend(() => Effect.asVoid(get(syncOp)))).pipe(Effect.withSpan("FileHandle.sync")),
-            close: closeFile(ref, closeOp, Effect.suspend(() => get(closeOp))).pipe(Effect.ensuring(closeReleasedScope(ref)), Effect.withSpan("FileHandle.close"))
-        });
-        registry.registerFile(handle, ref);
-        return handle;
-    };
-    const createCaller = (reference, identity, umask) => {
-        const resolver = Resolution.make({
-            caller: reference,
-            get: view,
-            identity,
-            maxPathBytes: limits.maxPathBytes,
-            registry
-        });
-        const prepare = resolver.prepare;
-        const prepareEntry = resolver.prepareEntry;
-        const entryName = Resolution.entryName;
-        const resolveTarget = (target, op, options) => resolver.resolve(target, { kind: "Node", ...options }, op);
-        const resolveDirectory = resolver.directory;
-        const resolveEntry = (prepared, op) => resolver.resolve(prepared, { kind: "Parent" }, op);
-        const referencedNode = (target, op) => Effect.map(resolveTarget(Target.Reference({ reference: target }), op), (resolved) => resolved.node);
-        const directoryNow = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (ino) {
-            const node = yield* view(ino);
-            if (node?.kind !== "directory") {
-                return dieInvariant("Directory left the inode table during a transition");
-            }
-            return node;
-        });
-        const nodeNow = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (ino) {
-            const node = yield* view(ino);
-            if (node === undefined)
-                return dieInvariant("Inode left the table during a transition");
-            return node;
-        });
-        const creationTimes = (times, now) => ({
-            atimeNs: times?.access.kind === "value" ? times.access.nanoseconds : now,
-            mtimeNs: times?.modification.kind === "value" ? times.modification.nanoseconds : now
-        });
-        const newDirectory = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (parent, mode, now, times) {
-            const draft = yield* Draft;
-            const ino = yield* draft.allocate;
-            return {
-                kind: "directory",
-                ino,
-                parent: parent.ino,
-                name: "",
-                entries: new Map(),
-                metadata: {
-                    ...directoryMetadata(BigInt(ino), identity.uid, parent.metadata.gid, mode, now),
-                    ...creationTimes(times, now)
-                },
-                revision: 0n
-            };
-        });
-        const newFile = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (parent, data, mode, now, owner, times) {
-            const draft = yield* Draft;
-            const ino = yield* draft.allocate;
-            return {
-                kind: "file",
-                ino,
-                data,
-                links: [],
-                metadata: {
-                    ...directoryMetadata(BigInt(ino), owner?.uid ?? identity.uid, owner?.gid ?? parent.metadata.gid, mode, now),
-                    ...creationTimes(times, now),
-                    kind: "file",
-                    size: BigInt(data.length),
-                    nlink: 0
-                },
-                revision: 0n
-            };
-        });
-        const newSymlink = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (parent, target, now, times) {
-            const draft = yield* Draft;
-            const ino = yield* draft.allocate;
-            return {
-                kind: "symlink",
-                ino,
-                target,
-                links: [],
-                metadata: {
-                    ...directoryMetadata(BigInt(ino), identity.uid, parent.metadata.gid, 0o777, now),
-                    ...creationTimes(times, now),
-                    kind: "symlink",
-                    nlink: 0,
-                    size: BigInt(target.length)
-                },
-                revision: 0n
-            };
-        });
-        const grantedMode = (metadata, mode) => !identity.privileged && metadata.kind === "file" && !inGroup(identity, metadata.gid) ? mode & ~0o2000 : mode;
-        const permittedMode = (metadata, mode, op) => !identity.privileged && identity.uid !== metadata.uid
-            ? Effect.fail(op.fail("NotPermitted"))
-            : Effect.succeed(grantedMode(metadata, mode));
-        // Changes the attributes one change at a time would, as one change: one draft, one revision, one event.
-        // Every check runs against the node before any attribute applies, ownership (NotPermitted) before
-        // permission (AccessDenied), so the first failure leaves everything unchanged. The attributes apply as
-        // size, owner, mode, then times, the POSIX composition of chown then chmod, so a requested mode wins over
-        // the set-ID clearing that a resize or an owner change triggers; an adapter owns any protocol-specific
-        // sanitising of the mode, as NFS SETATTR does after knfsd. The attributes arrive validated; an owner with
-        // neither id still checks ownership, and times that omit both are no change and check nothing. An expected
-        // revision is checked first, against the target as the change finds it, so a caller that decided the
-        // attributes from an earlier observation learns the target moved instead of applying them to a newer state.
-        const changeAttributes = (resolve, attributes, op) => {
-            const { size, mode } = attributes;
-            const expected = attributes.expected?.revision;
-            const owner = attributes.owner === undefined ? undefined : { ...attributes.owner };
-            const times = attributes.times === undefined
-                ? undefined
-                : { access: { ...attributes.times.access }, modification: { ...attributes.times.modification } };
-            const timed = times !== undefined && (times.access.kind !== "omit" || times.modification.kind !== "omit");
-            const bothNow = times?.access.kind === "now" && times.modification.kind === "now";
-            const resolving = resolve();
-            return coordinated(op, Effect.gen(function* () {
-                const resolved = yield* resolving;
-                const node = yield* nodeNow(resolved.ino);
-                if (expected !== undefined && node.revision !== expected) {
-                    return yield* resolved.op.fail("StaleReference", { field: "expected" });
-                }
-                if (size !== undefined && node.kind === "symlink")
-                    return yield* resolved.op.fail("SymlinkLoop");
-                if (size !== undefined && node.kind !== "file")
-                    return yield* resolved.op.fail("IsDirectory");
-                const owns = identity.privileged || identity.uid === node.metadata.uid;
-                if ((mode !== undefined && !owns) ||
-                    (owner !== undefined && !identity.privileged && (!owns ||
-                        (owner.uid !== undefined && owner.uid !== node.metadata.uid) ||
-                        (owner.gid !== undefined && !inGroup(identity, owner.gid)))) ||
-                    // POSIX grants write access only when both times are UTIME_NOW; every other combination that
-                    // changes a time, mixed ones included, needs ownership.
-                    (timed && !owns && !bothNow)) {
-                    return yield* resolved.op.fail("NotPermitted");
-                }
-                if (size !== undefined || (timed && !owns))
-                    yield* authorize(node, identity, WRITE, resolved.op);
-                const chowned = owner?.uid !== undefined || owner?.gid !== undefined;
-                if (size === undefined && !chowned && mode === undefined && !timed)
-                    return;
-                const now = yield* timestamp(op);
-                if (size !== undefined && node.kind === "file")
-                    yield* resizeAt(node, size, now, op);
-                const sized = yield* nodeNow(resolved.ino);
-                const gid = owner?.gid ?? sized.metadata.gid;
-                const cleared = chowned && sized.kind === "file" ? sized.metadata.mode & ~SET_ID_BITS : sized.metadata.mode;
-                if (chowned || mode !== undefined || timed) {
-                    yield* (yield* Draft).put({
-                        ...sized,
-                        metadata: {
-                            ...sized.metadata,
-                            uid: owner?.uid ?? sized.metadata.uid,
-                            gid,
-                            mode: mode === undefined ? cleared : grantedMode({ kind: sized.kind, gid }, mode),
-                            atimeNs: timeAt(times?.access, sized.metadata.atimeNs, now),
-                            mtimeNs: timeAt(times?.modification, sized.metadata.mtimeNs, now),
-                            ctimeNs: now
-                        }
-                    });
-                }
-                yield* publishNode(node.ino);
-            }));
-        };
-        const authorizeRemoval = (parent, child, op) => (parent.metadata.mode & STICKY_BIT) !== 0 && !identity.privileged &&
-            identity.uid !== parent.metadata.uid && identity.uid !== child.metadata.uid
-            ? Effect.fail(op.fail("NotPermitted"))
-            : Effect.void;
-        const claimName = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (entry, trailingSlash = "allowed") {
-            const parent = yield* directoryNow(entry.parent);
-            if (isDotComponent(entry.name)) {
-                return yield* entry.op.fail(entry.addressing === "entry" ? "InvalidArgument" : "AlreadyExists");
-            }
-            yield* authorize(parent, identity, EXECUTE, entry.op);
-            if (parent.entries.has(entry.name))
-                return yield* entry.op.fail("AlreadyExists");
-            if (trailingSlash === "rejected" && entry.trailingSlash)
-                return yield* entry.op.fail("NotFound");
-            yield* authorize(parent, identity, WRITE, entry.op);
-            return entry.name;
-        });
-        const makeDirectory = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (entry, request, op) {
-            const name = yield* claimName(entry);
-            yield* reserveEntry(entry.op);
-            const parent = yield* directoryNow(entry.parent);
-            const before = parent.revision;
-            const now = yield* timestamp(op);
-            const mode = request.exactMode
-                ? yield* permittedMode({ kind: "directory", uid: identity.uid, gid: parent.metadata.gid }, request.mode, op)
-                : (request.mode & 0o777 & ~umask) | (request.mode & STICKY_BIT);
-            const child = yield* newDirectory(parent, mode, now, request.times);
-            yield* attach(parent, name, child, now);
-            const draft = yield* Draft;
-            yield* draft.addEntries(1);
-            yield* publishEntry("Create", parent.ino, name, child.ino);
-            return { child: child.ino, directory: { before, after: draft.revision } };
-        });
-        // Creates every missing directory a path names in the running transition, so a failure anywhere discards
-        // them all. The mode applies to each directory created and the times to the one in the final position. An
-        // entry names one child, created unless it is already a directory. The result names the directory the path
-        // ends on and its parent's revision before and after the call, so a final directory that already exists is
-        // no change, while a path that leaves a directory it created, such as `new/..`, reports the creation.
