@effect-vfs/core 0.3.0 → 0.4.0

package/dist/internal/virtualFileSystem.js

@@ -1,20 +1,27 @@
 // Runtime definitions and cohesive live virtual filesystem engine.
 import * as ByteSize from "effect/ByteSize";
 import * as Clock from "effect/Clock";
-import * as Context from "effect/Context";
+import * as Crypto from "effect/Crypto";
+import * as Data from "effect/Data";
 import * as Effect from "effect/Effect";
 import * as Encoding from "effect/Encoding";
+import * as Exit from "effect/Exit";
+import * as Order from "effect/Order";
+import * as Predicate from "effect/Predicate";
 import * as Result from "effect/Result";
 import * as Schema from "effect/Schema";
 import * as Semaphore from "effect/Semaphore";
 import { BytePath } from "../BytePath.js";
 import { ImageError } from "../Snapshot.js";
-import { getBytes as getBytePathBytes } from "./bytePath.js";
+import { CanonicalBase64 } from "./canonicalBase64.js";
 import * as Image from "./image.js";
-import { ConfigurationError, FsCode as FsCodeSchema, FsError } from "./virtualFileSystem/errors.js";
+import * as LiveImage from "./liveImage.js";
+import * as MetadataDomain from "./metadata.js";
+import { ConfigurationError, decodeConfiguration, FsCode as FsCodeSchema, FsError } from "./virtualFileSystem/errors.js";
 import * as Content from "./virtualFileSystem/overlayContent.js";
 import { compareOverlay } from "./virtualFileSystem/overlayDiff.js";
-import { attachedBuffer, decodeConfiguration, failure, nameBytes, ownedPath, preparePath, strictString, wellFormed } from "./virtualFileSystem/path.js";
+import { DOT_DOT_HEX, DOT_HEX, inputBytes, isAttachedBytes, isDotComponent, MAX_NAME_BYTES, nameBytes, ownedPath, preparePath, SLASH_BYTE, SLASH_HEX, strictString } from "./virtualFileSystem/path.js";
+import { makeStagedState } from "./virtualFileSystem/stagedState.js";
 import * as TestHooks from "./virtualFileSystem/testHooks.js";
 import * as WatchHub from "./virtualFileSystem/watchHub.js";
 /** @internal */
@@ -29,8 +36,22 @@ export const DirectoryHandleId = Symbol("@effect-vfs/core/DirectoryHandle");
 export const ObjectReferenceId = Symbol("@effect-vfs/core/ObjectReference");
 /** @internal */
 export { ConfigurationError, FsCodeSchema as FsCode, FsError };
-/** @internal */
-export const Mode = Schema.Natural.check(Schema.isLessThanOrEqualTo(0o7777));
+// POSIX permission bits, masked against mode once it is shifted to the caller's class.
+const EXECUTE = 0o1;
+const WRITE = 0o2;
+const READ = 0o4;
+// Execute for every class; a file with none is not executable by anyone.
+const ANY_EXECUTE = 0o111;
+// setuid and setgid, cleared whenever a file's contents or ownership change.
+const SET_ID_BITS = 0o6000;
+// Sticky: only the owner of an entry or of its directory may remove it.
+const STICKY_BIT = 0o1000;
+const WALK_YIELD_INTERVAL = 128;
+// Largest signed 64-bit file offset, as POSIX off_t.
+const MAX_FILE_OFFSET = 0x7fffffffffffffffn;
+const Mode = Schema.Natural.check(Schema.isLessThanOrEqualTo(0o7777));
+const isMode = Schema.is(Mode);
+const isNatural = Schema.is(Schema.Natural);
 /** @internal */
 export const Identity = Schema.Struct({
     uid: Schema.Natural,
@@ -43,17 +64,39 @@ export const RootCallerOptions = Schema.Struct({
     identity: Schema.optionalKey(Identity),
     umask: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.Natural.check(Schema.isLessThanOrEqualTo(0o777)))
 });
+const Hex128 = Schema.String.check(Schema.isPattern(/^[0-9a-f]{32}$/));
+/** @internal */
+export const VolumeDurability = Schema.Literals([
+    "memory-only",
+    "survives-process-crash",
+    "survives-operating-system-crash",
+    "survives-power-loss"
+]);
+const durabilityRank = {
+    "memory-only": 0,
+    "survives-process-crash": 1,
+    "survives-operating-system-crash": 2,
+    "survives-power-loss": 3
+};
+/** @internal */
+export const VolumeDurabilityOrder = Order.mapInput(Order.Number, (durability) => durabilityRank[durability]);
+/** @internal */
+export const isVolumeDurabilityAtLeast = (actual, required) => VolumeDurabilityOrder(actual, required) >= 0;
+/** @internal */
+export const VolumeIdentity = Hex128.pipe(Schema.brand("@effect-vfs/core/VolumeIdentity"));
+/** @internal */
+export const VolumeIncarnation = Hex128.pipe(Schema.brand("@effect-vfs/core/VolumeIncarnation"));
 /** @internal */
 export const VolumeOptions = Schema.Struct({
+    identity: Schema.optionalKey(VolumeIdentity),
     maxEntries: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.Natural),
+    maxPendingOperations: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.Int.check(Schema.isGreaterThanOrEqualTo(1))),
+    maxWatchEvents: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.Int.check(Schema.isGreaterThanOrEqualTo(2))),
     maxBytes: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.ByteSize),
     maxFileBytes: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.ByteSize.check(Schema.makeFilter((size) => ByteSize.isLessThanOrEqualTo(size, ByteSize.bytes(0xffffffff)) ? undefined : "must be at most 4294967295 bytes"))),
     maxPathBytes: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.ByteSize.check(Schema.makeFilter((size) => ByteSize.isGreaterThanOrEqualTo(size, ByteSize.bytes(1)) ? undefined : "must be at least 1 byte")))
 });
-// Match snapshot v1's canonical signed decimal timestamp domain.
-const timestampLimit = 10n ** 128n - 1n;
-/** @internal */
-export const Timestamp = Schema.BigInt.check(Schema.isGreaterThanOrEqualToBigInt(-timestampLimit), Schema.isLessThanOrEqualToBigInt(timestampLimit));
+const isTimestamp = Schema.is(MetadataDomain.Timestamp);
 /** @internal */
 export const Metadata = Schema.Struct({
     kind: Schema.Literals(["directory", "file", "symlink"]),
@@ -63,10 +106,10 @@ export const Metadata = Schema.Struct({
     uid: Schema.Natural,
     gid: Schema.Natural,
     mode: Mode,
-    atimeNs: Timestamp,
-    mtimeNs: Timestamp,
-    ctimeNs: Timestamp,
-    birthtimeNs: Timestamp
+    atimeNs: MetadataDomain.Timestamp,
+    mtimeNs: MetadataDomain.Timestamp,
+    ctimeNs: MetadataDomain.Timestamp,
+    birthtimeNs: MetadataDomain.Timestamp
 });
 /** @internal */
 export const OwnerUpdate = Schema.Struct({
@@ -77,12 +120,13 @@ export const OwnerUpdate = Schema.Struct({
 export const TimeUpdate = Schema.Union([
     Schema.Struct({ kind: Schema.Literal("now") }),
     Schema.Struct({ kind: Schema.Literal("omit") }),
-    Schema.Struct({ kind: Schema.Literal("value"), nanoseconds: Timestamp })
+    Schema.Struct({ kind: Schema.Literal("value"), nanoseconds: MetadataDomain.Timestamp })
 ]);
 /** @internal */
 export const Times = Schema.Struct({ access: TimeUpdate, modification: TimeUpdate });
 /** @internal */
 export const SeekMode = Schema.Literals(["start", "current", "end", "data", "hole"]);
+const isSeekMode = Schema.is(SeekMode);
 /** @internal */
 export const OpenSettings = Schema.Struct({
     access: Schema.Literals(["read", "write", "readWrite"]),
@@ -93,11 +137,61 @@ export const OpenSettings = Schema.Struct({
     followFinalSymlink: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.Boolean)
 });
 /** @internal */
-export const WriteFileSettings = Schema.Struct({
+export const DirectoryChange = Schema.Struct({
+    before: Schema.BigInt,
+    after: Schema.BigInt
+});
+/** @internal */
+export const RenameReferenceResult = Schema.TaggedUnion({
+    SameDirectory: { directory: DirectoryChange },
+    DifferentDirectories: {
+        sourceDirectory: DirectoryChange,
+        destinationDirectory: DirectoryChange
+    }
+});
+/** @internal */
+export const MkdirReferenceSettings = Schema.Struct({
+    mode: Schema.optionalKey(Mode),
+    exactMode: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.Boolean),
+    times: Schema.optionalKey(Times)
+});
+/** @internal */
+export const SymlinkReferenceSettings = Schema.Struct({
+    times: Schema.optionalKey(Times)
+});
+/** @internal */
+export const OpenReferenceSettings = Schema.Struct({
+    access: Schema.Literals(["read", "write", "readWrite"]),
+    append: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.Boolean),
+    truncate: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.Boolean)
+});
+/** @internal */
+export const OpenChildReferenceSettings = Schema.Struct({
+    ...OpenSettings.fields,
+    times: Schema.optionalKey(Times),
+    initialSize: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.BigInt),
+    exactMode: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.Boolean),
+    owner: Schema.optionalKey(OwnerUpdate),
+    expectedChild: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.NullOr(Schema.Struct({
+        reference: Schema.declare((input) => Predicate.hasProperty(ObjectReferenceId)(input) && input[ObjectReferenceId] === true),
+        revision: Schema.BigInt,
+        atimeNs: MetadataDomain.Timestamp,
+        mtimeNs: MetadataDomain.Timestamp
+    })))
+});
+const WriteFileSettings = Schema.Struct({
     ...OpenSettings.fields,
     replaceFinalSymlink: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.Boolean),
     finalMode: Schema.optionalKey(Mode)
 });
+const decodeOwnerUpdate = Schema.decodeResult(OwnerUpdate, { onExcessProperty: "error" });
+const decodeTimes = Schema.decodeResult(Times, { onExcessProperty: "error" });
+const decodeWriteFileSettings = Schema.decodeResult(WriteFileSettings, { onExcessProperty: "error" });
+const decodeOpenSettings = Schema.decodeResult(OpenSettings, { onExcessProperty: "error" });
+const decodeMkdirReferenceSettings = Schema.decodeResult(MkdirReferenceSettings, { onExcessProperty: "error" });
+const decodeSymlinkReferenceSettings = Schema.decodeResult(SymlinkReferenceSettings, { onExcessProperty: "error" });
+const decodeOpenReferenceSettings = Schema.decodeResult(OpenReferenceSettings, { onExcessProperty: "error" });
+const decodeOpenChildReferenceSettings = Schema.decodeResult(OpenChildReferenceSettings, { onExcessProperty: "error" });
 /** @internal */
 export const OverlayNodeKind = Schema.Literals(["directory", "file", "symlink"]);
 /** @internal */
@@ -136,47 +230,112 @@ export const OverlayChangesOptions = Schema.Struct({
     includeTimestamps: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.Boolean)
 });
 /** @internal */
-export class CurrentFileSystem extends Context.Service()("@effect-vfs/core/CurrentFileSystem") {
-}
-/** @internal */
 export const FixtureMetadata = Schema.Struct({
     uid: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.Natural),
     gid: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.Natural),
     mode: Schema.optionalKey(Mode),
-    atimeNs: Schema.optionalKey(Timestamp),
-    mtimeNs: Schema.optionalKey(Timestamp),
-    ctimeNs: Schema.optionalKey(Timestamp),
-    birthtimeNs: Schema.optionalKey(Timestamp)
+    atimeNs: Schema.optionalKey(MetadataDomain.Timestamp),
+    mtimeNs: Schema.optionalKey(MetadataDomain.Timestamp),
+    ctimeNs: Schema.optionalKey(MetadataDomain.Timestamp),
+    birthtimeNs: Schema.optionalKey(MetadataDomain.Timestamp)
 });
 const FixturePath = Schema.Union([
     Schema.String,
     BytePath
 ]);
 /** @internal */
+export const FixtureEntry = Schema.Union([
+    Schema.Struct({
+        kind: Schema.Literal("directory"),
+        path: FixturePath,
+        metadata: Schema.optionalKey(FixtureMetadata)
+    }),
+    Schema.Struct({
+        kind: Schema.Literal("file"),
+        path: FixturePath,
+        bytes: Schema.Uint8Array,
+        metadata: Schema.optionalKey(FixtureMetadata)
+    }),
+    Schema.Struct({
+        kind: Schema.Literal("symlink"),
+        path: FixturePath,
+        target: FixturePath,
+        metadata: Schema.optionalKey(FixtureMetadata)
+    }),
+    Schema.Struct({ kind: Schema.Literal("hardLink"), path: FixturePath, target: FixturePath })
+]).pipe(Schema.toTaggedUnion("kind"));
+/** @internal */
 export const Fixture = Schema.Struct({
     rootMetadata: Schema.optionalKey(FixtureMetadata),
-    entries: Schema.Array(Schema.Union([
-        Schema.Struct({
-            kind: Schema.Literal("directory"),
-            path: FixturePath,
-            metadata: Schema.optionalKey(FixtureMetadata)
-        }),
-        Schema.Struct({
-            kind: Schema.Literal("file"),
-            path: FixturePath,
-            bytes: Schema.Uint8Array,
-            metadata: Schema.optionalKey(FixtureMetadata)
-        }),
-        Schema.Struct({
-            kind: Schema.Literal("symlink"),
-            path: FixturePath,
-            target: FixturePath,
-            metadata: Schema.optionalKey(FixtureMetadata)
-        }),
-        Schema.Struct({ kind: Schema.Literal("hardLink"), path: FixturePath, target: FixturePath })
-    ]))
+    entries: Schema.Array(FixtureEntry)
+});
+/** @internal */
+export const captureLiveImage = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (state, identity, limits) {
+    const records = [];
+    const visited = new Set();
+    const pending = [state.root, ...state.retainedFiles.values()];
+    for (let index = 0; index < pending.length; index++) {
+        if (index % WALK_YIELD_INTERVAL === 0)
+            yield* Effect.yieldNow;
+        const node = pending[index];
+        if (node === undefined || visited.has(node.metadata.ino))
+            continue;
+        visited.add(node.metadata.ino);
+        const common = {
+            ino: node.metadata.ino,
+            revision: node.revision,
+            metadata: {
+                ...storedMetadata(node.metadata),
+                nlink: node.metadata.nlink,
+                size: node.metadata.size
+            }
+        };
+        if (node.lineage !== undefined)
+            common.lineage = node.lineage;
+        if (node.kind === "directory") {
+            const entries = [];
+            for (const [name, child] of node.entries) {
+                entries.push({ name: CanonicalBase64.encode(nameBytes(name)), target: child.metadata.ino });
+                pending.push(child);
+            }
+            records.push(LiveImage.Record.cases.directory.make({ ...common, entries }));
+        }
+        else if (node.kind === "file") {
+            records.push(LiveImage.Record.cases.file.make({ ...common, data: CanonicalBase64.encode(node.data.bytes) }));
+        }
+        else {
+            records.push(LiveImage.Record.cases.symlink.make({ ...common, target: CanonicalBase64.encode(node.target) }));
+        }
+    }
+    const storedLimits = {};
+    if (limits.maxEntries !== undefined)
+        storedLimits.maxEntries = limits.maxEntries;
+    if (limits.maxBytes !== undefined)
+        storedLimits.maxBytes = ByteSize.toBigInt(limits.maxBytes);
+    if (limits.maxFileBytes !== undefined)
+        storedLimits.maxFileBytes = ByteSize.toBigInt(limits.maxFileBytes);
+    if (limits.maxPathBytes !== undefined)
+        storedLimits.maxPathBytes = ByteSize.toBigInt(limits.maxPathBytes);
+    const document = {
+        format: "effect-vfs-live",
+        version: 1,
+        identity,
+        root: state.root.metadata.ino,
+        nextInode: state.nextInode,
+        revisionCounter: state.revisionCounter,
+        entries: state.entries,
+        usedBytes: state.usedBytes,
+        limits: storedLimits,
+        retainedFiles: [...state.retainedFiles.keys()],
+        records
+    };
+    return yield* LiveImage.encode(document);
 });
 const objectReferences = new WeakMap();
+const isFileHandle = (value) => Predicate.hasProperty(FileHandleId)(value);
+// Only a PathInput target names a path; a handle-based call has none to report in its error.
+const pathOf = (target) => isFileHandle(target) || isDirectoryHandle(target) ? undefined : target;
+const isDirectoryHandle = (value) => Predicate.hasProperty(DirectoryHandleId)(value);
 const files = new WeakMap();
 const handles = new WeakMap();
 const directoryMetadata = (ino, uid, gid, mode, now) => ({
@@ -196,58 +355,235 @@ const storedMetadata = (metadata) => ({
     uid: metadata.uid,
     gid: metadata.gid,
     mode: metadata.mode,
-    atimeNs: String(metadata.atimeNs),
-    mtimeNs: String(metadata.mtimeNs),
-    ctimeNs: String(metadata.ctimeNs),
-    birthtimeNs: String(metadata.birthtimeNs)
+    atimeNs: metadata.atimeNs,
+    mtimeNs: metadata.mtimeNs,
+    ctimeNs: metadata.ctimeNs,
+    birthtimeNs: metadata.birthtimeNs
 });
+/** @internal */
+export const VolumeSource = Data.taggedEnum();
+const UpdateChange = Schema.TaggedStruct("Update", { path: BytePath });
+const RescanChange = Schema.TaggedStruct("Rescan", { path: BytePath });
 // Each execution constructs a fresh volume and captures its Clock.
