@effect-vfs/core 0.0.1

package/dist/VirtualFileSystem.js

@@ -0,0 +1,1768 @@
+/**
+ * Runtime-neutral virtual filesystem contracts and constructors.
+ *
+ * **Details**
+ *
+ * Volumes own isolated namespaces. Callers carry path context and credentials,
+ * while file and directory handles use `Scope` for deterministic release.
+ *
+ * @since 0.1.0
+ */
+import * as Clock from "effect/Clock";
+import * as Context from "effect/Context";
+import { DecodeLimits, ImageError } from "./Snapshot.js";
+export { DecodeLimits, ImageError, SnapshotTypeId } from "./Snapshot.js";
+import * as Data from "effect/Data";
+import * as Effect from "effect/Effect";
+import * as Encoding from "effect/Encoding";
+import * as PubSub from "effect/PubSub";
+import * as Result from "effect/Result";
+import * as Schema from "effect/Schema";
+import * as Scope from "effect/Scope";
+import * as Semaphore from "effect/Semaphore";
+import * as Stream from "effect/Stream";
+import * as Image from "./internal/image.js";
+const BytePathId = Symbol("@effect-vfs/core/BytePath");
+const VolumeId = Symbol("@effect-vfs/core/Volume");
+const CallerId = Symbol("@effect-vfs/core/Caller");
+const FileHandleId = Symbol("@effect-vfs/core/FileHandle");
+const DirectoryHandleId = Symbol("@effect-vfs/core/DirectoryHandle");
+/**
+ * Schema for portable virtual filesystem error codes.
+ *
+ * @category schemas
+ * @since 0.1.0
+ */
+export const FsCode = Schema.Literals([
+    "NotFound",
+    "AlreadyExists",
+    "NotEmpty",
+    "NotDirectory",
+    "AccessDenied",
+    "InvalidHandle",
+    "ForeignHandle",
+    "ClosedCaller",
+    "InvalidArgument",
+    "InvalidPathEncoding",
+    "PathTooLong",
+    "NoSpace",
+    "IsDirectory",
+    "FileTooLarge",
+    "NoData",
+    "SymlinkLoop",
+    "UnrepresentableName"
+]);
+/**
+ * Describes an expected filesystem operation failure.
+ *
+ * @category errors
+ * @since 0.1.0
+ */
+export class FsError extends Data.TaggedError("FsError") {
+}
+/**
+ * Describes an invalid volume or caller option and names the rejected field.
+ *
+ * @category errors
+ * @since 0.1.0
+ */
+export class ConfigurationError extends Data.TaggedError("ConfigurationError") {
+}
+const Natural = Schema.Finite.check(Schema.isInt(), Schema.isGreaterThanOrEqualTo(0), Schema.isLessThanOrEqualTo(Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER));
+const Mode = Natural.check(Schema.isLessThanOrEqualTo(0o7777));
+/**
+ * Schema for a caller's numeric identity, supplementary groups, and explicit privilege.
+ *
+ * @category schemas
+ * @since 0.1.0
+ */
+export const Identity = Schema.Struct({
+    /** Numeric user identifier used by ownership and permission checks. */
+    uid: Natural,
+    /** Primary numeric group identifier. */
+    gid: Natural,
+    /** Supplementary group identifiers used by group permission checks. */
+    groups: Schema.Array(Natural),
+    /** Grants root-style permission bypasses independently of `uid`. */
+    privileged: Schema.Boolean
+});
+/**
+ * Schema for root caller credentials and creation mask.
+ *
+ * @category schemas
+ * @since 0.1.0
+ */
+export const RootCallerOptions = Schema.Struct({
+    /** Caller identity. Defaults to privileged uid and gid `0`. */
+    identity: Schema.optionalKey(Identity),
+    /** Creation mask applied to requested modes. Defaults to `0o022`. */
+    umask: Schema.optionalKey(Natural.check(Schema.isLessThanOrEqualTo(0o777)))
+});
+/**
+ * Schema for optional volume capacity and path limits.