-        const makeDirectories = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (prepared, request, op) {
-            let node;
-            let entryOp = op;
-            const revisionsBefore = new Map();
-            if (prepared.kind === "entry") {
-                const entry = yield* resolveEntry(prepared, op);
-                const made = yield* Effect.result(makeDirectory(entry, request, op));
-                if (Result.isSuccess(made))
-                    return made.success;
-                const existingIno = entry.name === undefined
-                    ? undefined
-                    : (yield* directoryNow(entry.parent)).entries.get(entry.name);
-                node = existingIno === undefined ? undefined : (yield* view(existingIno));
-                if (made.failure.code !== "AlreadyExists" || node?.kind !== "directory")
-                    return yield* made.failure;
-            }
-            else {
-                entryOp = op.at(prepared.path.input);
-                const resolved = yield* resolver.resolve(Target.Path(prepared.base === undefined
-                    ? { path: prepared.path.input }
-                    : { path: prepared.path.input, relativeTo: prepared.base }), {
-                    kind: "Node",
-                    createMissing: (parent, name, final) => Effect.flatMap(makeDirectory({ parent: parent.ino, name, trailingSlash: false, addressing: "path", op: entryOp }, final ? request : { mode: request.mode, exactMode: request.exactMode }, op), (made) => {
-                        if (!revisionsBefore.has(parent.ino))
-                            revisionsBefore.set(parent.ino, made.directory.before);
-                        return directoryNow(made.child);
-                    })
-                }, op);
-                node = resolved.node;
-            }
-            if (node?.kind !== "directory")
-                return yield* entryOp.fail("AlreadyExists");
-            const after = (yield* directoryNow(node.parent)).revision;
-            return { child: node.ino, directory: { before: revisionsBefore.get(node.parent) ?? after, after } };
-        });
-        const linkNode = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (node, entry, op) {
-            const name = yield* claimName(entry, "rejected");
-            yield* reserveEntry(entry.op);
-            const parent = yield* directoryNow(entry.parent);
-            const before = parent.revision;
-            const now = yield* timestamp(op);
-            yield* attach(parent, name, node, now);
-            const draft = yield* Draft;
-            yield* draft.addEntries(1);
-            yield* publishEntry("Create", parent.ino, name, node.ino);
-            return { before, after: draft.revision };
-        });
-        const makeSymlink = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (entry, target, times, op) {
-            const name = yield* claimName(entry, "rejected");
-            yield* reserveEntry(entry.op);
-            yield* reserveBytes(entry.op, BigInt(target.length));
-            const parent = yield* directoryNow(entry.parent);
-            const before = parent.revision;
-            const now = yield* timestamp(op);
-            const child = yield* newSymlink(parent, target, now, times);
-            yield* attach(parent, name, child, now);
-            const draft = yield* Draft;
-            yield* draft.addEntries(1);
-            yield* draft.addUsedBytes(BigInt(target.length));
-            yield* publishEntry("Create", parent.ino, name, child.ino);
-            return { child: child.ino, directory: { before, after: draft.revision } };
-        });
-        const removeChild = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (parent, name, child, op) {
-            const before = parent.revision;
-            const now = yield* timestamp(op);
-            const d = yield* Draft;
-            yield* d.put(withEntries({
-                ...parent,
-                metadata: {
-                    ...parent.metadata,
-                    nlink: parent.metadata.nlink - (child.kind === "directory" ? 1 : 0),
-                    mtimeNs: now,
-                    ctimeNs: now
-                }
-            }, (entries) => entries.delete(name)));
-            yield* publishEntry("Remove", parent.ino, name, child.ino);
-            yield* detach(child, parent.ino, name, now);
-            yield* d.addEntries(-1);
-            return { before, after: d.revision };
-        });
-        // Authorizes removing from the entry's directory and returns the named child. Only a path can name a dot
-        // entry, and each verb reports it with its own code. Search permission comes before the lookup and write
-        // permission after it, as on Linux; `beforeWrite` holds the verb's own checks that Linux makes in between.
-        const removalTarget = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (entry, dotNameCode, beforeWrite) {
-            const parent = yield* directoryNow(entry.parent);
-            if (isDotComponent(entry.name)) {
-                return yield* entry.op.fail(entry.addressing === "entry" ? "InvalidArgument" : dotNameCode);
-            }
-            yield* authorize(parent, identity, EXECUTE, entry.op);
-            const childIno = parent.entries.get(entry.name);
-            const child = childIno === undefined ? undefined : (yield* view(childIno));
-            if (child === undefined)
-                return yield* entry.op.fail("NotFound");
-            const rejected = beforeWrite?.(child);
-            if (rejected !== undefined)
-                return yield* rejected;
-            yield* authorize(parent, identity, WRITE, entry.op);
-            return { parent, name: entry.name, child };
-        });
-        const removeEntry = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (entry, op) {
-            const { child, name, parent } = yield* removalTarget(entry, "InvalidArgument", (found) => entry.trailingSlash && found.kind !== "directory" ? entry.op.fail("NotDirectory") : undefined);
-            yield* authorizeRemoval(parent, child, entry.op);
-            if (child.kind === "directory" && child.entries.size > 0)
-                return yield* entry.op.fail("NotEmpty");
-            return yield* removeChild(parent, name, child, op);
-        });
-        const unlinkEntry = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (entry, op) {
-            const { child, name, parent } = yield* removalTarget(entry, "IsDirectory", (found) => !entry.trailingSlash
-                ? undefined
-                : entry.op.fail(found.kind === "directory" ? "IsDirectory" : "NotDirectory"));
-            if (child.kind === "directory")
-                return yield* entry.op.fail("IsDirectory");
-            yield* authorizeRemoval(parent, child, entry.op);
-            return yield* removeChild(parent, name, child, op);
-        });
-        const rmdirEntry = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (entry, op) {
-            const { child, name, parent } = yield* removalTarget(entry, "InvalidArgument");
-            yield* authorizeRemoval(parent, child, entry.op);
-            if (child.kind !== "directory")
-                return yield* entry.op.fail("NotDirectory");
-            if (child.entries.size > 0)
-                return yield* entry.op.fail("NotEmpty");
-            return yield* removeChild(parent, name, child, op);
-        });
-        const renameEntry = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, destination, op) {
-            const sourceDirectory = yield* directoryNow(source.parent);
-            const destinationDirectory = yield* directoryNow(destination.parent);
-            const sameDirectory = source.parent === destination.parent;
-            const sourceName = source.name;
-            const destinationName = destination.name;
-            if (isDotComponent(sourceName) || isDotComponent(destinationName)) {
-                return yield* source.op.fail("InvalidArgument");
-            }
-            // Linux's order: search permission on both directories before either name is looked up; the names,
-            // trailing slashes, the subtree rule and the same-object no-op; then write permission and the rest.
-            yield* authorize(sourceDirectory, identity, EXECUTE, source.op);
-            yield* authorize(destinationDirectory, identity, EXECUTE, destination.op);
-            const sourceBefore = sourceDirectory.revision;
-            const destinationBefore = destinationDirectory.revision;
-            const childIno = sourceDirectory.entries.get(sourceName);
-            const child = childIno === undefined ? undefined : (yield* view(childIno));
-            if (child === undefined)
-                return yield* source.op.fail("NotFound");
-            const replacedIno = destinationDirectory.entries.get(destinationName);
-            const replaced = replacedIno === undefined ? undefined : (yield* view(replacedIno));
-            // A trailing slash on either side asks for a directory; a missing slashed destination is fine when the
-            // source is one, as Linux allows.