 /** @internal */
-export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
-    const image = source._tag === "Empty" ? undefined : source.image;
-    const decoded = decodeConfiguration(VolumeOptions, options === undefined ? {} : options);
+export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options, commitProvider, captureInitial) {
+    const image = "image" in source ? source.image : undefined;
+    const live = Predicate.isTagged("Live")(source) ? source.document : undefined;
+    let restoredOptions = options;
+    if (live !== undefined) {
+        const recovered = { identity: VolumeIdentity.make(live.identity) };
+        if (live.limits.maxEntries !== undefined)
+            recovered.maxEntries = live.limits.maxEntries;
+        if (live.limits.maxBytes !== undefined)
+            recovered.maxBytes = ByteSize.bytes(live.limits.maxBytes);
+        if (live.limits.maxFileBytes !== undefined)
+            recovered.maxFileBytes = ByteSize.bytes(live.limits.maxFileBytes);
+        if (live.limits.maxPathBytes !== undefined)
+            recovered.maxPathBytes = ByteSize.bytes(live.limits.maxPathBytes);
+        restoredOptions = recovered;
+    }
+    const decoded = decodeConfiguration(VolumeOptions, restoredOptions === undefined ? {} : restoredOptions);
     if (Result.isFailure(decoded))
         return yield* decoded.failure;
     const settings = { ...decoded.success };
+    const crypto = yield* Crypto.Crypto;
+    const identity = settings.identity === undefined
+        ? VolumeIdentity.make(Encoding.encodeHex(yield* crypto.randomBytes(16)))
+        : VolumeIdentity.make(settings.identity);
+    const incarnation = VolumeIncarnation.make(Encoding.encodeHex(yield* crypto.randomBytes(16)));
     const clock = yield* Clock.clockWith(Effect.succeed);
     const initialTime = clock.currentTimeNanosUnsafe();
-    if (!Schema.is(Timestamp)(initialTime)) {
+    if (!isTimestamp(initialTime)) {
         return yield* new ConfigurationError({ field: "clock.currentTimeNanos" });
     }
     const timestamp = (operation) => Effect.suspend(() => {
         const now = clock.currentTimeNanosUnsafe();
-        return Schema.is(Timestamp)(now) ? Effect.succeed(now) : Effect.fail(failure("InvalidArgument", operation));
+        return isTimestamp(now)
+            ? Effect.succeed(now)
+            : Effect.fail(new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: operation }));
     });
     const volumeIdentity = Symbol();
+    let activeStage;
+    const fileReferences = new Set();
+    const directoryReferences = new Set();
+    // A capability holds a cell instead of a particular node object. Publication can replace
+    // the node behind the cell without replacing the capability held by a caller.
+    const cells = new WeakMap();
+    const cellFor = (node) => {
+        const existing = cells.get(node);
+        if (existing !== undefined)
+            return existing;
+        const previous = activeStage?.previous.get(node);
+        const retained = previous === undefined ? undefined : cells.get(previous);
+        if (retained !== undefined) {
+            cells.set(node, retained);
+            return retained;
+        }
+        let current = node;
+        const cell = {
+            get node() {
+                return activeStage?.nodes.get(current) ?? current;
+            },
+            set node(next) {
+                current = next;
+            }
+        };
+        cells.set(node, cell);
+        return cell;
+    };
+    const makeFileReference = (access, append) => {
+        const live = { cell: undefined, closed: false, offset: 0n };
+        let reference;
+        const record = () => {
+            if (activeStage === undefined)
+                return live;
+            let staged = activeStage.files.get(reference);
+            if (staged === undefined) {
+                staged = { ...live };
+                activeStage.files.set(reference, staged);
+                const pending = staged;
+                activeStage.apply.push(() => {
+                    Object.assign(live, pending);
+                    if (live.cell === undefined)
+                        fileReferences.delete(reference);
+                    else
+                        fileReferences.add(reference);
+                });
+            }
+            return staged;
+        };
+        reference = {
+            volume: volumeIdentity,
+            get file() {
+                const node = record().cell?.node;
+                return node?.kind === "file" ? node : undefined;
+            },
+            set file(file) {
+                record().cell = file === undefined ? undefined : cellFor(file);
+                if (activeStage === undefined) {
+                    if (file === undefined)
+                        fileReferences.delete(reference);
+                    else
+                        fileReferences.add(reference);
+                }
+            },
+            get closed() {
+                return record().closed;
+            },
+            set closed(value) {
+                record().closed = value;
+            },
+            get offset() {
+                return record().offset;
+            },
+            set offset(value) {
+                record().offset = value;
+            },
+            access,
+            append
+        };
+        return reference;
+    };
+    const makeDirectoryReference = (directory) => {
+        const live = {
+            cell: directory === undefined ? undefined : cellFor(directory),
+            closed: false
+        };
+        let reference;
+        const record = () => {
+            if (activeStage === undefined)
+                return live;
+            let staged = activeStage.directories.get(reference);
+            if (staged === undefined) {
+                staged = { ...live };
+                activeStage.directories.set(reference, staged);
+                const pending = staged;
+                activeStage.apply.push(() => {
+                    Object.assign(live, pending);
+                    if (live.cell === undefined || live.cell.node === state.root)
+                        directoryReferences.delete(reference);
+                    else
+                        directoryReferences.add(reference);
+                });
+            }
+            return staged;
+        };
+        reference = {
+            volume: volumeIdentity,
+            get directory() {
+                const node = record().cell?.node;
+                return node?.kind === "directory" ? node : undefined;
+            },
+            set directory(directory) {
+                record().cell = directory === undefined ? undefined : cellFor(directory);
+                if (activeStage === undefined) {
+                    if (directory === undefined || directory === state.root)
+                        directoryReferences.delete(reference);
+                    else
+                        directoryReferences.add(reference);
+                }
+            },
+            get closed() {
+                return record().closed;
+            },
+            set closed(value) {
+                record().closed = value;
+            }
+        };
+        if (directory !== undefined && directory !== state.root && activeStage === undefined) {
+            directoryReferences.add(reference);
+        }
+        return reference;
+    };
     const gate = Semaphore.makeUnsafe(1);
-    let revisionCounter = 0n;
-    const nextRevision = () => ++revisionCounter;
-    const root = {
-        kind: "directory",
-        lineage: image?.root,
-        parent: undefined,
-        entries: new Map(),
-        metadata: directoryMetadata(1n, 0, 0, 0o755, initialTime),
-        revision: nextRevision(),
-        objectReference: undefined
+    const maxPendingOperations = settings.maxPendingOperations ?? 64;
+    let admitted = 0;
+    const admit = (operation, effect) => Effect.suspend(() => {
+        if (admitted >= maxPendingOperations + 1) {
+            return Effect.fail(new FsError({ code: "VolumeBusy", operation }));
+        }
+        admitted += 1;
+        return effect.pipe(Effect.ensuring(Effect.sync(() => {
+            admitted -= 1;
+        })));
+    });
+    let state = {
+        root: {
+            kind: "directory",
+            lineage: image?.root,
+            parent: undefined,
+            entries: new Map(),
+            metadata: directoryMetadata(1n, 0, 0, 0o755, initialTime),
+            revision: 1n,
+            objectReference: undefined
+        },
+        retainedFiles: new Map(),
+        revisionCounter: 1n,
+        nextInode: 2n,
+        entries: 0,
+        usedBytes: 0n
     };
-    let nextInode = 2n;
-    let entries = 0;
-    let usedBytes = 0n;
+    const nextRevision = () => ++state.revisionCounter;
     // The schema caps this value at uint32, so this boundary conversion is exact.
     const maxFileBytes = Number(ByteSize.toBigInt(settings.maxFileBytes ?? ByteSize.bytes(0xffffffff)));
-    // Permit waits stay interruptible. State transitions and resource registration do not.
-    const coordinated = (effect) => gate.withPermit(Effect.uninterruptible(effect));
+    const limits = Object.freeze({
+        maxBytes: settings.maxBytes,
+        maxFileBytes: ByteSize.bytes(maxFileBytes),
+        maxEntries: settings.maxEntries,
+        maxPathBytes: settings.maxPathBytes,
+        maxPendingOperations: settings.maxPendingOperations ?? 64,
+        maxWatchEvents: settings.maxWatchEvents ?? 256
+    });
     if (image !== undefined) {
         const incoming = new Map();
         let content = 0n;
         let count = 0;
         for (const record of image.records) {
-            if (record.kind === "directory")
+            if (Image.Record.guards.directory(record))
                 count += record.entries.length;
             else {
-                const length = Image.decodedLength(record.kind === "file" ? record.data : record.target);
-                if (record.kind === "file" && length > maxFileBytes) {
+                const length = CanonicalBase64.decodedLength(Image.Record.guards.file(record) ? record.data : record.target);
+                if (Image.Record.guards.file(record) && length > maxFileBytes) {
                     return yield* new ImageError({ code: "LimitExceeded", field: "maxFileBytes" });
                 }
                 content += BigInt(length);
@@ -257,22 +593,22 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
             (settings.maxBytes !== undefined && content > ByteSize.toBigInt(settings.maxBytes))) {
             return yield* new ImageError({ code: "LimitExceeded", field: "volume" });
         }
-        const baseContents = source._tag === "Overlay" ? Content.forOverlay(source.base, image) : undefined;
+        const baseContents = Predicate.isTagged("Overlay")(source) ? Content.forOverlay(source.base, image) : undefined;
         for (const record of image.records) {
             const metadata = {
                 ...record.metadata,
-                kind: record.kind,
-                ino: record.id === image.root ? 1n : nextInode++,
-                nlink: record.kind === "directory" ? 2 : 0,
+                kind: record._tag,
+                ino: record.id === image.root ? 1n : state.nextInode++,
+                nlink: Image.Record.guards.directory(record) ? 2 : 0,
                 size: 0n,
-                atimeNs: BigInt(record.metadata.atimeNs),
-                mtimeNs: BigInt(record.metadata.mtimeNs),
-                ctimeNs: BigInt(record.metadata.ctimeNs),
-                birthtimeNs: BigInt(record.metadata.birthtimeNs)
+                atimeNs: record.metadata.atimeNs,
+                mtimeNs: record.metadata.mtimeNs,
+                ctimeNs: record.metadata.ctimeNs,
+                birthtimeNs: record.metadata.birthtimeNs
             };
-            if (record.kind === "directory") {
+            if (Image.Record.guards.directory(record)) {
                 const node = record.id === image.root
-                    ? root
+                    ? state.root
                     : {
                         kind: "directory",
                         lineage: record.id,
@@ -285,8 +621,8 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                 node.metadata = metadata;
                 incoming.set(record.id, node);
             }
-            else if (record.kind === "file") {
-                const data = baseContents?.get(record.id) ?? Content.make(Image.bytes(record.data));
+            else if (Image.Record.guards.file(record)) {
+                const data = baseContents?.get(record.id) ?? Content.make(yield* CanonicalBase64.decode(record.data));
                 incoming.set(record.id, {
                     kind: "file",
                     lineage: record.id,
@@ -298,7 +634,7 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                 });
             }
             else {
-                const target = Image.bytes(record.target);
+                const target = yield* CanonicalBase64.decode(record.target);
                 incoming.set(record.id, {
                     kind: "symlink",
                     lineage: record.id,
@@ -310,7 +646,7 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
             }
         }
         for (const record of image.records) {
-            if (record.kind !== "directory")
+            if (!Image.Record.guards.directory(record))
                 continue;
             const parent = incoming.get(record.id);
             if (parent?.kind !== "directory")
@@ -319,7 +655,7 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                 const node = incoming.get(entry.target);
                 if (node === undefined)
                     return yield* new ImageError({ code: "InvalidStructure" });
-                parent.entries.set(Encoding.encodeHex(Image.bytes(entry.name)), node);
+                parent.entries.set(Encoding.encodeHex(yield* CanonicalBase64.decode(entry.name)), node);
                 if (node.kind === "directory") {
                     node.parent = parent;
                     parent.metadata = { ...parent.metadata, nlink: parent.metadata.nlink + 1 };
@@ -328,10 +664,191 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                     node.metadata = { ...node.metadata, nlink: node.metadata.nlink + 1 };
             }
         }
-        entries = count;
-        usedBytes = content;
+        state.entries = count;
+        state.usedBytes = content;
     }
-    const watchHub = yield* WatchHub.make(coordinated);
+    if (live !== undefined) {
+        const incoming = new Map();
+        for (const record of live.records) {
+            const metadata = {
+                ...record.metadata,
+                kind: record._tag,
+                ino: record.ino
+            };
+            if (LiveImage.Record.guards.directory(record)) {
+                incoming.set(record.ino, {
+                    kind: "directory",
+                    lineage: record.lineage,
+                    parent: undefined,
+                    entries: new Map(),
+                    metadata,
+                    revision: record.revision,
+                    objectReference: undefined
+                });
+            }
+            else if (LiveImage.Record.guards.file(record)) {
+                incoming.set(record.ino, {
+                    kind: "file",
+                    lineage: record.lineage,
+                    data: Content.make(yield* CanonicalBase64.decode(record.data)),
+                    openCount: 0,
+                    metadata,
+                    revision: record.revision,
+                    objectReference: undefined
+                });
+            }
+            else {
+                incoming.set(record.ino, {
+                    kind: "symlink",
+                    lineage: record.lineage,
+                    target: yield* CanonicalBase64.decode(record.target),
+                    metadata,
+                    revision: record.revision,
+                    objectReference: undefined
+                });
+            }
+        }
+        for (const record of live.records) {
+            if (!LiveImage.Record.guards.directory(record))
+                continue;
+            const parent = incoming.get(record.ino);
+            if (parent?.kind !== "directory")
+                return yield* new ImageError({ code: "InvalidStructure" });
+            for (const entry of record.entries) {
+                const child = incoming.get(entry.target);
+                if (child === undefined)
+                    return yield* new ImageError({ code: "InvalidStructure" });
+                parent.entries.set(Encoding.encodeHex(yield* CanonicalBase64.decode(entry.name)), child);
+                if (child.kind === "directory")
+                    child.parent = parent;
+            }
+        }
+        const root = incoming.get(live.root);
+        if (root?.kind !== "directory")
+            return yield* new ImageError({ code: "InvalidStructure" });
+        state.root = root;
+        state.nextInode = live.nextInode;
+        state.revisionCounter = live.revisionCounter;
+        state.entries = live.entries;
+        state.usedBytes = live.usedBytes;
+        // A previous process's handles no longer exist. Their zero-link files
+        // remain in the stored image but are reclaimed from this runtime state.
+        for (const ino of live.retainedFiles) {
+            const orphan = incoming.get(ino);
+            if (orphan?.kind !== "file")
+                return yield* new ImageError({ code: "InvalidStructure" });
+            state.usedBytes -= BigInt(orphan.data.bytes.length);
+        }
+    }
+    if (captureInitial !== undefined)
+        yield* captureInitial(state, identity, limits);
+    const contexts = new WeakMap();
+    const copyState = (current) => Effect.sync(() => {
+        const nodes = new Map();
+        const copyDirectory = (node) => {
+            const existing = nodes.get(node);
+            if (existing?.kind === "directory")
+                return existing;
+            const copy = { ...node, entries: new Map(), metadata: { ...node.metadata }, parent: undefined };
+            nodes.set(node, copy);
+            copy.parent = node.parent === undefined ? undefined : copyDirectory(node.parent);
+            for (const [name, child] of node.entries)
+                copy.entries.set(name, copyNode(child));
+            return copy;
+        };
+        const copyNode = (node) => {
+            if (node.kind === "directory")
+                return copyDirectory(node);
+            const existing = nodes.get(node);
+            if (existing !== undefined)
+                return existing;
+            const copy = { ...node, metadata: { ...node.metadata } };
+            nodes.set(node, copy);
+            return copy;
+        };
+        const candidate = { ...current, root: copyDirectory(current.root), retainedFiles: new Map() };
+        for (const [ino, file] of current.retainedFiles) {
+            const copy = copyNode(file);
+            if (copy.kind === "file")
+                candidate.retainedFiles.set(ino, copy);
+        }
+        // Open resources keep zero-link objects alive after the namespace stops reaching them.
+        for (const reference of fileReferences) {
+            const file = reference.file;
+            if (file !== undefined)
+                copyNode(file);
+        }
+        for (const reference of directoryReferences) {
+            const directory = reference.directory;
+            if (directory !== undefined)
+                copyDirectory(directory);
+        }
+        contexts.set(candidate, {
+            nodes,
+            previous: new Map([...nodes].map(([prior, next]) => [next, prior])),
+            files: new Map(),
+            directories: new Map(),
+            invalidated: new Set(),
+            events: [],
+            apply: []
+        });
+        return candidate;
+    });
+    const staged = commitProvider === undefined ? undefined : makeStagedState(state, copyState, commitProvider, (candidate, events) => {
+        const context = contexts.get(candidate);
+        if (context === undefined)
+            throw new Error("Missing staged engine state");
+        state = candidate;
+        for (const [previous, next] of context.nodes) {
+            const cell = cells.get(previous);
+            if (cell !== undefined) {
+                cell.node = next;
+                cells.set(next, cell);
+            }
+        }
+        for (const apply of context.apply)
+            apply();
+        for (const reference of context.invalidated) {
+            reference.active = false;
+            reference.cell = undefined;
+        }
+        for (const event of events)
+            event();
+    });
+    if (staged !== undefined)
+        commitProvider?.onReady?.(staged.shutdown);
+    // Permit waits stay interruptible. Changes and their publication run under one permit.