+ *
+ * @category schemas
+ * @since 0.1.0
+ */
+export const VolumeOptions = Schema.Struct({
+    /** Maximum number of filesystem nodes. Omission leaves the count unbounded. */
+    maxEntries: Schema.optionalKey(Natural),
+    /** Maximum combined regular-file content in bytes. */
+    maxBytes: Schema.optionalKey(Natural),
+    /** Maximum content size of one regular file in bytes. */
+    maxFileBytes: Schema.optionalKey(Natural.check(Schema.isLessThanOrEqualTo(0xffffffff))),
+    /** Maximum encoded byte length of an absolute or relative path. */
+    maxPathBytes: Schema.optionalKey(Natural.check(Schema.isGreaterThanOrEqualTo(1)))
+});
+// Match snapshot v1's canonical signed decimal timestamp domain.
+const timestampLimit = 10n ** 128n - 1n;
+const Timestamp = Schema.BigInt.check(Schema.isGreaterThanOrEqualToBigInt(-timestampLimit), Schema.isLessThanOrEqualToBigInt(timestampLimit));
+/**
+ * Schema for filesystem node metadata with bigint inode, size, and nanosecond fields.
+ *
+ * @category schemas
+ * @since 0.1.0
+ */
+export const Metadata = Schema.Struct({
+    kind: Schema.Literals(["directory", "file", "symlink"]),
+    ino: Schema.BigInt,
+    nlink: Natural,
+    size: Schema.BigInt,
+    uid: Natural,
+    gid: Natural,
+    mode: Mode,
+    atimeNs: Timestamp,
+    mtimeNs: Timestamp,
+    ctimeNs: Timestamp,
+    birthtimeNs: Timestamp
+});
+/**
+ * Schema for an owner update. Omitted fields retain their existing values.
+ *
+ * @category schemas
+ * @since 0.1.0
+ */
+export const OwnerUpdate = Schema.Struct({ uid: Schema.optionalKey(Natural), gid: Schema.optionalKey(Natural) });
+/**
+ * Schema for setting a timestamp to the clock, retaining it, or supplying nanoseconds.
+ *
+ * @category schemas
+ * @since 0.1.0
+ */
+export const TimeUpdate = Schema.Union([
+    Schema.Struct({ kind: Schema.Literal("now") }),
+    Schema.Struct({ kind: Schema.Literal("omit") }),
+    Schema.Struct({ kind: Schema.Literal("value"), nanoseconds: Timestamp })
+]);
+/**
+ * Schema for independent access and modification time updates.
+ *
+ * @category schemas
+ * @since 0.1.0
+ */
+export const Times = Schema.Struct({ access: TimeUpdate, modification: TimeUpdate });
+/**
+ * Schema for file seek origins, including dense-file data and hole queries.
+ *
+ * @category schemas
+ * @since 0.1.0
+ */
+export const SeekMode = Schema.Literals(["start", "current", "end", "data", "hole"]);
+/**
+ * Schema for file access, creation, append, truncate, and symlink behavior.
+ *
+ * @category schemas
+ * @since 0.1.0
+ */
+export const OpenSettings = Schema.Struct({
+    /** Permitted operations on the returned handle. */
+    access: Schema.Literals(["read", "write", "readWrite"]),
+    /** Creation policy. Defaults to `"never"`. */
+    create: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.Literals(["never", "ifMissing", "exclusive"])),
+    /** Requested mode for a new file, before applying the caller's umask. */
+    mode: Schema.optionalKey(Mode),
+    /** Write at the current end of file regardless of the handle cursor. */
+    append: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.Boolean),
+    /** Truncate an existing regular file to zero bytes during open. */
+    truncate: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.Boolean),
+    /** Follow the final symbolic link. Defaults to `true`. */
+    followFinalSymlink: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.Boolean)
+});
+const WriteFileSettings = Schema.Struct({
+    ...OpenSettings.fields,
+    /** Replace the final symbolic link itself instead of its target. */
+    replaceFinalSymlink: Schema.optionalKey(Schema.Boolean),
+    /** Mode to apply after replacing an existing file. */
+    finalMode: Schema.optionalKey(Mode)
+});
+/**
+ * Optional Effect service for providing an existing filesystem caller.