-            if ((source.trailingSlash || destination.trailingSlash) && child.kind !== "directory") {
-                return yield* (source.trailingSlash ? source.op : destination.op).fail("NotDirectory");
-            }
-            if (destination.trailingSlash && replaced !== undefined && replaced.kind !== "directory") {
-                return yield* destination.op.fail("NotDirectory");
-            }
-            const result = Effect.fnUntraced(function* () {
-                return sameDirectory
-                    ? {
-                        _tag: "SameDirectory",
-                        directory: { before: sourceBefore, after: (yield* directoryNow(source.parent)).revision }
-                    }
-                    : {
-                        _tag: "DifferentDirectories",
-                        sourceDirectory: { before: sourceBefore, after: (yield* directoryNow(source.parent)).revision },
-                        destinationDirectory: {
-                            before: destinationBefore,
-                            after: (yield* directoryNow(destination.parent)).revision
-                        }
-                    };
-            });
-            for (let ancestor = destinationDirectory;; ancestor = yield* directoryNow(ancestor.parent)) {
-                if (ancestor.ino === child.ino)
-                    return yield* destination.op.fail("InvalidArgument");
-                if (ancestor.ino === ROOT_INO)
-                    break;
-            }
-            if (child.ino === replaced?.ino)
-                return yield* result();
-            yield* authorize(sourceDirectory, identity, WRITE, source.op);
-            yield* authorize(destinationDirectory, identity, WRITE, destination.op);
-            yield* authorizeRemoval(sourceDirectory, child, source.op);
-            if (replaced !== undefined) {
-                yield* authorizeRemoval(destinationDirectory, replaced, destination.op);
-                if (child.kind === "directory" && replaced.kind !== "directory") {
-                    return yield* destination.op.fail("NotDirectory");
-                }
-                if (child.kind !== "directory" && replaced.kind === "directory") {
-                    return yield* destination.op.fail("IsDirectory");
-                }
-                if (replaced.kind === "directory" && replaced.entries.size > 0) {
-                    return yield* destination.op.fail("NotEmpty");
-                }
-            }
-            const now = yield* timestamp(op);
-            const d = yield* Draft;
-            yield* publishEntry("Remove", sourceDirectory.ino, sourceName, child.ino);
-            yield* d.put(withEntries({
-                ...sourceDirectory,
-                metadata: {
-                    ...sourceDirectory.metadata,
-                    nlink: sourceDirectory.metadata.nlink - (child.kind === "directory" ? 1 : 0),
-                    mtimeNs: now,
-                    ctimeNs: now
-                }
-            }, (entries) => entries.delete(sourceName)));
-            const destinationNow = yield* directoryNow(destination.parent);
-            yield* d.put(withEntries({
-                ...destinationNow,
-                metadata: {
-                    ...destinationNow.metadata,
-                    nlink: destinationNow.metadata.nlink + (child.kind === "directory" && replaced === undefined ? 1 : 0),
-                    mtimeNs: now,
-                    ctimeNs: now
-                }
-            }, (entries) => entries.set(destinationName, child.ino)));
-            const moved = yield* nodeNow(child.ino);
-            if (moved.kind === "directory") {
-                yield* d.put({
-                    ...moved,
-                    parent: destination.parent,
-                    name: destinationName,
-                    metadata: { ...moved.metadata, ctimeNs: now }
-                });
-            }
-            else {
-                yield* d.put({
-                    ...moved,
-                    links: [
-                        ...withoutLink(moved.links, source.parent, sourceName),
-                        { parent: destination.parent, name: destinationName }
-                    ],
-                    metadata: { ...moved.metadata, ctimeNs: now }
-                });
-            }
-            if (replaced !== undefined) {
-                yield* detach(yield* nodeNow(replaced.ino), destination.parent, destinationName, now);
-                yield* d.addEntries(-1);
-            }
-            yield* publishEntry("Create", destination.parent, destinationName, child.ino);
-            return yield* result();
-        });
-        const openExisting = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (file, request, at, op) {
-            yield* authorize(file, identity, request.access === "read" ? READ : request.access === "write" ? WRITE : READ | WRITE, at);
-            if (request.truncate)
-                yield* resize(file, 0n, op);
-        });
-        const openFile = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (entry, found, request, acquired, op) {
-            const { name } = entry;
-            const parent = yield* directoryNow(entry.parent);
-            const before = parent.revision;
-            let file = found;
-            let created = false;
-            if (file === undefined) {
-                if (request.create === undefined || request.create === "never")
-                    return yield* entry.op.fail("NotFound");
-                yield* authorize(parent, identity, WRITE | EXECUTE, entry.op);
-                yield* reserveEntry(entry.op);
-                const size = request.initialSize ?? 0n;
-                if (request.initialSize !== undefined) {
-                    if (size < 0n)
-                        return yield* entry.op.fail("InvalidArgument");
-                    if (size > BigInt(maxFileBytes))
-                        return yield* entry.op.fail("FileTooLarge");
-                    yield* reserveBytes(entry.op, size);
-                }
-                const owner = request.owner;
-                if (!identity.privileged &&
-                    ((owner?.uid !== undefined && owner.uid !== identity.uid) ||
-                        (owner?.gid !== undefined && !inGroup(identity, owner.gid)))) {
-                    return yield* entry.op.fail("NotPermitted");
-                }
-                const now = yield* timestamp(op);
-                const mode = request.exactMode
-                    ? yield* permittedMode({ kind: "file", uid: owner?.uid ?? identity.uid, gid: owner?.gid ?? parent.metadata.gid }, request.mode, op)
-                    : (request.mode ?? 0o666) & 0o777 & ~umask;
-                file = yield* newFile(parent, new Uint8Array(Number(size)), mode, now, owner, request.times);
-                yield* attach(parent, name, file, now);
-                const draft = yield* Draft;
-                yield* draft.addEntries(1);
-                yield* draft.addUsedBytes(size);
-                created = true;
-                yield* publishEntry("Create", parent.ino, name, file.ino);
-            }
-            else {
-                if (file.kind === "symlink")
-                    return yield* entry.op.fail("SymlinkLoop");
-                if (file.kind !== "file")
-                    return yield* entry.op.fail("IsDirectory");
-                yield* openExisting(file, request, entry.op, op);
-            }
-            yield* (yield* Draft).retain(file.ino);
-            yield* bindFile(acquired, file.ino);
-            return { ino: file.ino, created, directory: { before, after: (yield* directoryNow(entry.parent)).revision } };
-        });
-        const releasePending = (opened) => () => Effect.gen(function* () {
-            const ino = opened();
-            if (ino === undefined)
-                return;
-            yield* releaseFileInode(ino);
-        });
-        const acquireOpenedFile = (ref, op, acquire) => {
-            let opened;
-            return acquireHandle(ref, (effect) => coordinated(op, effect), acquire((ino) => {
-                opened = ino;
-            }), releasePending(() => opened), finalizeFile(ref));
-        };
-        const asResolvedNode = (target, op, options) => Effect.map(resolveTarget(target, op, options), (resolved) => ({ ino: resolved.node.ino, op: resolved.op }));
-        const asTarget = (input) => Target.of(input);
-        const acquireDirectory = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (input, op) {
-            const target = asTarget(input);
-            const acquired = makeDirectoryReference();
-            return yield* acquireHandle(acquired, (acquire) => coordinatedRead(op, Effect.uninterruptible(acquire)), Effect.gen(function* () {
-                const directory = yield* resolveDirectory(target, op);
-                yield* authorize(directory.node, identity, EXECUTE, directory.op);
-                holdDirectory(directory.node.ino);
-                TokenRegistry.publish(acquired, directory.node.ino);
-                return acquired;
-            }), 
-            // Nothing to undo here: the finalizer that follows an interrupted acquisition releases the hold under
-            // every permit, where a detached directory may leave the table.