+    const coordinated = (operation, effect, onStorageFailure) => admit(operation, staged === undefined
+        ? gate.withPermit(Effect.uninterruptible(effect))
+        : staged.mutate(operation, (candidate, emit) => Effect.gen(function* () {
+            const previous = state;
+            const context = contexts.get(candidate);
+            if (context === undefined)
+                return yield* Effect.die("Missing staged engine state");
+            state = candidate;
+            activeStage = context;
+            const result = yield* Effect.exit(effect);
+            state = previous;
+            activeStage = undefined;
+            if (Exit.isFailure(result))
+                return yield* Effect.failCause(result.cause);
+            for (const event of context.events)
+                emit(event);
+            return result.value;
+        }), onStorageFailure));
+    // Pure observations share the permit without making a candidate or calling the provider.
+    const coordinatedRead = (operation, effect) => admit(operation, staged === undefined ? gate.withPermit(effect) : staged.read(operation, () => effect));
+    const coordinatedCleanup = (effect) => staged === undefined
+        ? gate.withPermit(Effect.uninterruptible(effect))
+        : staged.coordinate(Effect.uninterruptible(effect));
+    const watchCoordinate = (effect) => staged === undefined ? gate.withPermit(effect) : staged.coordinate(effect);
+    const watchHub = yield* WatchHub.make(watchCoordinate, settings.maxWatchEvents ?? 256, () => RescanChange.make({ path: ownedPath(new Uint8Array([47])) }), staged?.checkAvailable("watch"));
+    const queuePublish = (publish) => {
+        if (activeStage === undefined)
+            publish();
+        else
+            activeStage.events.push(publish);
+    };
     const directoryHex = (directory) => {
         const names = [];
         let current = directory;
@@ -343,22 +860,30 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
             names.push(found[0]);
             current = parent;
         }
-        return "2f" + names.reverse().join("2f");
+        return SLASH_HEX + names.reverse().join(SLASH_HEX);
     };
     const publishEntry = (_tag, parent, name) => {
-        watchHub.publishUnsafe(() => {
+        queuePublish(() => watchHub.publishUnsafe(() => {
             const prefix = directoryHex(parent);
-            return { _tag, path: ownedPath(nameBytes(prefix + (prefix === "2f" ? "" : "2f") + name)) };
-        });
+            return { _tag, path: ownedPath(nameBytes(prefix + (prefix === SLASH_HEX ? "" : SLASH_HEX) + name)) };
+        }));
     };
     const publishNode = (target) => {
-        watchHub.publishManyUnsafe(() => {
+        // Directories are never hard linked, so one name reaches them and the parent chain resolves it.
+        if (target.kind === "directory") {
+            // Removal and rename displacement drop the link count while open handles keep reaching the node.
+            // No name resolves it any more, so its empty parent chain would otherwise read as the root path.
+            // The file scan below stops on the same signal, and `lookup` already reads it as NotFound.
+            if (target.metadata.nlink === 0)
+                return;
+            queuePublish(() => watchHub.publishUnsafe(() => UpdateChange.make({ path: ownedPath(nameBytes(directoryHex(target))) })));
+            return;
+        }
+        queuePublish(() => watchHub.publishManyUnsafe(() => {
             const changes = [];
-            if (target === root) {
-                changes.push({ _tag: "Update", path: ownedPath(new Uint8Array([47])) });
-            }
-            const pending = [[root, "2f"]];
-            while (pending.length > 0) {
+            const pending = [[state.root, SLASH_HEX]];
+            // nlink counts the names bound to this node, so the scan stops once it has found them all.
+            while (pending.length > 0 && changes.length < target.metadata.nlink) {
                 const next = pending.pop();
                 if (next === undefined)
                     break;
@@ -366,20 +891,22 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                 for (const [name, node] of directory.entries) {
                     const path = prefix + name;
                     if (node === target) {
-                        changes.push({ _tag: "Update", path: ownedPath(nameBytes(path)) });
+                        changes.push(UpdateChange.make({ path: ownedPath(nameBytes(path)) }));
                     }
                     if (node.kind === "directory")
-                        pending.push([node, path + "2f"]);
+                        pending.push([node, path + SLASH_HEX]);
                 }
             }
             return changes;
-        });
+        }));
     };
     const captureSnapshot = Effect.fnUntraced(function* () {
-        const ids = new Map([[root, "0"]]);
-        const pending = [root];
+        const ids = new Map([[state.root, "0"]]);
+        const pending = [state.root];
         const records = [];
         for (let index = 0; index < pending.length; index++) {
+            if (index % WALK_YIELD_INTERVAL === 0)
+                yield* Effect.yieldNow;
             const node = pending[index];
             if (node === undefined)
                 continue;
@@ -396,22 +923,25 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                         ids.set(child, target);
                         pending.push(child);
                     }
-                    children.push({ name: Image.base64(nameBytes(name)), target });
+                    children.push({ name: CanonicalBase64.encode(nameBytes(name)), target });
                 }
-                records.push({ id, kind: "directory", metadata, entries: children });
+                records.push(Image.Record.cases.directory.make({ id, metadata, entries: children }));
             }
             else if (node.kind === "file") {
-                records.push({ id, kind: "file", metadata, data: Image.base64(node.data.bytes) });
+                records.push(Image.Record.cases.file.make({ id, metadata, data: CanonicalBase64.encode(node.data.bytes) }));
+            }
+            else {
+                records.push(Image.Record.cases.symlink.make({ id, metadata, target: CanonicalBase64.encode(node.target) }));
             }
-            else
-                records.push({ id, kind: "symlink", metadata, target: Image.base64(node.target) });
         }
-        return yield* Image.capture({ format: "effect-vfs", version: 1, root: "0", records });
+        return yield* Image.capture({ format: "effect-vfs", version: 1, root: "0", records }, undefined, true);
     });
-    const observeChanges = () => {
+    const observeChanges = Effect.fnUntraced(function* () {
         const observation = [];
-        const paths = [[root, new Uint8Array([47])]];
+        const paths = [[state.root, new Uint8Array([SLASH_BYTE])]];
         for (let index = 0; index < paths.length; index++) {
+            if (index % WALK_YIELD_INTERVAL === 0)
+                yield* Effect.yieldNow;
             const current = paths[index];
             if (current === undefined)
                 continue;
@@ -431,18 +961,18 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                 childPath.set(path);
                 let offset = path.length;
                 if (path.length !== 1)
-                    childPath[offset++] = 47;
+                    childPath[offset++] = SLASH_BYTE;
                 childPath.set(bytes, offset);
                 paths.push([child, childPath]);
             }
         }
         return observation;
-    };
+    });
     const captureState = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (hook) {
         const snapshot = yield* captureSnapshot();
         if (hook !== undefined)
             yield* hook.betweenSnapshotAndSummary;
-        return { snapshot, observation: observeChanges() };
+        return { snapshot, observation: yield* observeChanges() };
     });
     const advanceRevision = (node) => {
         node.revision = nextRevision();
@@ -451,7 +981,7 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
         if (node.objectReference !== undefined)
             return node.objectReference;
         const reference = Object.freeze({ [ObjectReferenceId]: true });
-        objectReferences.set(reference, { volume: volumeIdentity, node });
+        objectReferences.set(reference, { volume: volumeIdentity, cell: cellFor(node), active: true });
         node.objectReference = reference;
         return reference;
     };
@@ -460,18 +990,24 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
         if (reference === undefined)
             return;
         const state = objectReferences.get(reference);
-        if (state !== undefined)
-            state.node = undefined;
+        if (state !== undefined) {
+            if (activeStage === undefined) {
+                state.active = false;
+                state.cell = undefined;
+            }
+            else
+                activeStage.invalidated.add(state);
+        }
         node.objectReference = undefined;
     };
-    const release = (reference) => coordinated(Effect.sync(() => {
+    const release = (reference) => coordinatedCleanup(Effect.sync(() => {
         reference.directory = undefined;
         reference.closed = true;
     }));
-    const authorize = (directory, identity, bits, operation, path) => {
+    const authorize = (node, identity, bits, operation, path) => {
         if (identity.privileged)
             return Effect.void;
-        const metadata = directory.metadata;
+        const metadata = node.metadata;
         const shift = metadata.uid === identity.uid ?
             6
             : metadata.gid === identity.gid || identity.groups.includes(metadata.gid)
@@ -479,15 +1015,31 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                 : 0;
         return ((metadata.mode >> shift) & bits) === bits
             ? Effect.void
-            : Effect.fail(failure("AccessDenied", operation, path));
+            : Effect.fail(path === undefined
+                ? new FsError({ code: "AccessDenied", operation })
+                : new FsError({ code: "AccessDenied", operation, path }));
     };
     const reclaim = (file) => {
         if (file.metadata.nlink === 0 && file.openCount === 0) {
-            usedBytes -= BigInt(file.data.bytes.length);
+            state.usedBytes -= BigInt(file.data.bytes.length);
             file.data = Content.empty();
+            state.retainedFiles.delete(file.metadata.ino);
             invalidateReference(file);
         }
     };
+    // Whether the volume's entry quota leaves room for one more name.
+    const atEntryLimit = () => settings.maxEntries !== undefined && state.entries >= settings.maxEntries;
+    // A new subdirectory's ".." entry is a second link to the parent; other node kinds add none.
+    const attach = (parent, name, node, now) => {
+        parent.entries.set(name, node);
+        parent.metadata = {
+            ...parent.metadata,
+            nlink: parent.metadata.nlink + (node.kind === "directory" ? 1 : 0),
+            mtimeNs: now,
+            ctimeNs: now
+        };
+        advanceRevision(parent);
+    };
     const detach = (node, now) => {
         if (node.kind === "directory") {
             node.parent = undefined;
@@ -498,10 +1050,13 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
         else {
             node.metadata = { ...node.metadata, nlink: node.metadata.nlink - 1, ctimeNs: now };
             advanceRevision(node);
-            if (node.kind === "file")
+            if (node.kind === "file") {
+                if (node.metadata.nlink === 0 && node.openCount > 0)
+                    state.retainedFiles.set(node.metadata.ino, node);
                 reclaim(node);
+            }
             else if (node.metadata.nlink === 0) {
-                usedBytes -= BigInt(node.target.length);
+                state.usedBytes -= BigInt(node.target.length);
                 invalidateReference(node);
             }
         }
@@ -514,43 +1069,58 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
         }
         ref.closed = true;
     };
-    const resize = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (file, length, operation) {
-        if (typeof length !== "bigint" || length < 0n)
-            return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", operation);
-        if (length > BigInt(maxFileBytes))
-            return yield* failure("FileTooLarge", operation);
-        const size = Number(length);
-        if (settings.maxBytes !== undefined &&
-            BigInt(size - file.data.bytes.length) > ByteSize.toBigInt(settings.maxBytes) - usedBytes) {
-            return yield* failure("NoSpace", operation);
-        }
-        const data = new Uint8Array(size);
-        data.set(file.data.bytes.subarray(0, size));
-        const now = yield* timestamp(operation);
-        usedBytes += BigInt(size - file.data.bytes.length);
+    const finalizeFile = (ref) => Effect.suspend(() => ref.closed
+        ? Effect.void
+        : ref.file === undefined
+            ? Effect.sync(() => {
+                ref.closed = true;
+            })
+            : coordinated("close", Effect.sync(() => releaseFile(ref)), () => releaseFile(ref)).pipe(Effect.catch(() => coordinatedCleanup(Effect.sync(() => {
+                if (!ref.closed)
+                    releaseFile(ref);
+            })))));
+    // Replacing a payload clears setuid and setgid, and charges the volume for the size delta.
+    const replaceContent = (file, data, now, publish = true) => {
+        state.usedBytes += BigInt(data.length - file.data.bytes.length);
         file.data = Content.make(data);
         file.metadata = {
             ...file.metadata,
-            size: length,
-            mode: file.metadata.mode & ~0o6000,
+            size: BigInt(data.length),
+            mode: file.metadata.mode & ~SET_ID_BITS,
             mtimeNs: now,
             ctimeNs: now
         };
         advanceRevision(file);
-        publishNode(file);
+        if (publish)
+            publishNode(file);
+    };
+    const resize = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (file, length, operation, publish = true) {
+        if (!Predicate.isBigInt(length) || length < 0n) {
+            return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: operation });
+        }
+        if (length > BigInt(maxFileBytes))
+            return yield* new FsError({ code: "FileTooLarge", operation: operation });
+        const size = Number(length);
+        if (settings.maxBytes !== undefined &&
+            BigInt(size - file.data.bytes.length) > ByteSize.toBigInt(settings.maxBytes) - state.usedBytes) {
+            return yield* new FsError({ code: "NoSpace", operation: operation });
+        }
+        const data = new Uint8Array(size);
+        data.set(file.data.bytes.subarray(0, size));
+        replaceContent(file, data, yield* timestamp(operation), publish);
     });
     const fileHandle = (ref) => {
         const get = (operation, access) => ref.file === undefined || (access === "read" && ref.access === "write") ||
             (access === "write" && ref.access === "read")
-            ? Effect.fail(failure("InvalidHandle", operation))
+            ? Effect.fail(new FsError({ code: "InvalidHandle", operation: operation }))
             : Effect.succeed(ref.file);
-        const read = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (maximum, position) {
+        const read = (maximum, position) => coordinated(position === undefined ? "read" : "pread", Effect.gen(function* () {
             const file = yield* get(position === undefined ? "read" : "pread", "read");
-            if (!Schema.is(Schema.Natural)(maximum))
-                return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "read");
+            if (!isNatural(maximum))
+                return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "read" });
             const offset = position ?? ref.offset;
-            if (typeof offset !== "bigint" || offset < 0n || offset > 0x7fffffffffffffffn) {
-                return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "read");
+            if (!Predicate.isBigInt(offset) || offset < 0n || offset > MAX_FILE_OFFSET) {
+                return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "read" });
             }
             const start = Number(offset > file.metadata.size ? file.metadata.size : offset);
             const data = file.data.bytes.slice(start, start + Math.min(maximum, file.data.bytes.length - start));
@@ -560,32 +1130,31 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
             if (position === undefined)
                 ref.offset += BigInt(data.length);
             return data;
-        }, coordinated);
+        }));
         const write = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (input, position) {
-            if (!(input instanceof Uint8Array) || !(input.buffer instanceof ArrayBuffer) || !attachedBuffer(input)) {
-                return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "write");
-            }
+            if (!isAttachedBytes(input))
+                return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "write" });
             const bytes = new Uint8Array(input);
-            return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+            return yield* coordinated(position === undefined ? "write" : "pwrite", Effect.gen(function* () {
                 const file = yield* get(position === undefined ? "write" : "pwrite", "write");
                 const offset = position ?? (ref.append ? file.metadata.size : ref.offset);
-                if (typeof offset !== "bigint" || offset < 0n || offset > 0x7fffffffffffffffn) {
-                    return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "write");
+                if (!Predicate.isBigInt(offset) || offset < 0n || offset > MAX_FILE_OFFSET) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "write" });
                 }
                 if (bytes.length === 0) {
                     return 0;
                 }
                 if (offset >= BigInt(maxFileBytes))
-                    return yield* failure("FileTooLarge", "write");
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "FileTooLarge", operation: "write" });
                 const start = Number(offset);
                 const free = settings.maxBytes === undefined
                     ? BigInt(maxFileBytes)
-                    : ByteSize.toBigInt(settings.maxBytes) - usedBytes;
+                    : ByteSize.toBigInt(settings.maxBytes) - state.usedBytes;
                 const maximumEnd = BigInt(file.data.bytes.length) + free;
                 const end = Number(BigInt(maxFileBytes) < maximumEnd ? BigInt(maxFileBytes) : maximumEnd);
                 const count = Math.min(bytes.length, Math.max(0, end - start));
                 if (count === 0)
-                    return yield* failure("NoSpace", "write");
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "NoSpace", operation: "write" });
                 const size = Math.max(file.data.bytes.length, start + count);
                 // Always detach before mutation. A same-sized write is the critical
                 // case: the current payload may belong to the base or a prior capture.