+ *
+ * @category services
+ * @since 0.1.0
+ */
+export class CurrentFileSystem extends Context.Service()("@effect-vfs/core/CurrentFileSystem") {
+}
+/**
+ * Encodes a snapshot as owned UTF-8 JSON bytes using the version 1 snapshot format.
+ *
+ * @category serialization
+ * @since 0.1.0
+ */
+export const encodeSnapshot = Image.encodeSnapshot;
+/**
+ * Decodes version 1 snapshot bytes while enforcing explicit input and payload limits.
+ *
+ * @category serialization
+ * @since 0.1.0
+ */
+export const decodeSnapshot = Image.decodeSnapshot;
+const bytePaths = new WeakMap();
+const failure = (code, operation, path) => new FsError({ code, operation, ...(path === undefined ? {} : { path }) });
+const ownedPath = (bytes) => {
+    const path = Object.freeze({ [BytePathId]: true });
+    bytePaths.set(path, bytes);
+    return path;
+};
+const strictString = (bytes, operation) => Effect.try({
+    try: () => new TextDecoder("utf-8", { fatal: true, ignoreBOM: true }).decode(bytes),
+    catch: () => failure("UnrepresentableName", operation)
+});
+const nameBytes = (name) => {
+    const bytes = new Uint8Array(name.length / 2);
+    for (let i = 0; i < bytes.length; i++)
+        bytes[i] = Number.parseInt(name.slice(i * 2, i * 2 + 2), 16);
+    return bytes;
+};
+// A zero-length view distinguishes a detached buffer from a valid empty buffer.
+const attachedBuffer = (bytes) => {
+    try {
+        new Uint8Array(bytes.buffer, bytes.byteOffset, 0);
+        return true;
+    }
+    catch (error) {
+        if (error instanceof TypeError)
+            return false;
+        throw error;
+    }
+};
+/**
+ * Creates an opaque byte path by copying the input when the Effect executes.
+ *
+ * **Gotchas**
+ *
+ * Shared-memory-backed and detached views fail with `InvalidArgument`.
+ *
+ * @category constructors
+ * @since 0.1.0
+ */
+export const pathFromBytes = Effect.fn("VirtualFileSystem.pathFromBytes")(function* (bytes) {
+    if (!(bytes instanceof Uint8Array) || !(bytes.buffer instanceof ArrayBuffer)) {
+        return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "pathFromBytes");
+    }
+    if (!attachedBuffer(bytes))
+        return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "pathFromBytes");
+    const owned = new Uint8Array(bytes);
+    if (owned.length === 0 || owned.includes(0))
+        return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "pathFromBytes");
+    const path = Object.freeze({ [BytePathId]: true });
+    bytePaths.set(path, owned);
+    return path;
+});
+/**
+ * Copies the bytes held by an opaque byte path.
+ *
+ * @category getters
+ * @since 0.1.0
+ */
+export const pathToBytes = Effect.fn("VirtualFileSystem.pathToBytes")(function* (path) {
+    const bytes = bytePaths.get(path);
+    if (bytes === undefined)
+        return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "pathToBytes");
+    return new Uint8Array(bytes);
+});
+const files = new WeakMap();
+const handles = new WeakMap();
+const wellFormed = (value) => {
+    for (let index = 0; index < value.length; index++) {
+        const code = value.charCodeAt(index);
+        if (code >= 0xd800 && code <= 0xdbff) {
+            const next = value.charCodeAt(++index);
+            if (!(next >= 0xdc00 && next <= 0xdfff))
+                return false;
+        }
+        else if (code >= 0xdc00 && code <= 0xdfff)
+            return false;
+    }
+    return true;
+};
+const preparePath = (input, operation, maxPathBytes) => {
+    let bytes;
+    if (typeof input === "string") {
+        if (!wellFormed(input))
+            return Result.fail(failure("InvalidPathEncoding", operation, input));
+        bytes = new TextEncoder().encode(input);
+    }
+    else if (typeof input === "object" && input !== null) {
+        bytes = bytePaths.get(input);
+    }
+    if (bytes === undefined)
+        return Result.fail(failure("InvalidArgument", operation));
+    if (bytes.length === 0)
+        return Result.fail(failure("NotFound", operation, input));
+    if (bytes.includes(0))
+        return Result.fail(failure("InvalidArgument", operation, input));
+    if (maxPathBytes !== undefined && bytes.length > maxPathBytes) {
+        return Result.fail(failure("PathTooLong", operation, input));
+    }
+    const components = [];
+    const suffixes = [];
+    let start = 0;
+    for (let index = 0; index <= bytes.length; index++) {
+        if (index !== bytes.length && bytes[index] !== 47)
+            continue;
+        if (index > start) {
+            // Provisional component bound from decision 0019; names are compared as bytes.