-            () => Effect.void, finalizeDirectory(acquired));
-        });
-        const fail = (op, cause, field) => op.fail("InvalidArgument", field === undefined ? { cause } : { cause, field });
-        const preparedOp = (prepared, op) => prepared.kind === "path" ? op.at(prepared.path.input) : op;
-        const openPath = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (target, options, op) {
-            const pathOp = op.at(target.path);
-            const prepared = prepare(target.path, op);
-            const chosen = yield* decodeOpenOptions(options).pipe(Effect.mapError((cause) => fail(pathOp, cause)));
-            if (chosen.access === "read" && (chosen.append || chosen.truncate)) {
-                return yield* pathOp.fail("InvalidArgument");
-            }
-            if (chosen.mode !== undefined && (chosen.create === undefined || chosen.create === "never")) {
-                return yield* pathOp.fail("InvalidArgument");
-            }
-            const acquired = makeFileReference(chosen.access, chosen.append ?? false);
-            const follow = target.followFinalSymlink ?? true;
-            return yield* acquireOpenedFile(acquired, op, (opened) => Effect.gen(function* () {
-                const path = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared);
-                const resolved = yield* resolver.resolve({ kind: "path", path, base: target.relativeTo }, {
-                    kind: "OrCreate",
-                    create: chosen.create ?? "never",
-                    finalSymlink: follow ? "follow" : "preserve"
-                }, op);
-                const { parent, name } = resolved;
-                if (resolved.kind === "missing" && path.trailingSlash)
-                    return yield* pathOp.fail("IsDirectory");
-                yield* authorize(parent, identity, EXECUTE, pathOp);
-                const file = resolved.kind === "existing" ? resolved.node : undefined;
-                const result = yield* openFile({ parent: parent.ino, name, trailingSlash: path.trailingSlash, addressing: "path", op: pathOp }, file, chosen, acquired, op);
-                opened(result.ino);
-                return fileHandle(acquired);
-            }));
-        });
-        const openNode = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (target, options, op) {
-            const chosen = yield* decodeOpenOptions(options).pipe(Effect.mapError((cause) => fail(op, cause)));
-            if (chosen.access === "read" && (chosen.append || chosen.truncate))
-                return yield* op.fail("InvalidArgument");
-            if ((chosen.create !== undefined && chosen.create !== "never") || chosen.mode !== undefined) {
-                return yield* op.fail("InvalidArgument");
-            }
-            const acquired = makeFileReference(chosen.access, chosen.append ?? false);
-            return yield* acquireOpenedFile(acquired, op, (opened) => Effect.gen(function* () {
-                const resolved = yield* resolveTarget(target, op);
-                const node = resolved.node;
-                if (node.kind !== "file")
-                    return yield* resolved.op.fail("IsDirectory");
-                if (node.metadata.nlink === 0)
-                    return yield* resolved.op.fail("StaleReference");
-                yield* openExisting(node, chosen, resolved.op, op);
-                const draft = yield* Draft;
-                yield* draft.retain(node.ino);
-                yield* bindFile(acquired, node.ino);
-                opened(node.ino);
-                return fileHandle(acquired);
-            }));
-        });
-        const openEntry = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (entry, options, op) {
-            const name = yield* Effect.fromResult(entryName(entry.name, op));
-            const decoded = yield* decodeOpenEntryOptions(options).pipe(Effect.mapError((cause) => fail(op, cause)));
-            const chosen = { ...decoded };
-            if (chosen.access === "read" && (chosen.append || chosen.truncate))
-                return yield* op.fail("InvalidArgument");
-            if ((chosen.mode !== undefined || chosen.times !== undefined || chosen.initialSize !== undefined ||
-                chosen.exactMode !== undefined || chosen.owner !== undefined) &&
-                (chosen.create === undefined || chosen.create === "never")) {
-                return yield* op.fail("InvalidArgument");
-            }
-            if (chosen.exactMode && chosen.mode === undefined)
-                return yield* op.fail("InvalidArgument");
-            const acquired = makeFileReference(chosen.access, chosen.append ?? false);
-            const expected = chosen.expected;
-            return yield* acquireOpenedFile(acquired, op, (opened) => Effect.gen(function* () {
-                const resolved = yield* resolver.resolve({ kind: "entry", directory: entry.directory, name }, {
-                    kind: "OrCreate",
-                    create: chosen.create ?? "never",
-                    finalSymlink: chosen.followFinalSymlink !== false ? "follow" : "preserve",
-                    beforeFollow: Effect.fnUntraced(function* (_, direct) {
-                        if (expected !== undefined) {
-                            let expectedIno;
-                            if (expected !== null) {
-                                const observed = yield* Effect.result(referencedNode(expected, op));
-                                if (Result.isFailure(observed)) {
-                                    return yield* op.fail("VolumeBusy", { cause: observed.failure });
-                                }
-                                expectedIno = observed.success.ino;
-                            }
-                            if (direct?.ino !== expectedIno)
-                                return yield* op.fail("VolumeBusy");
-                        }
-                        if (chosen.expectedChild === null) {
-                            if (direct !== undefined)
-                                return yield* op.fail("StaleReference");
-                        }
-                        else if (chosen.expectedChild !== undefined) {
-                            const expectedChild = chosen.expectedChild;
-                            const observed = yield* referencedNode(expectedChild.reference, op);
-                            if (direct?.ino !== observed.ino || observed.revision !== expectedChild.revision ||
-                                observed.metadata.atimeNs !== expectedChild.atimeNs ||
-                                observed.metadata.mtimeNs !== expectedChild.mtimeNs) {
-                                return yield* op.fail("StaleReference");
-                            }
-                        }
-                    })
-                }, op);
-                const file = resolved.kind === "existing" ? resolved.node : undefined;
-                const mutationParent = resolved.kind === "missing" ? resolved.parent.ino : resolved.origin.parent.ino;
-                const mutationName = resolved.kind === "missing" ? resolved.name : resolved.origin.name;
-                const result = yield* openFile({ parent: mutationParent, name: mutationName, trailingSlash: false, addressing: "entry", op }, file, { ...chosen, initialSize: chosen.initialSize ?? 0n }, acquired, op);
-                opened(result.ino);
-                return {
-                    handle: fileHandle(acquired),
-                    reference: referenceFor(result.ino),
-                    created: result.created,
-                    directory: result.directory
-                };
-            }));
-        });
-        const walkChildren = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (directory, path, depth, up) {
-            const listed = referenceFor(directory.ino);
-            const frames = [];
-            for (const [name, childIno] of Arr.sort(directory.entries, byEntryName)) {
-                const child = yield* view(childIno);
-                if (child === undefined)
-                    continue;
-                const bytes = nameBytes(name);
-                frames.push({
-                    ino: child.ino,
-                    kind: child.kind,
-                    name: bytes,
-                    key: name,
-                    path: joinPath(path, bytes),
-                    parent: directory.ino,
-                    up,
-                    depth: depth + 1,
-                    bytes: child.kind === "directory" ? 0n : child.metadata.size,
-                    reference: referenceFor(child.ino),
-                    directory: listed,
-                    listed: false
-                });
-            }
-            return frames;
-        });
-        const anchorFrame = (parent, key, root) => ({
-            ino: root.ino,
-            kind: root.kind,
-            name: nameBytes(key),
-            key,
-            path: new Uint8Array(0),
-            parent: parent.ino,
-            up: undefined,
-            depth: 0,
-            bytes: 0n,
-            reference: referenceFor(root.ino),
-            directory: referenceFor(parent.ino),
-            listed: false
-        });
-        const pathAnchor = (target, root, op) => {
-            if (!Target.$is("Path")(target))
-                return Effect.undefined;
-            const prepared = prepare(target.path, op);
-            if (Result.isFailure(prepared))
-                return Effect.undefined;
-            return resolveEntry({ kind: "path", path: prepared.success, base: target.relativeTo }, op).pipe(Effect.flatMap((entry) => Effect.map(view(entry.parent), (parent) => {
-                return entry.name !== undefined && parent?.kind === "directory" &&
-                    parent.entries.get(entry.name) === root.ino
-                    ? anchorFrame(parent, entry.name, root)
-                    : undefined;
-            })), Effect.catch(() => Effect.undefined));
-        };
-        const holds = (parent, frame) => parent?.kind === "directory" && parent.metadata.nlink > 0 && parent.entries.get(frame.key) === frame.ino;
-        // The node a frame names, reached by name from the walk's root as a path lookup reaches it: every directory on
-        // the way must be searchable and must still hold the name the walk listed for the object it listed. A frame
-        // whose chain no longer holds it, such as a directory renamed out of the tree, reaches nothing. A root the
-        // walk reached by name is anchored by that name, so a root moved away reaches nothing too; a root reached
-        // through a reference or a handle is held by the object it resolved to, as a descriptor holds it.
-        // It steps down the chain in a loop, so a tree of any depth reaches its frames without deepening the stack.
-        const reachFrame = (frame, at) => Effect.gen(function* () {
-            const chain = [];
-            for (let link = frame; link !== undefined; link = link.up)
-                chain.push(link);
-            let node = yield* view((chain.at(-1) ?? frame).parent);
-            for (let index = chain.length - 1; index >= 0; index--) {
-                const link = chain[index];
-                if (link === undefined || node?.kind !== "directory" || node.metadata.nlink === 0)
-                    return undefined;
-                yield* authorize(node, identity, EXECUTE, at);
-                node = node.entries.get(link.key) === link.ino ? (yield* view(link.ino)) : undefined;
-            }
-            return node;
-        });
-        // Walks the tree below the directory `first` lists, depth first. Every later directory is read in its own
-        // observation, so a walk holds one permit at a time and never a handle; it writes nothing, so it refreshes no
-        // access time. Each directory is reached by name, so it needs search permission on the directories above it,
-        // and one that left the tree after it was listed has nothing to walk. A directory past `maxDepth` is never
-        // read. `locate` names an entry's path in a failure, and `listable` authorizes reading a directory. Entries
-        // gathered before a failure are handed on before the failure is.
-        const walkFrames = (op, first, plan, locate, listable) => Stream.suspend(() => {
-            let pending;
-            let entries = 0;
-            let bytes = 0n;
-            let failure;
-            const list = (frame) => coordinatedRead(op, Effect.suspend(() => {
-                if (TokenRegistry.inode(reference) === undefined)
-                    return Effect.fail(op.fail("ClosedCaller"));
-                const at = op.at(locate(frame.path));
-                return Effect.flatMap(reachFrame(frame, at), (node) => node?.kind !== "directory" || node.metadata.nlink === 0
-                    ? Effect.succeed([])
-                    : Effect.andThen(listable(node, at), walkChildren(node, frame.path, frame.depth, frame)));
-            }));
-            const admit = (frame) => {
-                entries++;
-                bytes += frame.bytes;
-                return plan.limit(frame, { entries, bytes }, "entry");
-            };
-            const step = Effect.gen(function* () {
-                // Preserve the generic limit error E; yielding the error directly widens it to WalkFailure.