@@ -593,17 +1162,7 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                 data.set(file.data.bytes);
                 const now = yield* timestamp("write");
                 data.set(bytes.subarray(0, count), start);
-                usedBytes += BigInt(size - file.data.bytes.length);
-                file.data = Content.make(data);
-                file.metadata = {
-                    ...file.metadata,
-                    size: BigInt(size),
-                    mode: file.metadata.mode & ~0o6000,
-                    mtimeNs: now,
-                    ctimeNs: now
-                };
-                advanceRevision(file);
-                publishNode(file);
+                replaceContent(file, data, now);
                 if (position === undefined)
                     ref.offset = offset + BigInt(count);
                 return count;
@@ -624,37 +1183,45 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                 return yield* write(bytes, offset);
             }),
             seek: Effect.fn("FileHandle.seek")(function* (offset, mode) {
-                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                return yield* coordinatedRead("seek", Effect.uninterruptible(Effect.gen(function* () {
                     const file = yield* get("seek");
-                    if (typeof offset !== "bigint" || !Schema.is(SeekMode)(mode)) {
-                        return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "seek");
+                    if (!Predicate.isBigInt(offset) || !isSeekMode(mode)) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "seek" });
+                    }
+                    let next = mode === "current"
+                        ? ref.offset + offset
+                        : mode === "end"
+                            ? file.metadata.size + offset
+                            : offset;
+                    if (next < 0n || next > MAX_FILE_OFFSET) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "seek" });
                     }
-                    let next = mode === "current" ? ref.offset + offset : mode === "end" ? file.metadata.size + offset : offset;
-                    if (next < 0n || next > 0x7fffffffffffffffn)
-                        return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "seek");
                     if (mode === "data" || mode === "hole") {
                         if (offset >= file.metadata.size)
-                            return yield* failure("NoData", "seek");
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "NoData", operation: "seek" });
                         if (mode === "hole")
                             next = file.metadata.size;
                     }
                     ref.offset = next;
                     return next;
-                }));
+                })));
             }),
             truncate: Effect.fn("FileHandle.truncate")(function* (length) {
-                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                return yield* coordinated("truncate", Effect.gen(function* () {
                     yield* resize(yield* get("truncate", "write"), length, "truncate");
                 }));
             }),
-            stat: coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+            stat: coordinatedRead("stat", Effect.gen(function* () {
                 return { ...(yield* get("stat")).metadata };
             })).pipe(Effect.withSpan("FileHandle.stat")),
-            sync: coordinated(Effect.suspend(() => Effect.asVoid(get("sync")))).pipe(Effect.withSpan("FileHandle.sync")),
-            close: coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+            sync: coordinatedRead("sync", Effect.suspend(() => Effect.asVoid(get("sync")))).pipe(Effect.withSpan("FileHandle.sync")),
+            close: coordinated("close", Effect.gen(function* () {
                 yield* get("close");
                 releaseFile(ref);
-            })).pipe(Effect.withSpan("FileHandle.close"))
+            }), () => releaseFile(ref)).pipe(Effect.catch((error) => coordinatedCleanup(Effect.sync(() => {
+                if (!ref.closed)
+                    releaseFile(ref);
+            })).pipe(Effect.andThen(Effect.fail(error)))), Effect.withSpan("FileHandle.close"))
         });
         files.set(handle, ref);
         return handle;
@@ -662,50 +1229,84 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
     const createCaller = (reference, identity, umask) => {
         const referencedNode = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (target, operation) {
             if (reference.directory === undefined)
-                return yield* failure("ClosedCaller", operation);
-            if (typeof target !== "object" || target === null)
-                return yield* failure("InvalidReference", operation);
+                return yield* new FsError({ code: "ClosedCaller", operation: operation });
+            if (!Predicate.isObject(target))
+                return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidReference", operation: operation });
             const state = objectReferences.get(target);
             if (state === undefined)
-                return yield* failure("InvalidReference", operation);
-            if (state.volume !== volumeIdentity)
-                return yield* failure("ForeignReference", operation);
-            if (state.node === undefined)
-                return yield* failure("StaleReference", operation);
-            return state.node;
+                return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidReference", operation: operation });
+            if (state.volume !== volumeIdentity) {
+                return yield* new FsError({ code: "ForeignReference", operation: operation });
+            }
+            if (!state.active || activeStage?.invalidated.has(state)) {
+                return yield* new FsError({ code: "StaleReference", operation: operation });
+            }
+            const node = state.cell?.node;
+            if (node === undefined)
+                return yield* new FsError({ code: "StaleReference", operation });
+            return node;
+        });
+        const referencedName = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (input, operation) {
+            if (!isAttachedBytes(input) || input.length === 0 || input.length > MAX_NAME_BYTES || input.includes(0) ||
+                input.includes(SLASH_BYTE))
+                return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation });
+            const name = Encoding.encodeHex(new Uint8Array(input));
+            if (isDotComponent(name))
+                return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation });
+            return name;
         });
-        const lookup = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (path, base, operation, options = {}) {
+        const referencedDirectory = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (target, operation) {
+            const node = yield* referencedNode(target, operation);
+            if (node.kind !== "directory")
+                return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotDirectory", operation });
+            return node;
+        });
+        const creationTimes = (times, now) => ({
+            atimeNs: times?.access.kind === "value" ? times.access.nanoseconds : now,
+            mtimeNs: times?.modification.kind === "value" ? times.modification.nanoseconds : now
+        });
+        const lookup = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (path, base, operation, options = {}, referencedBase) {
             const { followFinalSymlink = true, allowMissing = false, parentOnly = false } = options;
-            if (reference.directory === undefined)
-                return yield* failure("ClosedCaller", operation, path.input);
-            let current = path.absolute ? root : reference.directory;
-            if (!path.absolute && base !== undefined) {
+            if (reference.directory === undefined) {
+                return yield* new FsError({ code: "ClosedCaller", operation: operation, path: path.input });
+            }
+            let current = path.absolute ? state.root : reference.directory;
+            if (!path.absolute && referencedBase !== undefined) {
+                current = referencedBase;
+                yield* authorize(current, identity, EXECUTE, operation);
+            }
+            else if (!path.absolute && base !== undefined) {
                 const target = handles.get(base);
-                if (target === undefined)
-                    return yield* failure("InvalidHandle", operation, path.input);
-                if (target.volume !== volumeIdentity)
-                    return yield* failure("ForeignHandle", operation, path.input);
-                if (target.directory === undefined)
-                    return yield* failure("InvalidHandle", operation, path.input);
+                if (target === undefined) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidHandle", operation: operation, path: path.input });
+                }
+                if (target.volume !== volumeIdentity) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "ForeignHandle", operation: operation, path: path.input });
+                }
+                if (target.directory === undefined) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidHandle", operation: operation, path: path.input });
+                }
                 current = target.directory;
-                yield* authorize(current, identity, 1, operation, path.input);
+                yield* authorize(current, identity, EXECUTE, operation, path.input);
+            }
+            if (current.metadata.nlink === 0) {
+                return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotFound", operation: operation, path: path.input });
             }
-            if (current.metadata.nlink === 0)
-                return yield* failure("NotFound", operation, path.input);
             let work = path;
             let parent;
             let name;
             let traversals = 0;
             for (let index = 0; index < work.components.length - (parentOnly ? 1 : 0); index++) {
-                if (current.kind !== "directory")
-                    return yield* failure("NotDirectory", operation, path.input);
-                yield* authorize(current, identity, 1, operation, path.input);
+                if (current.kind !== "directory") {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotDirectory", operation: operation, path: path.input });
+                }
+                yield* authorize(current, identity, EXECUTE, operation, path.input);
                 const component = work.components[index];
                 if (component === undefined)
                     break;
-                if (component === "2e")
+                if (component === DOT_HEX)
                     continue;
-                if (component === "2e2e") {
+                if (component === DOT_DOT_HEX) {
                     current = current.parent ?? current;
                     parent = undefined;
                     name = undefined;
@@ -718,72 +1319,83 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                     if (allowMissing && index === work.components.length - 1 && !work.trailingSlash) {
                         return { node: undefined, parent, name };
                     }
-                    return yield* failure("NotFound", operation, path.input);
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotFound", operation: operation, path: path.input });
                 }
                 if (child.kind === "symlink" && (followFinalSymlink || index < work.components.length - 1 || work.trailingSlash)) {
-                    if (child.target.length === 0)
-                        return yield* failure("NotFound", operation, path.input);
-                    if (++traversals > 40)
-                        return yield* failure("SymlinkLoop", operation, path.input);
+                    if (child.target.length === 0) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotFound", operation: operation, path: path.input });
+                    }
+                    if (++traversals > 40) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "SymlinkLoop", operation: operation, path: path.input });
+                    }
                     const suffix = work.suffixes[index] ?? new Uint8Array(0);
                     if (settings.maxPathBytes !== undefined &&
                         ByteSize.isGreaterThan(ByteSize.bytes(child.target.length + suffix.length), settings.maxPathBytes)) {
-                        return yield* failure("PathTooLong", operation, path.input);
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "PathTooLong", operation: operation, path: path.input });
                     }
                     const expansion = new Uint8Array(child.target.length + suffix.length);
                     expansion.set(child.target);
                     expansion.set(suffix, child.target.length);
-                    work = yield* Effect.fromResult(preparePath(ownedPath(expansion), operation, settings.maxPathBytes));
+                    const expanded = preparePath(ownedPath(expansion), operation, settings.maxPathBytes);
+                    // The expansion is synthetic: its per-component limits are the caller's to hear about,
+                    // but the path in the error has to be the one the caller passed in.
+                    if (Result.isFailure(expanded)) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: expanded.failure.code, operation: operation, path: path.input });
+                    }
+                    work = expanded.success;
                     if (work.absolute)
-                        current = root;
+                        current = state.root;
                     index = -1;
                 }
                 else
                     current = child;
             }
             if (!parentOnly && work.trailingSlash && current.kind !== "directory") {
-                return yield* failure("NotDirectory", operation, path.input);
+                return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotDirectory", operation: operation, path: path.input });
             }
             return { node: current, parent, name };
         });
         const resolveNode = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (path, base, operation, options) {
             const result = yield* lookup(path, base, operation, options);
-            if (result.node === undefined)
-                return yield* failure("NotFound", operation, path.input);
+            if (result.node === undefined) {
+                return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotFound", operation: operation, path: path.input });
+            }
             return result.node;
         });
         const locate = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (path, base, operation, options) {
             const result = yield* lookup(path, base, operation, options);
             const node = result.node;
-            if (node === undefined)
-                return yield* failure("NotFound", operation, path.input);
-            if (node.kind !== "directory")
-                return yield* failure("NotDirectory", operation, path.input);
+            if (node === undefined) {
+                return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotFound", operation: operation, path: path.input });
+            }
+            if (node.kind !== "directory") {
+                return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotDirectory", operation: operation, path: path.input });
+            }
             return node;
         });
         const acquireDirectory = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (input, options, operation) {
             const prepared = preparePath(input, operation, settings.maxPathBytes);
             const base = options?.relativeTo;
-            const acquired = { volume: volumeIdentity, directory: undefined, closed: false };
+            const acquired = makeDirectoryReference();
             // Register before retaining a directory. Closed scopes can run this immediately,
             // so registration must not happen while holding the volume permit.
             yield* Effect.addFinalizer(() => release(acquired));
-            return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+            return yield* coordinatedRead(operation, Effect.uninterruptible(Effect.gen(function* () {
                 if (acquired.closed)
                     return yield* Effect.interrupt;
                 const path = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared);
                 const directory = yield* locate(path, base, operation);
-                yield* authorize(directory, identity, 1, operation, input);
+                yield* authorize(directory, identity, EXECUTE, operation, input);
                 acquired.directory = directory;
                 return acquired;
-            }));
+            })));
         });
         const list = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (input, options) {
             const prepared = preparePath(input, "readDirectory", settings.maxPathBytes);
             const base = options?.relativeTo;
-            return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+            return yield* coordinated("readDirectory", Effect.gen(function* () {
                 const directory = yield* locate(yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared), base, "readDirectory");
-                yield* authorize(directory, identity, 4, "readDirectory", input);
+                yield* authorize(directory, identity, READ, "readDirectory", input);
                 const result = [...directory.entries.keys()].map(nameBytes);
                 directory.metadata = { ...directory.metadata, atimeNs: (yield* timestamp("readDirectory")) };
                 return result;
@@ -792,19 +1404,20 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
         const readTarget = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (input, options) {
             const prepared = preparePath(input, "readLink", settings.maxPathBytes);
             const base = options?.relativeTo;
-            return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+            return yield* coordinatedRead("readLink", Effect.gen(function* () {
                 const node = yield* resolveNode(yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared), base, "readLink", {
                     followFinalSymlink: false
                 });
-                if (node.kind !== "symlink")
-                    return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "readLink", input);
+                if (node.kind !== "symlink") {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "readLink", path: input });
+                }
                 return new Uint8Array(node.target);
             }));
         });
         const canonical = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (input, options) {
             const prepared = preparePath(input, "realPath", settings.maxPathBytes);
             const base = options?.relativeTo;
-            return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+            return yield* coordinatedRead("realPath", Effect.gen(function* () {
                 const result = yield* lookup(yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared), base, "realPath");
                 const components = [];
                 if (result.node?.kind !== "directory" && result.name !== undefined)
@@ -813,26 +1426,29 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                 while (directory !== undefined && directory.parent !== undefined) {
                     const parent = directory.parent;
                     const entry = [...parent.entries].find(([, child]) => child === directory);
-                    if (entry === undefined)
-                        return yield* failure("NotFound", "realPath", input);
+                    if (entry === undefined) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotFound", operation: "realPath", path: input });
+                    }
                     components.push(entry[0]);
                     directory = parent;
                 }
-                return nameBytes("2f" + components.reverse().join("2f"));
+                return nameBytes(SLASH_HEX + components.reverse().join(SLASH_HEX));
             }));
         });
         const metadataNode = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (target, options, operation) {
-            if (reference.directory === undefined)
-                return yield* failure("ClosedCaller", operation);
-            if (typeof target === "object" && target !== null && (FileHandleId in target || DirectoryHandleId in target)) {
-                const ref = FileHandleId in target ? files.get(target) : handles.get(target);
+            if (reference.directory === undefined) {
+                return yield* new FsError({ code: "ClosedCaller", operation: operation });
+            }
+            if (isFileHandle(target) || isDirectoryHandle(target)) {
+                const ref = isFileHandle(target) ? files.get(target) : handles.get(target);
                 if (ref === undefined)
-                    return yield* failure("InvalidHandle", operation);
-                if (ref.volume !== volumeIdentity)
-                    return yield* failure("ForeignHandle", operation);
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidHandle", operation: operation });
+                if (ref.volume !== volumeIdentity) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "ForeignHandle", operation: operation });
+                }
                 const node = "file" in ref ? ref.file : ref.directory;
                 if (node === undefined)
-                    return yield* failure("InvalidHandle", operation);
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidHandle", operation: operation });
                 return node;
             }
             const path = yield* Effect.fromResult(preparePath(target, operation, settings.maxPathBytes));
@@ -842,16 +1458,18 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
         });
         const permittedMode = (metadata, mode, operation, path) => {
             if (!identity.privileged && identity.uid !== metadata.uid) {
-                return Effect.fail(failure("AccessDenied", operation, path));
+                return Effect.fail(path === undefined
+                    ? new FsError({ code: "AccessDenied", operation })
+                    : new FsError({ code: "AccessDenied", operation, path }));
             }
             const group = identity.gid === metadata.gid || identity.groups.includes(metadata.gid);
             return Effect.succeed(!identity.privileged && metadata.kind === "file" && !group ? mode & ~0o2000 : mode);
         };
         const changeMode = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (target, mode, options) {
-            if (!Schema.is(Mode)(mode))
-                return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "chmod");
+            if (!isMode(mode))
+                return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "chmod" });
             const chosen = options === undefined ? undefined : { ...options };
-            return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+            return yield* coordinated("chmod", Effect.gen(function* () {
                 const node = yield* metadataNode(target, chosen, "chmod");
                 const permitted = yield* permittedMode(node.metadata, mode, "chmod");
                 node.metadata = {
@@ -864,17 +1482,17 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
             }));
         });
         const changeOwner = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (target, owner, options) {
-            const decoded = Schema.decodeResult(OwnerUpdate, { onExcessProperty: "error" })(owner);
+            const decoded = decodeOwnerUpdate(owner);
             if (Result.isFailure(decoded))
-                return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "chown");
+                return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "chown" });
             const update = { ...decoded.success };
             const chosen = options === undefined ? undefined : { ...options };
-            return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+            return yield* coordinated("chown", Effect.gen(function* () {
                 const node = yield* metadataNode(target, chosen, "chown");
                 if (!identity.privileged && (identity.uid !== node.metadata.uid ||
                     (update.uid !== undefined && update.uid !== node.metadata.uid) ||
                     (update.gid !== undefined && update.gid !== identity.gid && !identity.groups.includes(update.gid)))) {
-                    return yield* failure("AccessDenied", "chown");
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "AccessDenied", operation: "chown" });
                 }
                 if (update.uid === undefined && update.gid === undefined)
                     return;
@@ -882,7 +1500,7 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                     ...node.metadata,
                     uid: update.uid ?? node.metadata.uid,
                     gid: update.gid ?? node.metadata.gid,
-                    mode: node.kind === "file" ? node.metadata.mode & ~0o6000 : node.metadata.mode,
+                    mode: node.kind === "file" ? node.metadata.mode & ~SET_ID_BITS : node.metadata.mode,
                     ctimeNs: (yield* timestamp("chown"))
                 };
                 advanceRevision(node);
@@ -890,20 +1508,26 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
             }));
         });
         const changeTimes = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (target, times, options) {
-            const decoded = Schema.decodeResult(Times, { onExcessProperty: "error" })(times);
+            const decoded = decodeTimes(times);
             if (Result.isFailure(decoded))
-                return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "utimes");
+                return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "utimes" });
             const access = { ...decoded.success.access };
             const modification = { ...decoded.success.modification };
             const chosen = options === undefined ? undefined : { ...options };
-            return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+            return yield* coordinated("utimes", Effect.gen(function* () {
                 const node = yield* metadataNode(target, chosen, "utimes");
                 if (access.kind === "omit" && modification.kind === "omit")
                     return;
+                // POSIX grants write access only when both times are UTIME_NOW; both UTIME_OMIT
+                // returned above. Every other combination, mixed ones included, needs ownership.