+            if (index - start > 255)
+                return Result.fail(failure("PathTooLong", operation, input));
+            components.push(Encoding.encodeHex(bytes.subarray(start, index)));
+            suffixes.push(bytes.subarray(index));
+        }
+        start = index + 1;
+    }
+    return Result.succeed({
+        input,
+        absolute: bytes[0] === 47,
+        trailingSlash: bytes.at(-1) === 47,
+        bytes,
+        suffixes,
+        components
+    });
+};
+const configurationField = (issue) => {
+    if (issue._tag === "Pointer")
+        return issue.path.map(String).join(".");
+    if (issue._tag === "Composite")
+        return configurationField(issue.issues[0]);
+    return "options";
+};
+const decodeConfiguration = (schema, value) => Schema.decodeUnknownResult(schema, { onExcessProperty: "error" })(value).pipe(Result.mapError((error) => new ConfigurationError({ field: configurationField(error.issue) })));
+const directoryMetadata = (ino, uid, gid, mode, now) => ({
+    kind: "directory",
+    ino,
+    uid,
+    gid,
+    mode,
+    nlink: 2,
+    size: 0n,
+    atimeNs: now,
+    mtimeNs: now,
+    ctimeNs: now,
+    birthtimeNs: now
+});
+const storedMetadata = (metadata) => ({
+    uid: metadata.uid,
+    gid: metadata.gid,
+    mode: metadata.mode,
+    atimeNs: String(metadata.atimeNs),
+    mtimeNs: String(metadata.mtimeNs),
+    ctimeNs: String(metadata.ctimeNs),
+    birthtimeNs: String(metadata.birthtimeNs)
+});
+/** Each execution constructs a fresh volume and captures its Clock. */
+const makeVolume = Effect.fn("VirtualFileSystem.makeVolume")(function* (options, image) {
+    const decoded = decodeConfiguration(VolumeOptions, options === undefined ? {} : options);
+    if (Result.isFailure(decoded))
+        return yield* decoded.failure;
+    const settings = { ...decoded.success };
+    const clock = yield* Clock.clockWith(Effect.succeed);
+    const initialTime = clock.currentTimeNanosUnsafe();
+    if (!Schema.is(Timestamp)(initialTime)) {
+        return yield* new ConfigurationError({ field: "clock.currentTimeNanos" });
+    }
+    const timestamp = (operation) => Effect.suspend(() => {
+        const now = clock.currentTimeNanosUnsafe();
+        return Schema.is(Timestamp)(now) ? Effect.succeed(now) : Effect.fail(failure("InvalidArgument", operation));
+    });
+    const volumeIdentity = Symbol();
+    const gate = Semaphore.makeUnsafe(1);
+    const root = {
+        kind: "directory",
+        parent: undefined,
+        entries: new Map(),
+        metadata: directoryMetadata(1n, 0, 0, 0o755, initialTime)
+    };
+    let nextInode = 2n;
+    let entries = 0;
+    let usedBytes = 0;
+    const maxFileBytes = settings.maxFileBytes ?? 0xffffffff;
+    if (image !== undefined) {
+        const incoming = new Map();
+        let content = 0;
+        let count = 0;
+        for (const record of image.records) {
+            if (record.kind === "directory")
+                count += record.entries.length;
+            else {
+                const length = Image.decodedLength(record.kind === "file" ? record.data : record.target);
+                if (record.kind === "file" && length > maxFileBytes) {
+                    return yield* new ImageError({ code: "LimitExceeded", field: "maxFileBytes" });
+                }
+                content += length;
+            }
+        }
+        if ((settings.maxEntries !== undefined && count > settings.maxEntries) ||
+            (settings.maxBytes !== undefined && content > settings.maxBytes)) {
+            return yield* new ImageError({ code: "LimitExceeded", field: "volume" });
+        }
+        for (const record of image.records) {
+            const metadata = {
+                ...record.metadata,
+                kind: record.kind,
+                ino: record.id === image.root ? 1n : nextInode++,
+                nlink: record.kind === "directory" ? 2 : 0,
+                size: 0n,
+                atimeNs: BigInt(record.metadata.atimeNs),
+                mtimeNs: BigInt(record.metadata.mtimeNs),