-                // oxlint-disable-next-line effecttsgo/unnecessary-fail-yieldable-error -- E must stay narrow for unbounded removal.
-                if (failure !== undefined)
-                    return yield* Effect.fail(failure);
-                if (pending === undefined)
-                    pending = (yield* first).reverse();
-                const out = [];
-                const stop = (error) => {
-                    if (out.length === 0)
-                        return Effect.fail(error);
-                    failure = error;
-                    return Effect.succeed([out, Option.some(undefined)]);
-                };
-                while (out.length < WALK_CHUNK_ENTRIES) {
-                    const frame = pending.pop();
-                    if (frame === undefined)
-                        return [out, Option.none()];
-                    const unlisted = frame.kind === "directory" && !frame.listed;
-                    if (!unlisted || plan.order === "pre") {
-                        const rejected = admit(frame);
-                        if (rejected !== undefined)
-                            return yield* stop(rejected);
-                        out.push(frame);
-                    }
-                    if (unlisted) {
-                        const rejected = plan.limit(frame, { entries, bytes }, "directory");
-                        if (rejected !== undefined)
-                            return yield* stop(rejected);
-                        const listed = yield* Effect.result(list(frame));
-                        if (Result.isFailure(listed))
-                            return yield* stop(listed.failure);
-                        if (plan.order === "post")
-                            pending.push({ ...frame, listed: true });
-                        for (let index = listed.success.length - 1; index >= 0; index--) {
-                            const child = listed.success[index];
-                            if (child !== undefined)
-                                pending.push(child);
-                        }
-                        return [out, Option.some(undefined)];
-                    }
-                }
-                return [out, Option.some(undefined)];
-            });
-            return Stream.paginate(undefined, () => step);
-        });
-        // Empties the directory an entry names, entries before their directories, each removal its own change. Each
-        // entry is removed by its name in the directory the walk reached by name from the target's name, and only
-        // while that name still holds the object the walk listed, so a subtree renamed out of the target, the target
-        // renamed away, and a replacement created under a listed name are all left alone. It stops at the first
-        // failure, which names the entry's path under the one the caller gave. Removing an empty directory reveals nothing, so only a directory with entries must be readable, and
-        // no permission is changed to make one so. With `force`, the entry itself going missing leaves nothing to
-        // empty.
-        const emptyDirectory = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (prepared, op, force) {
-            const prefix = prepared.kind === "path" ? prepared.path.bytes : nameBytes(prepared.name);
-            const locate = (path) => ownedPath(joinPath(prefix, path));
-            const listable = (directory, at) => directory.entries.size === 0 ? Effect.void : authorize(directory, identity, READ, at);
-            let anchor;
-            let targetAt = preparedOp(prepared, op);
-            const first = coordinatedRead(op, Effect.gen(function* () {
-                const entry = yield* resolveEntry(prepared, op);
-                const parent = yield* directoryNow(entry.parent);
-                yield* authorize(parent, identity, EXECUTE, entry.op);
-                const childIno = entry.name === undefined ? undefined : parent.entries.get(entry.name);
-                const child = childIno === undefined ? undefined : (yield* view(childIno));
-                if (entry.name === undefined || child === undefined)
-                    return yield* entry.op.fail("NotFound");
-                if (child.kind !== "directory")
-                    return [];
-                yield* listable(child, entry.op);
-                anchor = anchorFrame(parent, entry.name, child);
-                targetAt = entry.op;
-                return yield* walkChildren(child, new Uint8Array(0), 0, anchor);
-            })).pipe(Effect.catchIf((error) => force && error.code === "NotFound", () => Effect.succeed([])));
+    const wrapContext = (context) => Object.freeze({
+        ...context.operations,
+        [CallerId]: true,
+        limits,
+        watch: Effect.fnUntraced(function* (input, options) {
+            const op = OpContext.make("watch");
+            const decoded = yield* Effect.fromResult(decodeConfiguration(CallerWatchOptions, options ?? {}, "watch"));
             const seams = yield* VolumeTestSeams;
-            const removeFrame = (frame) => {
-                const at = op.at(locate(frame.path));
-                return Effect.andThen(seams.beforeTreeRemoval, coordinated(op, Effect.gen(function* () {
-                    if (anchor !== undefined && !holds(yield* view(anchor.parent), anchor)) {
-                        return yield* (force ? Effect.void : Effect.fail(targetAt.fail("NotFound")));
-                    }
-                    return yield* Effect.flatMap(frame.up === undefined ? view(frame.parent) : reachFrame(frame.up, at), (parent) => !holds(parent, frame)
-                        ? Effect.fail(at.fail("NotFound"))
-                        : removeEntry({
-                            parent: parent.ino,
-                            name: frame.key,
-                            trailingSlash: false,
-                            addressing: "entry",
-                            op: at
-                        }, op));
-                })));
-            };
-            const plan = { order: "post", limit: () => undefined };
-            return yield* Stream.runForEach(walkFrames(op, first, plan, locate, listable), removeFrame);
-        });
-        const rootOp = OpContext.make("root");
-        const entryVerb = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (operation, input, body) {
-            const op = OpContext.make(operation);
-            const prepared = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepareEntry(input, op));
-            return yield* coordinated(op, Effect.flatMap(resolveEntry(prepared, op), (entry) => body(entry, op)));
-        });
-        const openDispatch = Effect.fn("Caller.open")(function* (input, options) {
-            const op = OpContext.make("open");
-            if (isEntry(input))
-                return yield* openEntry(input, options, op);
-            const target = asTarget(input);
-            if (Target.$is("Path")(target))
-                return yield* openPath(target, options, op);
-            return yield* openNode(target, options, op);
-        });
-        function open(input, options) {
-            return openDispatch(input, options);
-        }
-        const removeDispatch = Effect.fn("Caller.remove")(function* (input, options) {
-            const op = OpContext.make("remove");
-            const prepared = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepareEntry(input, op));
-            const chosen = yield* decodeRemoveOptions(options ?? {}).pipe(Effect.mapError((cause) => fail(preparedOp(prepared, op), cause)));
-            const once = coordinated(op, Effect.flatMap(resolveEntry(prepared, op), (entry) => removeEntry(entry, op)));
-            const target = (effect) => chosen.force === true
-                ? Effect.catchIf(effect, (error) => error.code === "NotFound", () => Effect.undefined)
-                : effect;
-            const removed = yield* Effect.result(target(once));
-            if (Result.isSuccess(removed))
-                return removed.success;
-            if (chosen.recursive !== true || removed.failure.code !== "NotEmpty")
-                return yield* removed.failure;
-            yield* emptyDirectory(prepared, op, chosen.force === true);
-            return yield* target(once);
-        });
-        function remove(input, options) {
-            return removeDispatch(input, options);
-        }
-        const caller = Object.freeze({
-            [CallerId]: true,
-            root: coordinatedRead(rootOp, Effect.suspend(() => TokenRegistry.inode(reference) === undefined
-                ? Effect.fail(rootOp.fail("ClosedCaller"))
-                : Effect.succeed(referenceFor(ROOT_INO)))).pipe(Effect.withSpan("Caller.root")),
-            lookup: Effect.fn("Caller.lookup")(function* (input) {
-                const op = OpContext.make("lookup");
-                const prepared = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepareEntry(input, op));
-                return yield* coordinatedRead(op, Effect.gen(function* () {
-                    const entry = yield* resolveEntry(prepared, op);
-                    const directory = yield* directoryNow(entry.parent);
-                    if (isDotComponent(entry.name)) {
-                        return yield* entry.op.fail(entry.addressing === "entry" ? "InvalidArgument" : "NotFound");
-                    }
-                    yield* authorize(directory, identity, EXECUTE, entry.op);
-                    const child = directory.entries.get(entry.name);
-                    if (child === undefined)
-                        return yield* entry.op.fail("NotFound");
-                    return referenceFor(child);
-                }));
-            }),
-            parent: Effect.fn("Caller.parent")(function* (input) {
-                const op = OpContext.make("parent");
-                const target = asTarget(input);
-                return yield* coordinatedRead(op, Effect.gen(function* () {
-                    const directory = yield* resolveDirectory(target, op);
-                    yield* authorize(directory.node, identity, EXECUTE, directory.op);
-                    return referenceFor(directory.node.parent);
-                }));
-            }),
-            stat: Effect.fn("Caller.stat")(function* (input) {
-                const op = OpContext.make("stat");
-                const target = asTarget(input);
-                return yield* coordinatedRead(op, Effect.map(resolveTarget(target, op), (resolved) => withMetadata(resolved.node)));
-            }),
-            readDirectory: Effect.fn("Caller.readDirectory")(function* (input) {
-                const op = OpContext.make("readDirectory");
-                const target = asTarget(input);
-                return yield* accessing(op, Effect.gen(function* () {
-                    const directory = yield* resolveDirectory(target, op);
-                    yield* authorize(directory.node, identity, READ, directory.op);
-                    const value = Object.freeze([...directory.node.entries].map(([name, child]) => Object.freeze({ name: nameBytes(name), reference: referenceFor(child) })));