                 if (!identity.privileged && identity.uid !== node.metadata.uid) {
-                    if (access.kind !== "now" || modification.kind !== "now")
-                        return yield* failure("AccessDenied", "utimes");
-                    yield* authorize(node, identity, 2, "utimes", "/");
+                    if (access.kind !== "now" || modification.kind !== "now") {
+                        const path = pathOf(target);
+                        return yield* path === undefined
+                            ? new FsError({ code: "AccessDenied", operation: "utimes" })
+                            : new FsError({ code: "AccessDenied", operation: "utimes", path });
+                    }
+                    yield* authorize(node, identity, WRITE, "utimes", pathOf(target));
                 }
                 const now = yield* timestamp("utimes");
                 node.metadata = {
@@ -924,100 +1548,652 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                 publishNode(node);
             }));
         });
-        const authorizeRemoval = (parent, child, operation, input) => (parent.metadata.mode & 0o1000) !== 0 && !identity.privileged &&
+        const authorizeRemoval = (parent, child, operation, input) => (parent.metadata.mode & STICKY_BIT) !== 0 && !identity.privileged &&
             identity.uid !== parent.metadata.uid && identity.uid !== child.metadata.uid
-            ? Effect.fail(failure("AccessDenied", operation, input))
+            ? Effect.fail(input === undefined
+                ? new FsError({ code: "AccessDenied", operation })
+                : new FsError({ code: "AccessDenied", operation, path: input }))
             : Effect.void;
         return Object.freeze({
             [CallerId]: true,
-            rootReference: coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
-                if (reference.directory === undefined)
-                    return yield* failure("ClosedCaller", "rootReference");
-                return referenceFor(root);
+            rootReference: coordinatedRead("rootReference", Effect.gen(function* () {
+                if (reference.directory === undefined) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "ClosedCaller", operation: "rootReference" });
+                }
+                return referenceFor(state.root);
             })).pipe(Effect.withSpan("Caller.rootReference")),
             lookupReference: Effect.fn("Caller.lookupReference")(function* (directoryReference, name) {
-                if (!(name instanceof Uint8Array) || !(name.buffer instanceof ArrayBuffer) || !attachedBuffer(name) ||
-                    name.length === 0 || name.length > 255 || name.includes(0) || name.includes(47))
-                    return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "lookupReference");
+                if (!isAttachedBytes(name) || name.length === 0 || name.length > MAX_NAME_BYTES || name.includes(0) ||
+                    name.includes(SLASH_BYTE))
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "lookupReference" });
                 const key = Encoding.encodeHex(new Uint8Array(name));
-                if (key === "2e" || key === "2e2e")
-                    return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "lookupReference");
-                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                if (isDotComponent(key))
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "lookupReference" });
+                return yield* coordinatedRead("lookupReference", Effect.gen(function* () {
                     const directory = yield* referencedNode(directoryReference, "lookupReference");
-                    if (directory.kind !== "directory")
-                        return yield* failure("NotDirectory", "lookupReference");
-                    yield* authorize(directory, identity, 1, "lookupReference", "/");
+                    if (directory.kind !== "directory") {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotDirectory", operation: "lookupReference" });
+                    }
+                    yield* authorize(directory, identity, EXECUTE, "lookupReference", "/");
                     const child = directory.entries.get(key);
                     if (child === undefined)
-                        return yield* failure("NotFound", "lookupReference");
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotFound", operation: "lookupReference" });
                     return referenceFor(child);
                 }));
             }),
             parentReference: Effect.fn("Caller.parentReference")(function* (directoryReference) {
-                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                return yield* coordinatedRead("parentReference", Effect.gen(function* () {
                     const directory = yield* referencedNode(directoryReference, "parentReference");
-                    if (directory.kind !== "directory")
-                        return yield* failure("NotDirectory", "parentReference");
-                    yield* authorize(directory, identity, 1, "parentReference", "/");
+                    if (directory.kind !== "directory") {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotDirectory", operation: "parentReference" });
+                    }
+                    yield* authorize(directory, identity, EXECUTE, "parentReference", "/");
                     return referenceFor(directory.parent ?? directory);
                 }));
             }),
             observeMetadata: Effect.fn("Caller.observeMetadata")(function* (objectReference) {
-                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                return yield* coordinatedRead("observeMetadata", Effect.gen(function* () {
                     const node = yield* referencedNode(objectReference, "observeMetadata");
                     return Object.freeze({ value: Object.freeze({ ...node.metadata }), revision: node.revision });
                 }));
             }),
+            accessReference: Effect.fn("Caller.accessReference")(function* (objectReference, bits = 0) {
+                if (!Number.isInteger(bits) || bits < 0 || bits > (READ | WRITE | EXECUTE)) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "accessReference" });
+                }
+                return yield* coordinatedRead("accessReference", Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const node = yield* referencedNode(objectReference, "accessReference");
+                    if (node.kind === "file" && (bits & EXECUTE) !== 0 && (node.metadata.mode & ANY_EXECUTE) === 0) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "AccessDenied", operation: "accessReference" });
+                    }
+                    yield* authorize(node, identity, bits, "accessReference");
+                }));
+            }),
             observeDirectory: Effect.fn("Caller.observeDirectory")(function* (directoryReference) {
-                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                return yield* coordinatedRead("observeDirectory", Effect.gen(function* () {
                     const directory = yield* referencedNode(directoryReference, "observeDirectory");
-                    if (directory.kind !== "directory")
-                        return yield* failure("NotDirectory", "observeDirectory");
-                    yield* authorize(directory, identity, 4, "observeDirectory", "/");
+                    if (directory.kind !== "directory") {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotDirectory", operation: "observeDirectory" });
+                    }
+                    yield* authorize(directory, identity, READ, "observeDirectory", "/");
                     const value = Object.freeze([...directory.entries].map(([name, node]) => Object.freeze({ name: nameBytes(name), reference: referenceFor(node) })));
                     return Object.freeze({ value, revision: directory.revision });
                 }));
             }),
             readLinkReference: Effect.fn("Caller.readLinkReference")(function* (objectReference) {
-                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                return yield* coordinatedRead("readLinkReference", Effect.gen(function* () {
                     const node = yield* referencedNode(objectReference, "readLinkReference");
-                    if (node.kind !== "symlink")
-                        return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "readLinkReference");
+                    if (node.kind !== "symlink") {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "readLinkReference" });
+                    }
                     return new Uint8Array(node.target);
                 }));
             }),
-            openReference: Effect.fn("Caller.openReference")(function* (objectReference) {
-                const acquired = {
-                    volume: volumeIdentity,
-                    file: undefined,
-                    closed: false,
-                    offset: 0n,
-                    access: "read",
-                    append: false
-                };
-                yield* Effect.addFinalizer(() => coordinated(Effect.sync(() => releaseFile(acquired))));
-                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+            mkdirReference: Effect.fn("Caller.mkdirReference")(function* (directoryReference, input, raw = {}) {
+                const name = yield* referencedName(input, "mkdirReference");
+                const decoded = decodeMkdirReferenceSettings(raw);
+                if (Result.isFailure(decoded)) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "mkdirReference" });
+                }
+                const chosen = { ...decoded.success };
+                if (chosen.exactMode && chosen.mode === undefined) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "mkdirReference" });
+                }
+                const mode = chosen.mode ?? 0o777;
+                return yield* coordinated("mkdirReference", Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const parent = yield* referencedDirectory(directoryReference, "mkdirReference");
+                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, WRITE | EXECUTE, "mkdirReference");
+                    if (parent.entries.has(name)) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "AlreadyExists", operation: "mkdirReference" });
+                    }
+                    if (atEntryLimit())
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NoSpace", operation: "mkdirReference" });
+                    const before = parent.revision;
+                    const now = yield* timestamp("mkdirReference");
+                    const initial = creationTimes(chosen.times, now);
+                    const creationMode = chosen.exactMode
+                        ? yield* permittedMode({ kind: "directory", uid: identity.uid, gid: parent.metadata.gid }, mode, "mkdirReference")
+                        : (mode & 0o777 & ~umask) | (mode & STICKY_BIT);
+                    const child = {
+                        kind: "directory",
+                        lineage: undefined,
+                        parent,
+                        entries: new Map(),
+                        metadata: {
+                            ...directoryMetadata(state.nextInode, identity.uid, parent.metadata.gid, creationMode, now),
+                            ...initial
+                        },
+                        revision: nextRevision(),
+                        objectReference: undefined
+                    };
+                    attach(parent, name, child, now);
+                    state.nextInode += 1n;
+                    state.entries += 1;
+                    publishEntry("Create", parent, name);
+                    return { reference: referenceFor(child), directory: { before, after: parent.revision } };
+                }));
+            }),
+            symlinkReference: Effect.fn("Caller.symlinkReference")(function* (target, directoryReference, input, raw = {}) {
+                const name = yield* referencedName(input, "symlinkReference");
+                const decoded = decodeSymlinkReferenceSettings(raw);
+                if (Result.isFailure(decoded)) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "symlinkReference" });
+                }
+                const rawTarget = inputBytes(target);
+                if (Result.isFailure(rawTarget)) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: rawTarget.failure, operation: "symlinkReference" });
+                }
+                if (rawTarget.success.includes(0)) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "symlinkReference" });
+                }
+                const targetBytes = new Uint8Array(rawTarget.success);
+                const chosen = { ...decoded.success };
+                return yield* coordinated("symlinkReference", Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const parent = yield* referencedDirectory(directoryReference, "symlinkReference");
+                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, WRITE | EXECUTE, "symlinkReference");
+                    if (parent.entries.has(name)) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "AlreadyExists", operation: "symlinkReference" });
+                    }
+                    if (atEntryLimit() ||
+                        (settings.maxBytes !== undefined &&
+                            BigInt(targetBytes.length) > ByteSize.toBigInt(settings.maxBytes) - state.usedBytes))
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NoSpace", operation: "symlinkReference" });
+                    const before = parent.revision;
+                    const now = yield* timestamp("symlinkReference");
+                    const initial = creationTimes(chosen.times, now);
+                    const node = {
+                        kind: "symlink",
+                        lineage: undefined,
+                        target: targetBytes,
+                        metadata: {
+                            ...directoryMetadata(state.nextInode, identity.uid, parent.metadata.gid, 0o777, now),
+                            ...initial,
+                            kind: "symlink",
+                            nlink: 1,
+                            size: BigInt(targetBytes.length)
+                        },
+                        revision: nextRevision(),
+                        objectReference: undefined
+                    };
+                    attach(parent, name, node, now);
+                    state.nextInode += 1n;
+                    state.entries += 1;
+                    state.usedBytes += BigInt(targetBytes.length);
+                    publishEntry("Create", parent, name);
+                    return { reference: referenceFor(node), directory: { before, after: parent.revision } };
+                }));
+            }),
+            linkReference: Effect.fn("Caller.linkReference")(function* (sourceReference, directoryReference, input) {
+                const name = yield* referencedName(input, "linkReference");
+                return yield* coordinated("linkReference", Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const node = yield* referencedNode(sourceReference, "linkReference");
+                    if (node.kind === "directory") {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "IsDirectory", operation: "linkReference" });
+                    }
+                    if (node.metadata.nlink === 0) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "StaleReference", operation: "linkReference" });
+                    }
+                    const parent = yield* referencedDirectory(directoryReference, "linkReference");
+                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, WRITE | EXECUTE, "linkReference");
+                    if (parent.entries.has(name)) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "AlreadyExists", operation: "linkReference" });
+                    }
+                    if (atEntryLimit())
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NoSpace", operation: "linkReference" });
+                    const before = parent.revision;
+                    const now = yield* timestamp("linkReference");
+                    attach(parent, name, node, now);
+                    node.metadata = { ...node.metadata, nlink: node.metadata.nlink + 1, ctimeNs: now };
+                    advanceRevision(node);
+                    state.entries += 1;
+                    publishEntry("Create", parent, name);
+                    return { reference: referenceFor(node), directory: { before, after: parent.revision } };
+                }));
+            }),
+            unlinkReference: Effect.fn("Caller.unlinkReference")(function* (directoryReference, input) {
+                const name = yield* referencedName(input, "unlinkReference");
+                return yield* coordinated("unlinkReference", Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const parent = yield* referencedDirectory(directoryReference, "unlinkReference");
+                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, WRITE | EXECUTE, "unlinkReference");
+                    const child = parent.entries.get(name);
+                    if (child === undefined)
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotFound", operation: "unlinkReference" });
+                    if (child.kind === "directory") {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "IsDirectory", operation: "unlinkReference" });
+                    }
+                    yield* authorizeRemoval(parent, child, "unlinkReference");
+                    const before = parent.revision;
+                    const now = yield* timestamp("unlinkReference");
+                    parent.entries.delete(name);
+                    parent.metadata = { ...parent.metadata, mtimeNs: now, ctimeNs: now };
+                    advanceRevision(parent);
+                    detach(child, now);
+                    state.entries -= 1;
+                    publishEntry("Remove", parent, name);
+                    return { before, after: parent.revision };
+                }));
+            }),
+            rmdirReference: Effect.fn("Caller.rmdirReference")(function* (directoryReference, input) {
+                const name = yield* referencedName(input, "rmdirReference");
+                return yield* coordinated("rmdirReference", Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const parent = yield* referencedDirectory(directoryReference, "rmdirReference");
+                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, WRITE | EXECUTE, "rmdirReference");
+                    const child = parent.entries.get(name);
+                    if (child === undefined)
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotFound", operation: "rmdirReference" });
+                    yield* authorizeRemoval(parent, child, "rmdirReference");
+                    if (child.kind !== "directory") {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotDirectory", operation: "rmdirReference" });
+                    }
+                    if (child.entries.size > 0) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotEmpty", operation: "rmdirReference" });
+                    }
+                    const before = parent.revision;
+                    const now = yield* timestamp("rmdirReference");
+                    parent.entries.delete(name);
+                    parent.metadata = { ...parent.metadata, nlink: parent.metadata.nlink - 1, mtimeNs: now, ctimeNs: now };
+                    child.parent = undefined;
+                    child.metadata = { ...child.metadata, nlink: 0, ctimeNs: now };
+                    advanceRevision(parent);
+                    advanceRevision(child);
+                    invalidateReference(child);
+                    state.entries -= 1;
+                    publishEntry("Remove", parent, name);
+                    return { before, after: parent.revision };
+                }));
+            }),
+            removeReference: Effect.fn("Caller.removeReference")(function* (directoryReference, input) {
+                const name = yield* referencedName(input, "removeReference");
+                return yield* coordinated("removeReference", Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const parent = yield* referencedDirectory(directoryReference, "removeReference");
+                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, WRITE | EXECUTE, "removeReference");
+                    const child = parent.entries.get(name);
+                    if (child === undefined)
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotFound", operation: "removeReference" });
+                    yield* authorizeRemoval(parent, child, "removeReference");
+                    if (child.kind === "directory" && child.entries.size > 0) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotEmpty", operation: "removeReference" });
+                    }
+                    const before = parent.revision;
+                    const now = yield* timestamp("removeReference");
+                    parent.entries.delete(name);
+                    parent.metadata = {
+                        ...parent.metadata,
+                        nlink: parent.metadata.nlink - (child.kind === "directory" ? 1 : 0),
+                        mtimeNs: now,
+                        ctimeNs: now
+                    };
+                    if (child.kind === "directory") {
+                        child.parent = undefined;
+                        child.metadata = { ...child.metadata, nlink: 0, ctimeNs: now };
+                        advanceRevision(parent);
+                        advanceRevision(child);
+                        invalidateReference(child);
+                    }
+                    else {
+                        advanceRevision(parent);
+                        detach(child, now);
+                    }
+                    state.entries -= 1;
+                    publishEntry("Remove", parent, name);
+                    return { before, after: parent.revision };
+                }));
+            }),
+            renameReference: Effect.fn("Caller.renameReference")(function* (sourceDirectoryReference, sourceInput, destinationDirectoryReference, destinationInput) {
+                const sourceName = yield* referencedName(sourceInput, "renameReference");
+                const destinationName = yield* referencedName(destinationInput, "renameReference");
+                return yield* coordinated("renameReference", Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const sourceDirectory = yield* referencedDirectory(sourceDirectoryReference, "renameReference");
+                    const destinationDirectory = yield* referencedDirectory(destinationDirectoryReference, "renameReference");
+                    yield* authorize(sourceDirectory, identity, WRITE | EXECUTE, "renameReference");
+                    yield* authorize(destinationDirectory, identity, WRITE | EXECUTE, "renameReference");
+                    const sourceBefore = sourceDirectory.revision;
+                    const destinationBefore = destinationDirectory.revision;
+                    const child = sourceDirectory.entries.get(sourceName);
+                    if (child === undefined) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotFound", operation: "renameReference" });
+                    }
+                    const replaced = destinationDirectory.entries.get(destinationName);
+                    if (child === replaced) {
+                        return sourceDirectory === destinationDirectory
+                            ? { _tag: "SameDirectory", directory: { before: sourceBefore, after: sourceBefore } }
+                            : {
+                                _tag: "DifferentDirectories",
+                                sourceDirectory: { before: sourceBefore, after: sourceBefore },
+                                destinationDirectory: { before: destinationBefore, after: destinationBefore }
+                            };
+                    }
+                    yield* authorizeRemoval(sourceDirectory, child, "renameReference");
+                    if (replaced !== undefined) {
+                        yield* authorizeRemoval(destinationDirectory, replaced, "renameReference");
+                        if (child.kind === "directory" && replaced.kind !== "directory") {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotDirectory", operation: "renameReference" });
+                        }
+                        if (child.kind !== "directory" && replaced.kind === "directory") {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "IsDirectory", operation: "renameReference" });
+                        }
+                        if (replaced.kind === "directory" && replaced.entries.size > 0) {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotEmpty", operation: "renameReference" });
+                        }
+                    }
+                    for (let ancestor = destinationDirectory; ancestor !== undefined; ancestor = ancestor.parent) {
+                        if (ancestor === child) {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "renameReference" });
+                        }
+                    }
+                    const now = yield* timestamp("renameReference");
+                    const oldEvent = () => ownedPath(nameBytes(directoryHex(sourceDirectory) + (sourceDirectory === state.root ? "" : SLASH_HEX) + sourceName));
+                    sourceDirectory.entries.delete(sourceName);
+                    destinationDirectory.entries.set(destinationName, child);
+                    if (child.kind === "directory")
+                        child.parent = destinationDirectory;
+                    sourceDirectory.metadata = {
+                        ...sourceDirectory.metadata,
+                        nlink: sourceDirectory.metadata.nlink - (child.kind === "directory" ? 1 : 0),