-                    const access = { node: directory.node, now: yield* timestamp(op) };
-                    return { value: Object.freeze({ value, revision: directory.node.revision }), access };
-                }));
-            }),
-            walk: (input, options) => {
-                const op = OpContext.make("walk");
-                const target = asTarget(input);
-                const prefix = Target.$is("Path")(target) ? Result.getOrUndefined(inputBytes(target.path)) : undefined;
-                const locate = (path) => ownedPath(prefix === undefined ? path : joinPath(prefix, path));
-                const readable = (directory, at) => authorize(directory, identity, READ, at);
-                return Stream.unwrap(Effect.gen(function* () {
-                    const chosen = yield* decodeWalkOptions(options ?? {}).pipe(Effect.mapError((cause) => fail(Target.$is("Path")(target) ? op.at(target.path) : op, cause)));
-                    const first = coordinatedRead(op, Effect.gen(function* () {
-                        const directory = yield* resolveDirectory(target, op);
-                        yield* authorize(directory.node, identity, READ, directory.op);
-                        return yield* walkChildren(directory.node, new Uint8Array(0), 0, yield* pathAnchor(target, directory.node, op));
-                    }));
-                    const exceeded = (frame, field) => makeError({ code: "LimitExceeded", operation: op.operation, field, path: errorPath(locate(frame.path)) });
-                    const maxBytes = chosen.maxBytes === undefined ? undefined : ByteSize.toBigInt(chosen.maxBytes);
-                    const plan = {
-                        order: chosen.order ?? "pre",
-                        limit: (frame, progress, phase) => {
-                            if (chosen.maxDepth !== undefined && frame.depth > chosen.maxDepth)
-                                return exceeded(frame, "maxDepth");
-                            if (phase === "directory")
-                                return undefined;
-                            if (chosen.maxEntries !== undefined && progress.entries > chosen.maxEntries) {
-                                return exceeded(frame, "maxEntries");
-                            }
-                            return maxBytes !== undefined && progress.bytes > maxBytes ? exceeded(frame, "maxBytes") : undefined;
-                        }
-                    };
-                    return Stream.map(walkFrames(op, first, plan, locate, readable), (frame) => Object.freeze({
-                        path: ownedPath(frame.path),
-                        name: frame.name,
-                        reference: frame.reference,
-                        directory: frame.directory,
-                        kind: frame.kind,
-                        depth: frame.depth
-                    }));
-                })).pipe(Stream.withSpan("Caller.walk"));
-            },
-            readLink: Effect.fn("Caller.readLink")(function* (input) {
-                const op = OpContext.make("readLink");
-                const target = asTarget(input);
-                return yield* coordinatedRead(op, Effect.gen(function* () {
-                    const resolved = yield* resolveTarget(target, op, { followFinalSymlink: false, final: true });
-                    if (resolved.node.kind !== "symlink")
-                        return yield* resolved.op.fail("InvalidArgument");
-                    return new Uint8Array(resolved.node.target);
-                }));
-            }),
-            realPath: Effect.fn("Caller.realPath")(function* (input) {
-                const op = OpContext.make("realPath");
-                const target = asTarget(input);
-                return yield* coordinatedRead(op, Effect.gen(function* () {
-                    if (Target.$is("Path")(target)) {
-                        const pathOp = op.at(target.path);
-                        const result = yield* resolveTarget(target, op, { final: true });
-                        const directory = result.node.kind === "directory"
-                            ? result.node
-                            : result.kind === "entry"
-                                ? result.parent
-                                : undefined;
-                        const prefix = directory === undefined ? SLASH_HEX : yield* pathOfCurrent(directory.ino);
-                        if (prefix === undefined)
-                            return yield* pathOp.fail("NotFound");
-                        if (result.node.kind === "directory" || result.kind === "node")
-                            return ownedPath(nameBytes(prefix));
-                        return ownedPath(nameBytes(prefix + (prefix === SLASH_HEX ? "" : SLASH_HEX) + result.name));
-                    }
-                    const resolved = yield* resolveTarget(target, op);
-                    const path = yield* pathOfCurrent(resolved.node.ino);
-                    if (path === undefined)
-                        return yield* resolved.op.fail("NotFound");
-                    return ownedPath(nameBytes(path));
-                }));
-            }),
-            access: Effect.fn("Caller.access")(function* (input, bits = 0) {
-                const op = OpContext.make("access");
-                const target = asTarget(input);
-                if (!Number.isInteger(bits) || bits < 0 || bits > (READ | WRITE | EXECUTE)) {
-                    return yield* (Target.$is("Path")(target) ? op.at(target.path) : op).fail("InvalidArgument");
-                }
-                return yield* coordinatedRead(op, Effect.map(resolveTarget(target, op), (resolved) => {
-                    const node = resolved.node;
-                    let granted = 0;
-                    for (const bit of [READ, WRITE, EXECUTE]) {
-                        if ((bits & bit) === 0)
-                            continue;
-                        if (bit === EXECUTE && node.kind === "file" && (node.metadata.mode & ANY_EXECUTE) === 0)
-                            continue;
-                        if (identity.privileged || (permitted(node, identity) & bit) !== 0)
-                            granted |= bit;
-                    }
-                    return granted;
-                }));
-            }),
-            readFile: Effect.fn("Caller.readFile")(function* (input) {
-                const op = OpContext.make("readFile");
-                const target = asTarget(input);
-                return yield* accessing(op, Effect.gen(function* () {
-                    const resolved = yield* resolveTarget(target, op);
-                    const node = resolved.node;
-                    if (node.kind === "symlink")
-                        return yield* resolved.op.fail("SymlinkLoop");
-                    if (node.kind !== "file")
-                        return yield* resolved.op.fail("IsDirectory");
-                    yield* authorize(node, identity, READ, resolved.op);
-                    const data = new Uint8Array(node.data);
-                    return { value: data, access: { node, now: yield* timestamp(op) } };
-                }));
-            }),
-            writeFile: Effect.fn("Caller.writeFile")(function* (input, bytes, options) {
-                const op = OpContext.make("writeFile");
-                const prepared = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepareEntry(input, op));
-                const optionsOp = preparedOp(prepared, op);
-                if (!isAttachedBytes(bytes))
-                    return yield* optionsOp.fail("InvalidArgument");
-                const captured = new Uint8Array(bytes);
-                const chosen = yield* decodeWriteFileOptions(options).pipe(Effect.mapError((cause) => fail(optionsOp, cause)));
-                return yield* coordinated(op, Effect.gen(function* () {
-                    const resolved = yield* resolver.resolve(prepared, {
-                        kind: "OrCreate",
-                        create: chosen.create ?? "never",
-                        finalSymlink: chosen.replaceFinalSymlink !== true && chosen.followFinalSymlink !== false
-                            ? "follow"
-                            : "preserve",
-                        entryExclusive: "afterSymlink"
-                    }, op);
-                    const { parent, name, trailingSlash, op: entryOp } = resolved;
-                    const found = resolved.kind === "existing" ? resolved.node : undefined;
-                    if (found?.kind === "directory" || (found === undefined && trailingSlash)) {
-                        return yield* entryOp.fail("IsDirectory");
-                    }
-                    const replaced = found?.kind === "symlink" ? found : undefined;
-                    if (replaced !== undefined && !chosen.replaceFinalSymlink)
-                        return yield* entryOp.fail("SymlinkLoop");
-                    if (chosen.access === "read")
-                        return yield* entryOp.fail("InvalidHandle");
-                    const file = found?.kind === "file" ? found : undefined;
-                    if (file === undefined) {
-                        yield* authorize(parent, identity, WRITE | EXECUTE, entryOp);
-                        if (replaced !== undefined)
-                            yield* authorizeRemoval(parent, replaced, entryOp);
-                        yield* (replaced === undefined ? reserveEntry(entryOp) : reserveInode(entryOp));
-                    }
-                    else {
-                        yield* authorize(file, identity, chosen.access === "readWrite" ? READ | WRITE : WRITE, entryOp);
-                    }
-                    const finalMode = chosen.finalMode === undefined ? undefined : yield* permittedMode(file?.metadata ?? { kind: "file", uid: identity.uid, gid: parent.metadata.gid }, chosen.finalMode, entryOp);
-                    const previous = file?.data.length ?? 0;
-                    const initial = chosen.truncate ? 0 : previous;
-                    const position = chosen.append ? initial : 0;
-                    const size = Math.max(initial, position + captured.length);
-                    if (size > maxFileBytes)
-                        return yield* entryOp.fail("FileTooLarge");
-                    const reclaimed = replaced !== undefined && replaced.metadata.nlink === 1 ? replaced.target.length : 0;
-                    yield* reserveBytes(entryOp, BigInt(size - previous) - BigInt(reclaimed));
-                    if (file !== undefined && !chosen.truncate && captured.length === 0 && chosen.finalMode === undefined) {
-                        return;
-                    }
-                    let data = captured;
-                    if (position !== 0 || size !== captured.length) {
-                        data = new Uint8Array(size);
-                        if (file !== undefined && !chosen.truncate)
-                            data.set(file.data);
-                        data.set(captured, position);
-                    }
-                    const now = yield* timestamp(op);
-                    const d = yield* Draft;
-                    const node = file ??