+                        mtimeNs: now,
+                        ctimeNs: now
+                    };
+                    destinationDirectory.metadata = {
+                        ...destinationDirectory.metadata,
+                        nlink: destinationDirectory.metadata.nlink +
+                            (child.kind === "directory" && replaced === undefined ? 1 : 0),
+                        mtimeNs: now,
+                        ctimeNs: now
+                    };
+                    child.metadata = { ...child.metadata, ctimeNs: now };
+                    advanceRevision(sourceDirectory);
+                    if (destinationDirectory !== sourceDirectory)
+                        advanceRevision(destinationDirectory);
+                    advanceRevision(child);
+                    if (replaced !== undefined) {
+                        detach(replaced, now);
+                        state.entries -= 1;
+                    }
+                    queuePublish(() => watchHub.publishUnsafe(() => ({ _tag: "Remove", path: oldEvent() })));
+                    publishEntry("Create", destinationDirectory, destinationName);
+                    return sourceDirectory === destinationDirectory
+                        ? {
+                            _tag: "SameDirectory",
+                            directory: { before: sourceBefore, after: sourceDirectory.revision }
+                        }
+                        : {
+                            _tag: "DifferentDirectories",
+                            sourceDirectory: { before: sourceBefore, after: sourceDirectory.revision },
+                            destinationDirectory: { before: destinationBefore, after: destinationDirectory.revision }
+                        };
+                }));
+            }),
+            chmodReference: Effect.fn("Caller.chmodReference")(function* (objectReference, mode) {
+                if (!isMode(mode))
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "chmodReference" });
+                return yield* coordinated("chmodReference", Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const node = yield* referencedNode(objectReference, "chmodReference");
+                    const permitted = yield* permittedMode(node.metadata, mode, "chmodReference");
+                    node.metadata = { ...node.metadata, mode: permitted, ctimeNs: (yield* timestamp("chmodReference")) };
+                    advanceRevision(node);
+                    publishNode(node);
+                }));
+            }),
+            chownReference: Effect.fn("Caller.chownReference")(function* (objectReference, owner) {
+                const decoded = decodeOwnerUpdate(owner);
+                if (Result.isFailure(decoded)) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "chownReference" });
+                }
+                const update = { ...decoded.success };
+                return yield* coordinated("chownReference", Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const node = yield* referencedNode(objectReference, "chownReference");
+                    if (!identity.privileged && (identity.uid !== node.metadata.uid ||
+                        (update.uid !== undefined && update.uid !== node.metadata.uid) ||
+                        (update.gid !== undefined && update.gid !== identity.gid && !identity.groups.includes(update.gid))))
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "AccessDenied", operation: "chownReference" });
+                    if (update.uid === undefined && update.gid === undefined)
+                        return;
+                    node.metadata = {
+                        ...node.metadata,
+                        uid: update.uid ?? node.metadata.uid,
+                        gid: update.gid ?? node.metadata.gid,
+                        mode: node.kind === "file" ? node.metadata.mode & ~SET_ID_BITS : node.metadata.mode,
+                        ctimeNs: (yield* timestamp("chownReference"))
+                    };
+                    advanceRevision(node);
+                    publishNode(node);
+                }));
+            }),
+            utimesReference: Effect.fn("Caller.utimesReference")(function* (objectReference, times) {
+                const decoded = decodeTimes(times);
+                if (Result.isFailure(decoded)) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "utimesReference" });
+                }
+                const access = { ...decoded.success.access };
+                const modification = { ...decoded.success.modification };
+                return yield* coordinated("utimesReference", Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const node = yield* referencedNode(objectReference, "utimesReference");
+                    if (access.kind === "omit" && modification.kind === "omit")
+                        return;
+                    if (!identity.privileged && identity.uid !== node.metadata.uid) {
+                        if (access.kind !== "now" || modification.kind !== "now") {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "AccessDenied", operation: "utimesReference" });
+                        }
+                        yield* authorize(node, identity, WRITE, "utimesReference");
+                    }
+                    const now = yield* timestamp("utimesReference");
+                    node.metadata = {
+                        ...node.metadata,
+                        atimeNs: access.kind === "omit"
+                            ? node.metadata.atimeNs
+                            : access.kind === "now"
+                                ? now
+                                : access.nanoseconds,
+                        mtimeNs: modification.kind === "omit"
+                            ? node.metadata.mtimeNs
+                            : modification.kind === "now"
+                                ? now
+                                : modification.nanoseconds,
+                        ctimeNs: now
+                    };
+                    advanceRevision(node);
+                    publishNode(node);
+                }));
+            }),
+            truncateReference: Effect.fn("Caller.truncateReference")(function* (objectReference, length) {
+                return yield* coordinated("truncateReference", Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const node = yield* referencedNode(objectReference, "truncateReference");
+                    if (node.kind !== "file") {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "IsDirectory", operation: "truncateReference" });
+                    }
+                    yield* authorize(node, identity, WRITE, "truncateReference");
+                    yield* resize(node, length, "truncateReference");
+                }));
+            }),
+            openReference: Effect.fn("Caller.openReference")(function* (objectReference, raw = { access: "read" }) {
+                const decoded = decodeOpenReferenceSettings(raw);
+                if (Result.isFailure(decoded)) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "openReference" });
+                }
+                const chosen = { ...decoded.success };
+                if (chosen.access === "read" && (chosen.append || chosen.truncate)) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "openReference" });
+                }
+                const acquired = makeFileReference(chosen.access, chosen.append ?? false);
+                yield* Effect.addFinalizer(() => finalizeFile(acquired));
+                return yield* coordinated("openReference", Effect.gen(function* () {
                     if (acquired.closed)
                         return yield* Effect.interrupt;
                     const node = yield* referencedNode(objectReference, "openReference");
                     if (node.kind !== "file")
-                        return yield* failure("IsDirectory", "openReference");
-                    if (node.metadata.nlink === 0)
-                        return yield* failure("StaleReference", "openReference");
-                    yield* authorize(node, identity, 4, "openReference", "/");
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "IsDirectory", operation: "openReference" });
+                    if (node.metadata.nlink === 0) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "StaleReference", operation: "openReference" });
+                    }
+                    yield* authorize(node, identity, chosen.access === "read" ? READ : chosen.access === "write" ? WRITE : READ | WRITE, "openReference");
+                    if (chosen.truncate)
+                        yield* resize(node, 0n, "openReference");
                     node.openCount += 1;
                     acquired.file = node;
                     return fileHandle(acquired);
                 }));
             }),
+            openChildReference: Effect.fn("Caller.openChildReference")(function* (directoryReference, input, raw, expected) {
+                const name = yield* referencedName(input, "openChildReference");
+                const decoded = decodeOpenChildReferenceSettings(raw);
+                if (Result.isFailure(decoded)) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "openChildReference" });
+                }
+                const chosen = { ...decoded.success };
+                if (chosen.access === "read" && (chosen.append || chosen.truncate)) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "openChildReference" });
+                }
+                if ((chosen.mode !== undefined || chosen.times !== undefined || chosen.initialSize !== undefined ||
+                    chosen.exactMode !== undefined || chosen.owner !== undefined) &&
+                    (chosen.create === undefined || chosen.create === "never")) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "openChildReference" });
+                }
+                if (chosen.exactMode && chosen.mode === undefined) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "openChildReference" });
+                }
+                const relativePath = preparePath(ownedPath(nameBytes(name)), "openChildReference", undefined);
+                const acquired = makeFileReference(chosen.access, chosen.append ?? false);
+                yield* Effect.addFinalizer(() => finalizeFile(acquired));
+                return yield* coordinated("openChildReference", Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    if (acquired.closed)
+                        return yield* Effect.interrupt;
+                    const parent = yield* referencedDirectory(directoryReference, "openChildReference");
+                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, EXECUTE, "openChildReference");
+                    const direct = parent.entries.get(name);
+                    if (expected !== undefined) {
+                        let expectedNode;
+                        if (expected !== null) {
+                            const observed = yield* Effect.result(referencedNode(expected, "openChildReference"));
+                            if (Result.isFailure(observed)) {
+                                return yield* new FsError({ code: "VolumeBusy", operation: "openChildReference" });
+                            }
+                            expectedNode = observed.success;
+                        }
+                        if (direct !== expectedNode) {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "VolumeBusy", operation: "openChildReference" });
+                        }
+                    }
+                    if (chosen.expectedChild === null) {
+                        if (direct !== undefined) {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "StaleReference", operation: "openChildReference" });
+                        }
+                    }
+                    else if (chosen.expectedChild !== undefined) {
+                        const expected = chosen.expectedChild;
+                        const observed = yield* referencedNode(expected.reference, "openChildReference");
+                        if (direct !== observed || observed.revision !== expected.revision ||
+                            observed.metadata.atimeNs !== expected.atimeNs || observed.metadata.mtimeNs !== expected.mtimeNs) {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "StaleReference", operation: "openChildReference" });
+                        }
+                    }
+                    if (direct !== undefined && chosen.create === "exclusive") {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "AlreadyExists", operation: "openChildReference" });
+                    }
+                    let file = direct;
+                    let mutationParent = parent;
+                    let mutationName = name;
+                    if (file?.kind === "symlink" && chosen.followFinalSymlink !== false) {
+                        const resolved = yield* lookup(yield* Effect.fromResult(relativePath), undefined, "openChildReference", {
+                            followFinalSymlink: true,
+                            allowMissing: chosen.create === "ifMissing" || chosen.create === "exclusive"
+                        }, parent);
+                        file = resolved.node;
+                        if (file === undefined) {
+                            if (resolved.parent === undefined || resolved.name === undefined) {
+                                return yield* new FsError({ code: "IsDirectory", operation: "openChildReference" });
+                            }
+                            mutationParent = resolved.parent;
+                            mutationName = resolved.name;
+                        }
+                    }
+                    const before = mutationParent.revision;
+                    let created = false;
+                    if (file === undefined) {
+                        if (chosen.create === undefined || chosen.create === "never") {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotFound", operation: "openChildReference" });
+                        }
+                        yield* authorize(mutationParent, identity, WRITE | EXECUTE, "openChildReference");
+                        if (atEntryLimit()) {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "NoSpace", operation: "openChildReference" });
+                        }
+                        const size = chosen.initialSize ?? 0n;
+                        if (size < 0n) {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "openChildReference" });
+                        }
+                        if (size > BigInt(maxFileBytes)) {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "FileTooLarge", operation: "openChildReference" });
+                        }
+                        if (settings.maxBytes !== undefined && size > ByteSize.toBigInt(settings.maxBytes) - state.usedBytes) {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "NoSpace", operation: "openChildReference" });
+                        }
+                        if (!identity.privileged &&
+                            ((chosen.owner?.uid !== undefined && chosen.owner.uid !== identity.uid) ||
+                                (chosen.owner?.gid !== undefined && chosen.owner.gid !== identity.gid &&
+                                    !identity.groups.includes(chosen.owner.gid)))) {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "AccessDenied", operation: "openChildReference" });
+                        }
+                        const now = yield* timestamp("openChildReference");
+                        const initial = creationTimes(chosen.times, now);
+                        const creationMode = chosen.exactMode
+                            ? yield* permittedMode({
+                                kind: "file",
+                                uid: chosen.owner?.uid ?? identity.uid,
+                                gid: chosen.owner?.gid ?? mutationParent.metadata.gid
+                            }, chosen.mode, "openChildReference")
+                            : (chosen.mode ?? 0o666) & 0o777 & ~umask;
+                        const createdFile = {
+                            kind: "file",
+                            lineage: undefined,
+                            data: Content.make(new Uint8Array(Number(size))),
+                            openCount: 0,
+                            metadata: {
+                                ...directoryMetadata(state.nextInode, chosen.owner?.uid ?? identity.uid, chosen.owner?.gid ?? mutationParent.metadata.gid, creationMode, now),
+                                ...initial,
+                                kind: "file",
+                                size,
+                                nlink: 1
+                            },
+                            revision: nextRevision(),
+                            objectReference: undefined
+                        };
+                        file = createdFile;
+                        attach(mutationParent, mutationName, createdFile, now);
+                        state.entries += 1;
+                        state.usedBytes += size;
+                        state.nextInode += 1n;
+                        created = true;
+                        publishEntry("Create", mutationParent, mutationName);
+                    }
+                    else {
+                        if (file.kind === "symlink") {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "SymlinkLoop", operation: "openChildReference" });
+                        }
+                        if (file.kind !== "file") {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "IsDirectory", operation: "openChildReference" });
+                        }
+                        yield* authorize(file, identity, chosen.access === "read" ? READ : chosen.access === "write" ? WRITE : READ | WRITE, "openChildReference");
+                        if (chosen.truncate)
+                            yield* resize(file, 0n, "openChildReference");
+                    }
+                    file.openCount += 1;
+                    acquired.file = file;
+                    return {
+                        handle: fileHandle(acquired),
+                        reference: referenceFor(file),
+                        created,
+                        directory: { before, after: mutationParent.revision }
+                    };
+                }));
+            }),
             readFile: Effect.fn("Caller.readFile")(function* (input, options) {
                 const prepared = preparePath(input, "readFile", settings.maxPathBytes);
                 const base = options?.relativeTo;
-                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                return yield* coordinated("readFile", Effect.gen(function* () {
                     const node = yield* resolveNode(yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared), base, "readFile");
-                    if (node.kind !== "file")
-                        return yield* failure("IsDirectory", "readFile", input);
-                    yield* authorize(node, identity, 4, "readFile", input);
+                    if (node.kind !== "file") {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "IsDirectory", operation: "readFile", path: input });
+                    }
+                    yield* authorize(node, identity, READ, "readFile", input);
                     const data = new Uint8Array(node.data.bytes);
                     node.metadata = { ...node.metadata, atimeNs: (yield* timestamp("readFile")) };
                     return data;
@@ -1025,21 +2201,23 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
             }),
             writeFile: Effect.fn("Caller.writeFile")(function* (input, bytes, options) {
                 const prepared = preparePath(input, "writeFile", settings.maxPathBytes);
-                if (!(bytes instanceof Uint8Array) || !(bytes.buffer instanceof ArrayBuffer) || !attachedBuffer(bytes)) {
-                    return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "writeFile", input);
+                if (!isAttachedBytes(bytes)) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "writeFile", path: input });
                 }
                 const captured = new Uint8Array(bytes);
                 const { relativeTo: base, ...raw } = options;
-                const decoded = Schema.decodeResult(WriteFileSettings, { onExcessProperty: "error" })(raw);
-                if (Result.isFailure(decoded))
-                    return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "writeFile", input);
+                const decoded = decodeWriteFileSettings(raw);
+                if (Result.isFailure(decoded)) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "writeFile", path: input });
+                }
                 const chosen = decoded.success;
-                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                return yield* coordinated("writeFile", Effect.gen(function* () {
                     const path = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared);
                     if (chosen.create === "exclusive") {
                         const exists = yield* Effect.result(lookup(path, base, "writeFile", { followFinalSymlink: false }));
-                        if (Result.isSuccess(exists))
-                            return yield* failure("AlreadyExists", "writeFile", input);
+                        if (Result.isSuccess(exists)) {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "AlreadyExists", operation: "writeFile", path: input });
+                        }
                         if (exists.failure.code !== "NotFound")
                             return yield* exists.failure;
                     }
@@ -1049,36 +2227,39 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                     });
                     const { name, parent } = resolved;
                     if (parent === undefined || name === undefined || resolved.node?.kind === "directory") {
-                        return yield* failure("IsDirectory", "writeFile", input);
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "IsDirectory", operation: "writeFile", path: input });
                     }
                     const replaced = resolved.node?.kind === "symlink" ? resolved.node : undefined;
                     if (replaced !== undefined && !chosen.replaceFinalSymlink) {
-                        return yield* failure("SymlinkLoop", "writeFile", input);
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "SymlinkLoop", operation: "writeFile", path: input });
+                    }
+                    if (chosen.access === "read") {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidHandle", operation: "writeFile", path: input });
                     }
-                    if (chosen.access === "read")
-                        return yield* failure("InvalidHandle", "writeFile", input);
                     const file = resolved.node?.kind === "file" ? resolved.node : undefined;
                     if (file === undefined) {
-                        yield* authorize(parent, identity, 3, "writeFile", input);
+                        yield* authorize(parent, identity, WRITE | EXECUTE, "writeFile", input);
                         if (replaced !== undefined)
                             yield* authorizeRemoval(parent, replaced, "writeFile", input);
-                        if (replaced === undefined && settings.maxEntries !== undefined && entries >= settings.maxEntries) {
-                            return yield* failure("NoSpace", "writeFile", input);
+                        if (replaced === undefined && atEntryLimit()) {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "NoSpace", operation: "writeFile", path: input });
                         }
                     }
-                    else
-                        yield* authorize(file, identity, chosen.access === "readWrite" ? 6 : 2, "writeFile", input);
+                    else {
+                        yield* authorize(file, identity, chosen.access === "readWrite" ? READ | WRITE : WRITE, "writeFile", input);
+                    }
                     const finalMode = chosen.finalMode === undefined ? undefined : yield* permittedMode(file?.metadata ?? { kind: "file", uid: identity.uid, gid: parent.metadata.gid }, chosen.finalMode, "writeFile", input);
                     const previous = file?.data.bytes.length ?? 0;
                     const initial = chosen.truncate ? 0 : previous;
                     const position = chosen.append ? initial : 0;
                     const size = Math.max(initial, position + captured.length);
-                    if (size > maxFileBytes)
-                        return yield* failure("FileTooLarge", "writeFile", input);
+                    if (size > maxFileBytes) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "FileTooLarge", operation: "writeFile", path: input });
+                    }
                     const reclaimed = replaced !== undefined && replaced.metadata.nlink === 1 ? replaced.target.length : 0;
                     if (settings.maxBytes !== undefined &&
-                        BigInt(size - previous) > ByteSize.toBigInt(settings.maxBytes) - usedBytes + BigInt(reclaimed)) {
-                        return yield* failure("NoSpace", "writeFile", input);
+                        BigInt(size - previous) > ByteSize.toBigInt(settings.maxBytes) - state.usedBytes + BigInt(reclaimed)) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NoSpace", operation: "writeFile", path: input });
                     }
                     if (file !== undefined && !chosen.truncate && captured.length === 0 && chosen.finalMode === undefined) {
                         return;
@@ -1095,10 +2276,11 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                         {
                             kind: "file",
                             lineage: undefined,
-                            data: Content.make(data),
+                            // Assigned below on the shared path that also covers an existing file.
+                            data: Content.empty(),
                             openCount: 0,
                             metadata: {
-                                ...directoryMetadata(nextInode++, identity.uid, parent.metadata.gid, (chosen.mode ?? 0o666) & 0o777 & ~umask, now),
+                                ...directoryMetadata(state.nextInode++, identity.uid, parent.metadata.gid, (chosen.mode ?? 0o666) & 0o777 & ~umask, now),
                                 kind: "file",
                                 nlink: 1
                             },
@@ -1108,21 +2290,19 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                     node.data = Content.make(data);
                     node.metadata = {
                         ...node.metadata,
-                        mode: finalMode ?? node.metadata.mode & ~0o6000,
+                        mode: finalMode ?? node.metadata.mode & ~SET_ID_BITS,
                         size: BigInt(size),
                         mtimeNs: now,
                         ctimeNs: now
                     };
                     advanceRevision(node);
-                    usedBytes += BigInt(size - previous);
+                    state.usedBytes += BigInt(size - previous);
                     if (file === undefined) {
                         if (replaced !== undefined)
                             detach(replaced, now);
-                        parent.entries.set(name, node);
-                        parent.metadata = { ...parent.metadata, mtimeNs: now, ctimeNs: now };
-                        advanceRevision(parent);
+                        attach(parent, name, node, now);
                         if (replaced === undefined)
-                            entries += 1;
+                            state.entries += 1;
                         publishEntry(replaced === undefined ? "Create" : "Update", parent, name);
                     }
                     else
@@ -1150,12 +2330,13 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
             access: Effect.fn("Caller.access")(function* (input, bits = 0, options) {
                 const prepared = preparePath(input, "access", settings.maxPathBytes);
                 const base = options?.relativeTo;
-                if (!Number.isInteger(bits) || bits < 0 || bits > 7)
-                    return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "access", input);
-                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                if (!Number.isInteger(bits) || bits < 0 || bits > (READ | WRITE | EXECUTE)) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "access", path: input });
+                }
+                return yield* coordinatedRead("access", Effect.gen(function* () {
                     const node = yield* resolveNode(yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared), base, "access");
-                    if (node.kind === "file" && (bits & 1) !== 0 && (node.metadata.mode & 0o111) === 0) {
-                        return yield* failure("AccessDenied", "access", input);
+                    if (node.kind === "file" && (bits & EXECUTE) !== 0 && (node.metadata.mode & ANY_EXECUTE) === 0) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "AccessDenied", operation: "access", path: input });
                     }
                     yield* authorize(node, identity, bits, "access", input);
                 }));
@@ -1163,18 +2344,19 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
             truncate: Effect.fn("Caller.truncate")(function* (input, length, options) {
                 const prepared = preparePath(input, "truncate", settings.maxPathBytes);
                 const base = options?.relativeTo;
-                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                return yield* coordinated("truncate", Effect.gen(function* () {
                     const node = yield* resolveNode(yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared), base, "truncate");
-                    if (node.kind !== "file")
-                        return yield* failure("IsDirectory", "truncate", input);
-                    yield* authorize(node, identity, 2, "truncate", input);
+                    if (node.kind !== "file") {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "IsDirectory", operation: "truncate", path: input });
+                    }
+                    yield* authorize(node, identity, WRITE, "truncate", input);
                     yield* resize(node, length, "truncate");
                 }));
             }),
             lstat: Effect.fn("Caller.lstat")(function* (input, options) {
                 const prepared = preparePath(input, "lstat", settings.maxPathBytes);
                 const base = options?.relativeTo;
-                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                return yield* coordinatedRead("lstat", Effect.gen(function* () {
                     const node = yield* resolveNode(yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared), base, "lstat", {
                         followFinalSymlink: false
                     });
@@ -1187,67 +2369,68 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                 const sourceBase = options?.sourceRelativeTo;
                 const destinationBase = options?.destinationRelativeTo;
                 const follow = options?.followSourceSymlink ?? false;
-                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                return yield* coordinated("link", Effect.gen(function* () {
                     const node = yield* resolveNode(yield* Effect.fromResult(a), sourceBase, "link", {
                         followFinalSymlink: follow
                     });
-                    if (node.kind === "directory")
-                        return yield* failure("IsDirectory", "link", source);
+                    if (node.kind === "directory") {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "IsDirectory", operation: "link", path: source });
+                    }
                     const path = yield* Effect.fromResult(b);
                     const parent = yield* locate(path, destinationBase, "link", { parentOnly: true });
-                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, 3, "link", destination);
+                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, WRITE | EXECUTE, "link", destination);
                     const name = path.components.at(-1);
-                    if (name === undefined || name === "2e" || name === "2e2e" || parent.entries.has(name)) {
-                        return yield* failure("AlreadyExists", "link", destination);
+                    if (isDotComponent(name) || parent.entries.has(name)) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "AlreadyExists", operation: "link", path: destination });
                     }
-                    if (path.trailingSlash)
-                        return yield* failure("NotDirectory", "link", destination);
-                    if (settings.maxEntries !== undefined && entries >= settings.maxEntries) {
-                        return yield* failure("NoSpace", "link", destination);
+                    if (path.trailingSlash) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotDirectory", operation: "link", path: destination });
+                    }
+                    if (atEntryLimit()) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NoSpace", operation: "link", path: destination });
                     }
                     const now = yield* timestamp("link");
-                    parent.entries.set(name, node);
-                    parent.metadata = { ...parent.metadata, mtimeNs: now, ctimeNs: now };
+                    attach(parent, name, node, now);
                     node.metadata = { ...node.metadata, nlink: node.metadata.nlink + 1, ctimeNs: now };
-                    advanceRevision(parent);
                     advanceRevision(node);
-                    entries += 1;
+                    state.entries += 1;
                     publishEntry("Create", parent, name);
                 }));
             }),
             symlink: Effect.fn("Caller.symlink")(function* (target, input, options) {
                 const prepared = preparePath(input, "symlink", settings.maxPathBytes);
-                if (typeof target === "string" && !wellFormed(target)) {
-                    return yield* failure("InvalidPathEncoding", "symlink", target);
+                const rawTarget = inputBytes(target);
+                if (Result.isFailure(rawTarget)) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: rawTarget.failure, operation: "symlink", path: target });
                 }
-                const rawTarget = typeof target === "string" ? new TextEncoder().encode(target) : getBytePathBytes(target);
-                if (rawTarget === undefined || rawTarget.includes(0)) {
-                    return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "symlink", target);
+                if (rawTarget.success.includes(0)) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "symlink", path: target });
                 }
-                const targetBytes = new Uint8Array(rawTarget);
+                const targetBytes = new Uint8Array(rawTarget.success);
                 const base = options?.relativeTo;
-                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                return yield* coordinated("symlink", Effect.gen(function* () {
                     const path = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared);
                     const bytes = targetBytes;
                     const parent = yield* locate(path, base, "symlink", { parentOnly: true });
-                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, 3, "symlink", input);
+                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, WRITE | EXECUTE, "symlink", input);
                     const name = path.components.at(-1);
-                    if (name === undefined || name === "2e" || name === "2e2e" || parent.entries.has(name)) {
-                        return yield* failure("AlreadyExists", "symlink", input);
+                    if (isDotComponent(name) || parent.entries.has(name)) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "AlreadyExists", operation: "symlink", path: input });
+                    }
+                    if (path.trailingSlash) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotDirectory", operation: "symlink", path: input });
                     }
-                    if (path.trailingSlash)
-                        return yield* failure("NotDirectory", "symlink", input);
-                    if ((settings.maxEntries !== undefined && entries >= settings.maxEntries) ||
+                    if (atEntryLimit() ||
                         (settings.maxBytes !== undefined &&
-                            BigInt(bytes.length) > ByteSize.toBigInt(settings.maxBytes) - usedBytes))
-                        return yield* failure("NoSpace", "symlink", input);
+                            BigInt(bytes.length) > ByteSize.toBigInt(settings.maxBytes) - state.usedBytes))
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NoSpace", operation: "symlink", path: input });
                     const now = yield* timestamp("symlink");
                     const node = {
                         kind: "symlink",
                         lineage: undefined,
                         target: new Uint8Array(bytes),
                         metadata: {
-                            ...directoryMetadata(nextInode, identity.uid, parent.metadata.gid, 0o777, now),
+                            ...directoryMetadata(state.nextInode, identity.uid, parent.metadata.gid, 0o777, now),
                             kind: "symlink",
                             nlink: 1,
                             size: BigInt(bytes.length)
@@ -1255,12 +2438,10 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                         revision: nextRevision(),
                         objectReference: undefined
                     };
-                    parent.entries.set(name, node);
-                    parent.metadata = { ...parent.metadata, mtimeNs: now, ctimeNs: now };
-                    advanceRevision(parent);
-                    nextInode += 1n;
-                    entries += 1;
-                    usedBytes += BigInt(bytes.length);
+                    attach(parent, name, node, now);
+                    state.nextInode += 1n;
+                    state.entries += 1;
+                    state.usedBytes += BigInt(bytes.length);
                     publishEntry("Create", parent, name);
                 }));
             }),
@@ -1285,33 +2466,28 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
             open: Effect.fn("Caller.open")(function* (input, options) {
                 const prepared = preparePath(input, "open", settings.maxPathBytes);
                 const { relativeTo: base, ...raw } = options;
-                const decoded = Schema.decodeResult(OpenSettings, { onExcessProperty: "error" })(raw);
-                if (Result.isFailure(decoded))
-                    return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "open", input);
+                const decoded = decodeOpenSettings(raw);
+                if (Result.isFailure(decoded)) {
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "open", path: input });
+                }
                 const chosen = { ...decoded.success };
                 if (chosen.access === "read" && (chosen.append || chosen.truncate)) {
-                    return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "open", input);
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "open", path: input });
                 }
                 if (chosen.mode !== undefined && (chosen.create === undefined || chosen.create === "never")) {
-                    return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "open", input);
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "open", path: input });
                 }
-                const acquired = {
-                    volume: volumeIdentity,
-                    file: undefined,
-                    closed: false,
-                    offset: 0n,
-                    access: chosen.access,
-                    append: chosen.append ?? false
-                };
-                yield* Effect.addFinalizer(() => coordinated(Effect.sync(() => releaseFile(acquired))));
-                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                const acquired = makeFileReference(chosen.access, chosen.append ?? false);
+                yield* Effect.addFinalizer(() => finalizeFile(acquired));
+                return yield* coordinated("open", Effect.gen(function* () {
                     if (acquired.closed)
                         return yield* Effect.interrupt;
                     const path = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared);
                     if (chosen.create === "exclusive") {
                         const existing = yield* Effect.result(lookup(path, base, "open", { followFinalSymlink: false }));
-                        if (Result.isSuccess(existing))
-                            return yield* failure("AlreadyExists", "open", input);
+                        if (Result.isSuccess(existing)) {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "AlreadyExists", operation: "open", path: input });
+                        }
                         if (existing.failure.code !== "NotFound")
                             return yield* existing.failure;
                     }
@@ -1320,24 +2496,25 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                         allowMissing: chosen.create === "ifMissing" || chosen.create === "exclusive"
                     });
                     const parent = resolved.parent;
-                    if (parent === undefined)
-                        return yield* failure("IsDirectory", "open", input);
+                    if (parent === undefined) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "IsDirectory", operation: "open", path: input });
+                    }
                     const name = resolved.name;
-                    if (name === undefined || name === "2e" || name === "2e2e") {
-                        return yield* failure("IsDirectory", "open", input);
+                    if (isDotComponent(name)) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "IsDirectory", operation: "open", path: input });
                     }
-                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, 1, "open", input);
+                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, EXECUTE, "open", input);
                     let file = resolved.node;
                     if (file !== undefined && chosen.create === "exclusive") {
-                        return yield* failure("AlreadyExists", "open", input);
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "AlreadyExists", operation: "open", path: input });
                     }
                     if (file === undefined) {
                         if (chosen.create === undefined || chosen.create === "never" || path.trailingSlash) {
-                            return yield* failure("NotFound", "open", input);
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotFound", operation: "open", path: input });
                         }
-                        yield* authorize(parent, identity, 3, "open", input);
-                        if (settings.maxEntries !== undefined && entries >= settings.maxEntries) {
-                            return yield* failure("NoSpace", "open", input);
+                        yield* authorize(parent, identity, WRITE | EXECUTE, "open", input);
+                        if (atEntryLimit()) {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "NoSpace", operation: "open", path: input });
                         }
                         const now = yield* timestamp("open");
                         file = {
@@ -1346,28 +2523,29 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                             data: Content.empty(),
                             openCount: 0,
                             metadata: {
-                                ...directoryMetadata(nextInode, identity.uid, parent.metadata.gid, (chosen.mode ?? 0o666) & 0o777 & ~umask, now),
+                                ...directoryMetadata(state.nextInode, identity.uid, parent.metadata.gid, (chosen.mode ?? 0o666) & 0o777 & ~umask, now),
                                 kind: "file",
                                 nlink: 1
                             },
                             revision: nextRevision(),
                             objectReference: undefined
                         };
-                        parent.entries.set(name, file);
-                        parent.metadata = { ...parent.metadata, mtimeNs: now, ctimeNs: now };
-                        advanceRevision(parent);
-                        entries += 1;
-                        nextInode += 1n;
+                        attach(parent, name, file, now);
+                        state.entries += 1;
+                        state.nextInode += 1n;
                         publishEntry("Create", parent, name);
                     }
                     else {
-                        if (file.kind === "symlink")
-                            return yield* failure("SymlinkLoop", "open", input);
-                        if (file.kind !== "file")
-                            return yield* failure("IsDirectory", "open", input);
-                        if (path.trailingSlash)
-                            return yield* failure("NotDirectory", "open", input);
-                        yield* authorize(file, identity, chosen.access === "read" ? 4 : chosen.access === "write" ? 2 : 6, "open", input);
+                        if (file.kind === "symlink") {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "SymlinkLoop", operation: "open", path: input });
+                        }
+                        if (file.kind !== "file") {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "IsDirectory", operation: "open", path: input });
+                        }
+                        if (path.trailingSlash) {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotDirectory", operation: "open", path: input });
+                        }
+                        yield* authorize(file, identity, chosen.access === "read" ? READ : chosen.access === "write" ? WRITE : READ | WRITE, "open", input);
                         if (chosen.truncate)
                             yield* resize(file, 0n, "open");
                     }
@@ -1379,28 +2557,30 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
             unlink: Effect.fn("Caller.unlink")(function* (input, options) {
                 const prepared = preparePath(input, "unlink", settings.maxPathBytes);
                 const base = options?.relativeTo;
-                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                return yield* coordinated("unlink", Effect.gen(function* () {
                     const path = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared);
                     const parent = yield* locate(path, base, "unlink", { parentOnly: true });
-                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, 3, "unlink", input);
+                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, WRITE | EXECUTE, "unlink", input);
                     const name = path.components.at(-1);
-                    if (name === undefined || name === "2e" || name === "2e2e") {
-                        return yield* failure("IsDirectory", "unlink", input);
+                    if (isDotComponent(name)) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "IsDirectory", operation: "unlink", path: input });
                     }
                     const child = parent.entries.get(name);
                     if (child === undefined)
-                        return yield* failure("NotFound", "unlink", input);
-                    if (child.kind === "directory")
-                        return yield* failure("IsDirectory", "unlink", input);
-                    if (path.trailingSlash)
-                        return yield* failure("NotDirectory", "unlink", input);
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotFound", operation: "unlink", path: input });
+                    if (child.kind === "directory") {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "IsDirectory", operation: "unlink", path: input });
+                    }
+                    if (path.trailingSlash) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotDirectory", operation: "unlink", path: input });
+                    }
                     yield* authorizeRemoval(parent, child, "unlink", input);
                     const now = yield* timestamp("unlink");
                     parent.entries.delete(name);
                     parent.metadata = { ...parent.metadata, mtimeNs: now, ctimeNs: now };
                     advanceRevision(parent);
                     detach(child, now);
-                    entries -= 1;
+                    state.entries -= 1;
                     publishEntry("Remove", parent, name);
                 }));
             }),
@@ -1409,31 +2589,31 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                 const newPrepared = preparePath(destination, "rename", settings.maxPathBytes);
                 const oldBase = options?.sourceRelativeTo;
                 const newBase = options?.destinationRelativeTo;
-                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                return yield* coordinated("rename", Effect.gen(function* () {
                     const oldPath = yield* Effect.fromResult(oldPrepared);
                     const newPath = yield* Effect.fromResult(newPrepared);
                     const oldParent = yield* locate(oldPath, oldBase, "rename", { parentOnly: true });
                     const newParent = yield* locate(newPath, newBase, "rename", { parentOnly: true });
-                    yield* authorize(oldParent, identity, 3, "rename", source);
-                    yield* authorize(newParent, identity, 3, "rename", destination);
+                    yield* authorize(oldParent, identity, WRITE | EXECUTE, "rename", source);
+                    yield* authorize(newParent, identity, WRITE | EXECUTE, "rename", destination);
                     const oldName = oldPath.components.at(-1);
                     const newName = newPath.components.at(-1);
-                    if (oldName === undefined || newName === undefined || oldName === "2e" || oldName === "2e2e" ||
-                        newName === "2e" || newName === "2e2e") {
-                        return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "rename", source);
+                    if (isDotComponent(oldName) || isDotComponent(newName)) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "rename", path: source });
                     }
                     const child = oldParent.entries.get(oldName);
-                    if (child === undefined)
-                        return yield* failure("NotFound", "rename", source);
+                    if (child === undefined) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotFound", operation: "rename", path: source });
+                    }
                     const replaced = newParent.entries.get(newName);
                     if (newPath.trailingSlash && replaced === undefined) {
-                        return yield* failure("NotFound", "rename", destination);
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotFound", operation: "rename", path: destination });
                     }
                     if (oldPath.trailingSlash && child.kind !== "directory") {
-                        return yield* failure("NotDirectory", "rename", source);
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotDirectory", operation: "rename", path: source });
                     }
                     if (newPath.trailingSlash && replaced?.kind !== "directory") {
-                        return yield* failure("NotDirectory", "rename", destination);
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotDirectory", operation: "rename", path: destination });
                     }
                     if (child === replaced)
                         return;
@@ -1441,22 +2621,23 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                     if (replaced !== undefined) {
                         yield* authorizeRemoval(newParent, replaced, "rename", destination);
                         if (child.kind === "directory" && replaced.kind !== "directory") {
-                            return yield* failure("NotDirectory", "rename", destination);
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotDirectory", operation: "rename", path: destination });
                         }
                         if (child.kind !== "directory" && replaced.kind === "directory") {
-                            return yield* failure("IsDirectory", "rename", destination);
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "IsDirectory", operation: "rename", path: destination });
                         }
                         if (replaced.kind === "directory" && replaced.entries.size > 0) {
-                            return yield* failure("NotEmpty", "rename", destination);
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotEmpty", operation: "rename", path: destination });
                         }
                     }
                     for (let ancestor = newParent; ancestor !== undefined; ancestor = ancestor.parent) {
-                        if (ancestor === child)
-                            return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "rename", destination);
+                        if (ancestor === child) {
+                            return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "rename", path: destination });
+                        }
                     }
                     const now = yield* timestamp("rename");
                     // All rejection checks precede namespace, ancestry, quota, and metadata publication.