-                        (yield* newFile(parent, new Uint8Array(0), (chosen.mode ?? 0o666) & 0o777 & ~umask, now));
-                    const written = {
-                        ...node,
-                        data,
-                        metadata: {
-                            ...node.metadata,
-                            mode: finalMode ?? node.metadata.mode & ~SET_ID_BITS,
-                            size: BigInt(size),
-                            mtimeNs: now,
-                            ctimeNs: now
-                        }
-                    };
-                    yield* d.addUsedBytes(BigInt(size - previous));
-                    if (file === undefined) {
-                        if (replaced !== undefined)
-                            yield* detach(replaced, parent.ino, name, now);
-                        yield* attach(yield* directoryNow(parent.ino), name, written, now);
-                        if (replaced === undefined)
-                            yield* d.addEntries(1);
-                        yield* publishEntry(replaced === undefined ? "Create" : "Update", parent.ino, name, written.ino);
-                    }
-                    else {
-                        yield* d.put(written);
-                        yield* publishNode(written.ino);
-                    }
-                }));
-            }),
-            open,
-            mkdir: Effect.fn("Caller.mkdir")(function* (input, options = {}) {
-                const op = OpContext.make("mkdir");
-                const prepared = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepareEntry(input, op));
-                const optionsOp = preparedOp(prepared, op);
-                const decoded = yield* decodeMkdirOptions(options).pipe(Effect.mapError((cause) => fail(optionsOp, cause)));
-                const chosen = { ...decoded };
-                if (chosen.exactMode && chosen.mode === undefined)
-                    return yield* optionsOp.fail("InvalidArgument");
-                return yield* coordinated(op, Effect.gen(function* () {
-                    const request = { mode: chosen.mode ?? 0o777, exactMode: chosen.exactMode, times: chosen.times };
-                    const { child, directory } = chosen.recursive === true
-                        ? yield* makeDirectories(prepared, request, op)
-                        : yield* makeDirectory(yield* resolveEntry(prepared, op), request, op);
-                    return { reference: referenceFor(child), directory };
-                }));
-            }),
-            symlink: Effect.fn("Caller.symlink")(function* (target, input, options = {}) {
-                const op = OpContext.make("symlink");
-                const targetOp = op.at(target);
-                const prepared = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepareEntry(input, op));
-                const optionsOp = preparedOp(prepared, op);
-                const decoded = yield* decodeSymlinkOptions(options).pipe(Effect.mapError((cause) => fail(optionsOp, cause)));
-                const rawTarget = inputBytes(target);
-                if (Result.isFailure(rawTarget))
-                    return yield* targetOp.fail(rawTarget.failure);
-                if (rawTarget.success.includes(0))
-                    return yield* targetOp.fail("InvalidArgument");
-                const targetBytes = new Uint8Array(rawTarget.success);
-                const chosen = { ...decoded };
-                return yield* coordinated(op, Effect.gen(function* () {
-                    const entry = yield* resolveEntry(prepared, op);
-                    const { child, directory } = yield* makeSymlink(entry, targetBytes, chosen.times, op);
-                    return { reference: referenceFor(child), directory };
-                }));
-            }),
-            link: Effect.fn("Caller.link")(function* (sourceInput, input) {
-                const op = OpContext.make("link");
-                const source = asTarget(sourceInput);
-                const prepared = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepareEntry(input, op));
-                return yield* coordinated(op, Effect.gen(function* () {
-                    const resolved = yield* resolveTarget(source, op, { followFinalSymlink: false });
-                    const node = resolved.node;
-                    if (node.kind === "directory")
-                        return yield* resolved.op.fail("IsDirectory");
-                    if (node.metadata.nlink === 0)
-                        return yield* resolved.op.fail("StaleReference");
-                    const entry = yield* resolveEntry(prepared, op);
-                    const directory = yield* linkNode(node, entry, op);
-                    return { reference: referenceFor(node.ino), directory };
-                }));
-            }),
-            unlink: Effect.fn("Caller.unlink")(function* (input) {
-                return yield* entryVerb("unlink", input, unlinkEntry);
-            }),
-            rmdir: Effect.fn("Caller.rmdir")(function* (input) {
-                return yield* entryVerb("rmdir", input, rmdirEntry);
-            }),
-            remove,
-            rename: Effect.fn("Caller.rename")(function* (fromInput, toInput) {
-                const op = OpContext.make("rename");
-                const from = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepareEntry(fromInput, op));
-                const to = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepareEntry(toInput, op));
-                return yield* coordinated(op, Effect.gen(function* () {
-                    const source = yield* resolveEntry(from, op);
-                    const destination = yield* resolveEntry(to, op);
-                    return yield* renameEntry(source, destination, op);
-                }));
-            }),
-            chmod: Effect.fn("Caller.chmod")(function* (input, mode) {
-                const op = OpContext.make("chmod");
-                const target = asTarget(input);
-                if (!isMode(mode))
-                    return yield* op.fail("InvalidArgument");
-                yield* changeAttributes(() => asResolvedNode(target, op), { mode }, op);
-            }),
-            chown: Effect.fn("Caller.chown")(function* (input, owner) {
-                const op = OpContext.make("chown");
-                const target = asTarget(input);
-                const decoded = yield* decodeOwnerUpdate(owner).pipe(Effect.mapError((cause) => fail(op, cause)));
-                yield* changeAttributes(() => asResolvedNode(target, op), { owner: decoded }, op);
-            }),
-            utimes: Effect.fn("Caller.utimes")(function* (input, times) {
-                const op = OpContext.make("utimes");
-                const target = asTarget(input);
-                const decoded = yield* decodeTimes(times).pipe(Effect.mapError((cause) => fail(op, cause)));
-                yield* changeAttributes(() => asResolvedNode(target, op), { times: decoded }, op);
-            }),
-            // A negative length fails before the target resolves, as truncate(2) rejects it before the lookup.
-            truncate: Effect.fn("Caller.truncate")(function* (input, length) {
-                const op = OpContext.make("truncate");
-                const target = asTarget(input);
-                if (!isLength(length))
-                    return yield* op.fail("InvalidArgument");
-                yield* changeAttributes(() => asResolvedNode(target, op), { size: length }, op);
-            }),
-            setattr: Effect.fn("Caller.setattr")(function* (input, attributes) {
-                const op = OpContext.make("setattr");
-                const target = asTarget(input);
-                // A caller outside TypeScript can pass anything, so a non-object fails typed rather than as a defect;
-                // the check reads a widened copy so the attributes keep their type below.
-                const raw = attributes;
-                if (!Predicate.isObject(raw))
-                    return yield* fail(op);
-                const unknown = Object.keys(attributes).find((key) => !SETATTR_FIELDS.includes(key));
-                if (unknown !== undefined)
-                    return yield* fail(op, undefined, unknown);
-                if (attributes.size !== undefined && !isLength(attributes.size))
-                    return yield* fail(op, undefined, "size");
-                if (attributes.mode !== undefined && !isMode(attributes.mode))
-                    return yield* fail(op, undefined, "mode");
-                const owner = attributes.owner === undefined
-                    ? undefined
-                    : yield* decodeOwnerUpdate(attributes.owner).pipe(Effect.mapError((cause) => fail(op, cause, "owner")));
-                const times = attributes.times === undefined
-                    ? undefined
-                    : yield* decodeTimes(attributes.times).pipe(Effect.mapError((cause) => fail(op, cause, "times")));
-                const expected = attributes.expected === undefined
-                    ? undefined
-                    : yield* decodeExpected(attributes.expected).pipe(Effect.mapError((cause) => fail(op, cause, "expected")));
-                yield* changeAttributes(() => asResolvedNode(target, op), { size: attributes.size, mode: attributes.mode, owner, times, expected }, op);
-            }),
-            withDirectory: Effect.fn("Caller.withDirectory")(function* (input) {
-                const acquired = yield* acquireDirectory(input, OpContext.make("withDirectory"));
-                return createCaller(acquired, identity, umask);
-            }),
-            openDirectory: Effect.fn("Caller.openDirectory")(function* (input) {
-                const acquired = yield* acquireDirectory(input, OpContext.make("openDirectory"));
-                const statOp = OpContext.make("stat");
-                const handle = Object.freeze({
-                    [DirectoryHandleId]: true,
-                    stat: coordinatedRead(statOp, Effect.gen(function* () {
-                        const ino = TokenRegistry.inode(acquired);
-                        const node = ino === undefined ? undefined : yield* view(ino);
-                        return yield* (node === undefined
-                            ? Effect.fail(statOp.fail("InvalidHandle"))
-                            : Effect.succeed(withMetadata(node)));
-                    })).pipe(Effect.withSpan("DirectoryHandle.stat")),
-                    close: coordinatedCleanup(Effect.suspend(() => {
-                        if (TokenRegistry.inode(acquired) === undefined) {
-                            return Effect.fail(OpContext.make("close").fail("InvalidHandle"));
-                        }
-                        return releaseDirectory(acquired);
-                    })).pipe(Effect.ensuring(closeReleasedScope(acquired)), Effect.withSpan("DirectoryHandle.close"))
-                });
-                registry.registerDirectory(handle, acquired);
-                return handle;
-            })
-        });
-        return caller;
-    };
+            const select = Effect.map(context.selectWatch(input, decoded), CallerWatch.make);
+            return Stream.map(yield* engine.admit(op, watchHub.subscribe(select, seams.afterSubscribe)), (event) => event.change);
+        }),
+        withRoot: Effect.fnUntraced(function* (input) {
+            return wrapContext(yield* context.withRoot(input));
+        }),
+        withDirectory: Effect.fnUntraced(function* (input) {
+            return wrapContext(yield* context.withDirectory(input));
+        })
+    });
     const volume = Object.freeze({
         [VolumeId]: true,
         durability,
         identity,
         incarnation,
         limits,
-        usage: coordinatedRead(OpContext.make("usage"), Effect.sync(() => ({ usedBytes: state.usedBytes, entries: state.entries })))
-            .pipe(Effect.withSpan("Volume.usage")),
-        watch: Effect.fn("Volume.watch")(function* (options) {
+        usage: engine.usage,
+        watch: Effect.fnUntraced(function* (options) {
             const op = OpContext.make("watch");
             const decoded = yield* Effect.fromResult(decodeConfiguration(WatchOptions, options === undefined ? {} : options, "watch"));
             const recursive = decoded.recursive ?? true;
@@ -2069,53 +232,44 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, commitProvider, o
             const seams = yield* VolumeTestSeams;
             // The scope is resolved while the registration holds the volume, so no change lands between the check and
             // the subscription.