-                    const oldEvent = () => ownedPath(nameBytes(directoryHex(oldParent) + (oldParent === root ? "" : "2f") + oldName));
+                    const oldEvent = () => ownedPath(nameBytes(directoryHex(oldParent) + (oldParent === state.root ? "" : SLASH_HEX) + oldName));
                     oldParent.entries.delete(oldName);
                     newParent.entries.set(newName, child);
                     if (child.kind === "directory")
@@ -1480,31 +2661,33 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                     advanceRevision(child);
                     if (replaced !== undefined) {
                         detach(replaced, now);
-                        entries -= 1;
+                        state.entries -= 1;
                     }
-                    watchHub.publishUnsafe(() => ({ _tag: "Remove", path: oldEvent() }));
+                    queuePublish(() => watchHub.publishUnsafe(() => ({ _tag: "Remove", path: oldEvent() })));
                     publishEntry("Create", newParent, newName);
                 }));
             }),
             rmdir: Effect.fn("Caller.rmdir")(function* (input, options) {
                 const prepared = preparePath(input, "rmdir", settings.maxPathBytes);
                 const base = options?.relativeTo;
-                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                return yield* coordinated("rmdir", Effect.gen(function* () {
                     const path = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared);
                     const parent = yield* locate(path, base, "rmdir", { parentOnly: true });
-                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, 3, "rmdir", input);
+                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, WRITE | EXECUTE, "rmdir", input);
                     const name = path.components.at(-1);
-                    if (name === undefined || name === "2e" || name === "2e2e") {
-                        return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "rmdir", input);
+                    if (isDotComponent(name)) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "rmdir", path: input });
                     }
                     const child = parent.entries.get(name);
                     if (child === undefined)
-                        return yield* failure("NotFound", "rmdir", input);
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotFound", operation: "rmdir", path: input });
                     yield* authorizeRemoval(parent, child, "rmdir", input);
-                    if (child.kind !== "directory")
-                        return yield* failure("NotDirectory", "rmdir", input);
-                    if (child.entries.size > 0)
-                        return yield* failure("NotEmpty", "rmdir", input);
+                    if (child.kind !== "directory") {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotDirectory", operation: "rmdir", path: input });
+                    }
+                    if (child.entries.size > 0) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NotEmpty", operation: "rmdir", path: input });
+                    }
                     const now = yield* timestamp("rmdir");
                     parent.entries.delete(name);
                     parent.metadata = { ...parent.metadata, nlink: parent.metadata.nlink - 1, mtimeNs: now, ctimeNs: now };
@@ -1513,14 +2696,14 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                     advanceRevision(parent);
                     advanceRevision(child);
                     invalidateReference(child);
-                    entries -= 1;
+                    state.entries -= 1;
                     publishEntry("Remove", parent, name);
                 }));
             }),
             stat: Effect.fn("Caller.stat")(function* (input, options) {
                 const prepared = preparePath(input, "stat", settings.maxPathBytes);
                 const base = options?.relativeTo;
-                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                return yield* coordinatedRead("stat", Effect.gen(function* () {
                     const path = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared);
                     const directory = yield* resolveNode(path, base, "stat");
                     return { ...directory.metadata };
@@ -1530,18 +2713,18 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                 const prepared = preparePath(input, "mkdir", settings.maxPathBytes);
                 const base = options?.relativeTo;
                 const mode = options?.mode === undefined ? 0o777 : options.mode;
-                if (!Schema.is(Mode)(mode))
-                    return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "mkdir", input);
-                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                if (!isMode(mode))
+                    return yield* new FsError({ code: "InvalidArgument", operation: "mkdir", path: input });
+                return yield* coordinated("mkdir", Effect.gen(function* () {
                     const path = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared);
                     const parent = yield* locate(path, base, "mkdir", { parentOnly: true });
-                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, 3, "mkdir", input);
+                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, WRITE | EXECUTE, "mkdir", input);
                     const name = path.components.at(-1);
-                    if (name === undefined || name === "2e" || name === "2e2e" || parent.entries.has(name)) {
-                        return yield* failure("AlreadyExists", "mkdir", input);
+                    if (isDotComponent(name) || parent.entries.has(name)) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "AlreadyExists", operation: "mkdir", path: input });
                     }
-                    if (settings.maxEntries !== undefined && entries >= settings.maxEntries) {
-                        return yield* failure("NoSpace", "mkdir", input);
+                    if (atEntryLimit()) {
+                        return yield* new FsError({ code: "NoSpace", operation: "mkdir", path: input });
                     }
                     const now = yield* timestamp("mkdir");
                     const child = {
@@ -1549,22 +2732,14 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                         lineage: undefined,
                         parent,
                         entries: new Map(),
-                        metadata: directoryMetadata(nextInode, identity.uid, parent.metadata.gid, (mode & 0o777 & ~umask) | (mode & 0o1000), now),
+                        metadata: directoryMetadata(state.nextInode, identity.uid, parent.metadata.gid, (mode & 0o777 & ~umask) | (mode & STICKY_BIT), now),
                         revision: nextRevision(),
                         objectReference: undefined
                     };
-                    const parentMetadata = {
-                        ...parent.metadata,
-                        nlink: parent.metadata.nlink + 1,
-                        mtimeNs: now,
-                        ctimeNs: now
-                    };
                     // No Effect yield or expected failure between these publication writes.
-                    parent.entries.set(name, child);
-                    parent.metadata = parentMetadata;
-                    advanceRevision(parent);
-                    nextInode += 1n;
-                    entries += 1;
+                    attach(parent, name, child, now);
+                    state.nextInode += 1n;
+                    state.entries += 1;
                     publishEntry("Create", parent, name);
                 }));
             }),
@@ -1576,12 +2751,13 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
                 const acquired = yield* acquireDirectory(input, options, "openDirectory");
                 const handle = Object.freeze({
                     [DirectoryHandleId]: true,
-                    stat: coordinated(Effect.suspend(() => acquired.directory === undefined
-                        ? Effect.fail(failure("InvalidHandle", "stat"))
+                    stat: coordinatedRead("stat", Effect.suspend(() => acquired.directory === undefined
+                        ? Effect.fail(new FsError({ code: "InvalidHandle", operation: "stat" }))
                         : Effect.succeed({ ...acquired.directory.metadata }))).pipe(Effect.withSpan("DirectoryHandle.stat")),
-                    close: coordinated(Effect.suspend(() => {
-                        if (acquired.directory === undefined)
-                            return Effect.fail(failure("InvalidHandle", "close"));
+                    close: coordinatedCleanup(Effect.suspend(() => {
+                        if (acquired.directory === undefined) {
+                            return Effect.fail(new FsError({ code: "InvalidHandle", operation: "close" }));
+                        }
                         acquired.directory = undefined;
                         acquired.closed = true;
                         return Effect.void;
@@ -1592,86 +2768,123 @@ export const makeVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (source, options) {
             })
         });
     };
-    const baseObservation = source._tag === "Overlay" ? observeChanges() : undefined;
-    const publicChange = (change) => {
-        switch (change._tag) {
-            case "Added":
-            case "Removed":
-            case "Updated":
-            case "Replaced":
-                return Object.freeze({ ...change, path: ownedPath(new Uint8Array(change.path)) });
-            case "Renamed":
-                return Object.freeze({
-                    ...change,
-                    from: ownedPath(new Uint8Array(change.from)),
-                    to: ownedPath(new Uint8Array(change.to))
-                });
-        }
-        throw new Error("Unknown internal overlay change");
-    };
+    const baseObservation = Predicate.isTagged("Overlay")(source) ? yield* observeChanges() : undefined;
+    const publicChange = (change) => Predicate.isTagged("Renamed")(change)
+        ? OverlayChange.make({ ...change, from: ownedPath(change.from), to: ownedPath(change.to) })
+        : OverlayChange.make({ ...change, path: ownedPath(change.path) });
     const publicChanges = (changes) => Object.freeze(changes.map(publicChange));
     const changeOptions = (options) => {
         const decoded = decodeConfiguration(OverlayChangesOptions, options === undefined ? {} : options);
         return Result.isFailure(decoded) ? Effect.fail(decoded.failure) : Effect.succeed(decoded.success);
     };
+    // An overlay is a spread copy of `volume`, so the object the caller holds is not always the one
+    // built here. `watch` runs lazily, so it reads whichever surface was actually handed out.
+    let surface;
     const volume = Object.freeze({
         [VolumeId]: true,
+        durability: "memory-only",
+        identity,
+        incarnation,
+        limits,
+        usage: coordinatedRead("usage", Effect.sync(() => ({ usedBytes: state.usedBytes, entries: state.entries })))
+            .pipe(Effect.withSpan("Volume.usage")),
         watch: Effect.gen(function* () {
-            const hook = TestHooks.getRegistrationHook(volume);
-            return yield* watchHub.subscribe(hook?.afterSubscribe);
+            const hook = TestHooks.getRegistrationHook(surface);
+            return yield* admit("watch", watchHub.subscribe(hook?.afterSubscribe));
         }).pipe(Effect.withSpan("Volume.watch")),
-        snapshot: coordinated(captureSnapshot()).pipe(Effect.withSpan("Volume.snapshot")),
+        snapshot: coordinatedRead("snapshot", captureSnapshot()).pipe(Effect.withSpan("Volume.snapshot")),
         caller: Effect.fn("Volume.caller")(function* (options) {
             const decoded = decodeConfiguration(RootCallerOptions, options === undefined ? {} : options);
             if (Result.isFailure(decoded))
                 return yield* decoded.failure;
             const chosen = decoded.success.identity ?? { uid: 0, gid: 0, groups: [], privileged: true };
             const identity = Object.freeze({ ...chosen, groups: Object.freeze([...chosen.groups]) });
-            return createCaller({ volume: volumeIdentity, directory: root, closed: false }, identity, decoded.success.umask ?? 0o022);
+            return yield* coordinatedRead("caller", Effect.sync(() => createCaller(makeDirectoryReference(state.root), identity, decoded.success.umask ?? 0o022)));
         })
     });
-    if (source._tag !== "Overlay" || baseObservation === undefined) {
-        return { _tag: "Volume", volume };
+    surface = volume;
+    if (!Predicate.isTagged("Overlay")(source) || baseObservation === undefined) {
+        // SAFETY: Overlay sources return below, so S is non-Overlay here and VolumeFor<S> is Volume.
+        return volume;
     }
     const hook = TestHooks.getObservationHook(source.base);
     const overlay = Object.freeze({
         ...volume,
         changes: Effect.fn("OverlayVolume.changes")(function* (options) {
             const selected = yield* changeOptions(options);
-            const current = yield* coordinated(Effect.sync(observeChanges));
+            const current = yield* coordinatedRead("changes", observeChanges());
             return publicChanges(compareOverlay(baseObservation, current, selected.includeTimestamps ?? false));
         }),
         capture: Effect.fn("OverlayVolume.capture")(function* (options) {
             const selected = yield* changeOptions(options);
-            const current = yield* coordinated(captureState(hook));
+            const current = yield* coordinatedRead("capture", captureState(hook));
             return Object.freeze({
                 snapshot: current.snapshot,
                 changes: publicChanges(compareOverlay(baseObservation, current.observation, selected.includeTimestamps ?? false))
             });
         })
     });
-    return { _tag: "Overlay", volume: overlay };
+    surface = overlay;
+    return overlay;
 });
 /** @internal */
 export const make = Effect.fn("VirtualFileSystem.make")(function* (options) {
-    const result = yield* makeVolume({ _tag: "Empty" }, options).pipe(Effect.catchTag("ImageError", Effect.die));
-    if (result._tag === "Overlay")
-        return yield* Effect.die(new Error("empty volume constructed as overlay"));
-    return result.volume;
+    return yield* makeVolume(VolumeSource.Empty(), options).pipe(Effect.catchTag("ImageError", Effect.die));
+});
+/** @internal */
+export const prepareEmptyLiveImage = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (options) {
+    let bytes;
+    yield* makeVolume(VolumeSource.Empty(), options, undefined, (initial, identity, limits) => captureLiveImage(initial, identity, limits).pipe(Effect.tap((image) => Effect.sync(() => {
+        bytes = image;
+    })), Effect.asVoid));
+    if (bytes === undefined)
+        return yield* new ImageError({ code: "InvalidStructure", field: "liveImage" });
+    return bytes;
+});
+/** @internal */
+export const openImageVolume = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (image, maxImageBytes, commit) {
+    const document = yield* LiveImage.decode(image, maxImageBytes);
+    const prepared = new WeakMap();
+    const identity = VolumeIdentity.make(document.identity);
+    let shutdown;
+    const limits = {
+        maxEntries: document.limits.maxEntries,
+        maxBytes: document.limits.maxBytes === undefined ? undefined : ByteSize.bytes(document.limits.maxBytes),
+        maxFileBytes: document.limits.maxFileBytes === undefined
+            ? ByteSize.bytes(0xffffffff)
+            : ByteSize.bytes(document.limits.maxFileBytes),
+        maxPathBytes: document.limits.maxPathBytes === undefined ? undefined : ByteSize.bytes(document.limits.maxPathBytes),
+        maxPendingOperations: 64,
+        maxWatchEvents: 256
+    };
+    const volume = yield* makeVolume(VolumeSource.Live({ document }), undefined, {
+        onReady: (effect) => {
+            shutdown = effect;
+        },
+        prepare: (candidate) => captureLiveImage(candidate, identity, limits).pipe(Effect.flatMap((bytes) => ByteSize.isGreaterThan(ByteSize.bytes(bytes.length), maxImageBytes)
+            ? new FsError({ code: "StorageRejected", operation: "commit" })
+            : Effect.sync(() => {
+                prepared.set(candidate, bytes);
+            })), Effect.mapError(() => new FsError({ code: "StorageRejected", operation: "commit" }))),
+        commit: (candidate) => Effect.suspend(() => {
+            const bytes = prepared.get(candidate);
+            if (bytes === undefined)
+                return Effect.succeed("unknown");
+            prepared.delete(candidate);
+            return commit(bytes);
+        })
+    });
+    if (shutdown === undefined)
+        return yield* new ImageError({ code: "InvalidStructure", field: "liveImage" });
+    return Object.freeze({ volume, shutdown });
 });
 /** @internal */
 export const fromSnapshot = Effect.fn("VirtualFileSystem.fromSnapshot")(function* (snapshot, options) {
     const image = yield* Image.inspect(snapshot);
-    const result = yield* makeVolume({ _tag: "Snapshot", image }, options);
-    if (result._tag === "Overlay")
-        return yield* new ImageError({ code: "InvalidStructure" });
-    return result.volume;
+    return yield* makeVolume(VolumeSource.Snapshot({ image }), options);
 });
 /** @internal */
 export const makeOverlay = Effect.fn("VirtualFileSystem.makeOverlay")(function* (base, options) {
     const image = yield* Image.inspect(base);
-    const result = yield* makeVolume({ _tag: "Overlay", base, image }, options);
-    if (result._tag === "Volume")
-        return yield* new ImageError({ code: "InvalidStructure" });
-    return result.volume;
+    return yield* makeVolume(VolumeSource.Overlay({ base, image }), options);
 });