-            const select = Effect.andThen(checkAvailable("watch"), scope === undefined
+            const select = Effect.andThen(engine.checkAvailable("watch"), scope === undefined
                 ? Effect.succeed(recursive ? volumeSelection : scopedSelection(ROOT_INO, false))
                 : Effect.map(scopeRoot(scope, op), (root) => scopedSelection(root, recursive)));
-            const stream = yield* admit(op, watchHub.subscribe(select, seams.afterSubscribe));
+            const stream = yield* engine.admit(op, watchHub.subscribe(select, seams.afterSubscribe));
             return Stream.map(stream, (event) => event.change);
         }),
-        snapshot: coordinatedRead(OpContext.make("snapshot"), Effect.sync(() => Image.make(state))).pipe(Effect.withSpan("Volume.snapshot")),
-        referenceKey: Effect.fn("Volume.referenceKey")(function* (reference) {
+        snapshot: capture("snapshot", (state) => Effect.succeed(Image.make(state))),
+        referenceKey: Effect.fnUntraced(function* (reference) {
             const op = OpContext.make("referenceKey");
-            return yield* coordinatedRead(op, Effect.gen(function* () {
-                const node = yield* TokenRegistry.nodeOrFail(yield* registry.resolve(reference, "reference"), "reference", op);
-                const ino = BigInt(node.ino);
-                return { identity: identityBytes.slice(), epoch: epochBytes.slice(), ino, tag: keyTag(ino) };
-            }));
+            const ino = BigInt(yield* engine.referenceInode(reference, op));
+            return { identity: identityBytes.slice(), epoch: epochBytes.slice(), ino, tag: keyTag(ino) };
         }),
-        resolveReferenceKey: Effect.fn("Volume.resolveReferenceKey")(function* (key) {
+        resolveReferenceKey: (key) => {
             const op = OpContext.make("resolveReferenceKey");
-            return yield* coordinatedRead(op, Effect.gen(function* () {
+            return engine.objectFor(Effect.gen(function* () {
                 if (!Schema.is(ReferenceKey)(key))
                     return yield* op.fail("InvalidReference");
-                // Another epoch numbered its objects on its own, so its key is another volume's even under this identity.
                 if (!sameBytes(key.identity, identityBytes) || !sameBytes(key.epoch, epochBytes)) {
                     return yield* op.fail("ForeignReference");
                 }
-                // Checked before the inode is looked up, so a guessed key learns nothing about which numbers are in use.
                 if (!sameTag(key.tag, keyTag(key.ino)))
                     return yield* op.fail("InvalidReference");
-                const ino = Ino(Number(key.ino));
-                yield* TokenRegistry.nodeOrFail(yield* registry.resolveInode(ino), "reference", op);
-                return referenceFor(ino);
-            }));
-        }),
-        caller: Effect.fn("Volume.caller")(function* (options) {
-            const decoded = yield* Effect.fromResult(decodeConfiguration(RootCallerOptions, options === undefined ? {} : options, "caller"));
-            const chosen = decoded.identity ?? { uid: 0, gid: 0, groups: [], privileged: true };
-            const identity = Object.freeze({ ...chosen, groups: Object.freeze([...chosen.groups]) });
-            return yield* coordinatedRead(OpContext.make("caller"), Effect.sync(() => createCaller(makeDirectoryReference(ROOT_INO), identity, decoded.umask ?? 0o022)));
+                return Ino(Number(key.ino));
+            }), op);
+        },
+        caller: Effect.fnUntraced(function* (options) {
+            return wrapContext(yield* engine.context(options));
         })
     });
     const observe = Object.freeze({
-        changes: coordinatedRead(OpContext.make("changes"), Effect.suspend(() => observeChanges(state))),
-        capture: coordinatedRead(OpContext.make("capture"), captureState())
+        changes: capture("changes", observeChanges),
+        capture: captureState
     });
-    return Object.freeze({ volume, shutdown, observe });
+    AdapterBinding.register(volume, engine);
+    return Object.freeze({ volume, shutdown: engine.shutdown, observe });
 });
 /** @internal */
-export const make = Effect.fn("VirtualFileSystem.make")(function* (options) {
+export const make = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (options) {
     return (yield* makeVolume(VolumeSource.Empty(), memoryCommitProvider, options).pipe(Effect.catchIf((error) => Schema.is(VfsError)(error) && error.code !== "InvalidArgument", Effect.die))).volume;
 });
 /** @internal */
@@ -2132,6 +286,9 @@ export const prepareEmptyLiveImage = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (options) {
 });
 /** @internal */
 export const openImageVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (image, maxImageBytes, commit, durability = "memory-only", options) {
+    const decoded = yield* Effect.fromResult(Limits.configuration(options, "openImage"));
+    if (decoded.options.execution === "sync")
+        return yield* argumentFailure("openImage", "execution");
     const restored = yield* LiveImage.decode(image, maxImageBytes);
     const requested = yield* Effect.fromResult(Limits.fromOptions(options, "openImage"));
     const limits = yield* Effect.fromResult(Limits.fromStored(restored.limits, requested));
@@ -2154,22 +311,22 @@ const changeOptions = (options) => {
     return Effect.fromResult(decodeConfiguration(OverlayChangesOptions, options === undefined ? {} : options, "changes"));
 };
 /** @internal */
-export const fromSnapshot = Effect.fn("VirtualFileSystem.fromSnapshot")(function* (snapshot, options) {
+export const fromSnapshot = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (snapshot, options) {
     return (yield* makeVolume(VolumeSource.Restored({ value: yield* Image.valueOf(snapshot) }), memoryCommitProvider, options)).volume;
 }, Effect.mapError((error) => retargetFailure("fromSnapshot", error)));
 /** @internal */
-export const makeOverlay = Effect.fn("VirtualFileSystem.makeOverlay")(function* (base, options) {
+export const makeOverlay = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (base, options) {
     const value = yield* Image.valueOf(base);
     const made = yield* Effect.mapError(makeVolume(VolumeSource.Restored({ value }), memoryCommitProvider, options), (error) => retargetFailure("makeOverlay", error));
     const baseObservation = yield* observeChanges(value);
     const overlay = Object.freeze({
         ...made.volume,
-        changes: Effect.fn("OverlayVolume.changes")(function* (options) {
+        changes: Effect.fnUntraced(function* (options) {
             const selected = yield* changeOptions(options);
             const current = yield* made.observe.changes;
             return publicChanges(compareOverlay(baseObservation, current, selected.includeTimestamps ?? false));
         }),
-        capture: Effect.fn("OverlayVolume.capture")(function* (options) {
+        capture: Effect.fnUntraced(function* (options) {
             const selected = yield* changeOptions(options);
             const current = yield* made.observe.capture;
             return Object.freeze({
@@ -2178,5 +335,6 @@ export const makeOverlay = Effect.fn("VirtualFileSystem.makeOverlay")(function*
             });
         })
     });
+    AdapterBinding.alias(overlay, made.volume);
     return overlay;
 });