+                ctimeNs: BigInt(record.metadata.ctimeNs),
+                birthtimeNs: BigInt(record.metadata.birthtimeNs)
+            };
+            if (record.kind === "directory") {
+                const node = record.id === image.root
+                    ? root
+                    : { kind: "directory", parent: undefined, entries: new Map(), metadata };
+                node.metadata = metadata;
+                incoming.set(record.id, node);
+            }
+            else if (record.kind === "file") {
+                const data = Image.bytes(record.data);
+                incoming.set(record.id, {
+                    kind: "file",
+                    data,
+                    openCount: 0,
+                    metadata: { ...metadata, size: BigInt(data.length) }
+                });
+            }
+            else {
+                const target = Image.bytes(record.target);
+                incoming.set(record.id, { kind: "symlink", target, metadata: { ...metadata, size: BigInt(target.length) } });
+            }
+        }
+        for (const record of image.records) {
+            if (record.kind !== "directory")
+                continue;
+            const parent = incoming.get(record.id);
+            if (parent?.kind !== "directory")
+                return yield* new ImageError({ code: "InvalidStructure" });
+            for (const entry of record.entries) {
+                const node = incoming.get(entry.target);
+                if (node === undefined)
+                    return yield* new ImageError({ code: "InvalidStructure" });
+                parent.entries.set(Encoding.encodeHex(Image.bytes(entry.name)), node);
+                if (node.kind === "directory") {
+                    node.parent = parent;
+                    parent.metadata = { ...parent.metadata, nlink: parent.metadata.nlink + 1 };
+                }
+                else
+                    node.metadata = { ...node.metadata, nlink: node.metadata.nlink + 1 };
+            }
+        }
+        entries = count;
+        usedBytes = content;
+    }
+    const events = yield* PubSub.unbounded();
+    let subscribers = 0;
+    const directoryHex = (directory) => {
+        const names = [];
+        let current = directory;
+        while (current.parent !== undefined) {
+            const parent = current.parent;
+            const found = [...parent.entries].find(([, node]) => node === current);
+            if (found === undefined)
+                break;
+            names.push(found[0]);
+            current = parent;
+        }
+        return "2f" + names.reverse().join("2f");
+    };
+    const publishEntry = (_tag, parent, name) => {
+        if (subscribers === 0)
+            return;
+        const prefix = directoryHex(parent);
+        PubSub.publishUnsafe(events, { _tag, path: ownedPath(nameBytes(prefix + (prefix === "2f" ? "" : "2f") + name)) });
+    };
+    const publishNode = (target) => {
+        if (subscribers === 0)
+            return;
+        if (target === root) {
+            PubSub.publishUnsafe(events, { _tag: "Update", path: ownedPath(new Uint8Array([47])) });
+        }
+        const pending = [[root, "2f"]];
+        while (pending.length > 0) {
+            const next = pending.pop();
+            if (next === undefined)
+                break;
+            const [directory, prefix] = next;
+            for (const [name, node] of directory.entries) {
+                const path = prefix + name;
+                if (node === target) {
+                    PubSub.publishUnsafe(events, { _tag: "Update", path: ownedPath(nameBytes(path)) });
+                }
+                if (node.kind === "directory")
+                    pending.push([node, path + "2f"]);
+            }
+        }
+    };
+    // Permit waits stay interruptible. State transitions and resource registration do not.
+    const coordinated = (effect) => gate.withPermit(Effect.uninterruptible(effect));
+    const release = (reference) => coordinated(Effect.sync(() => {
+        reference.directory = undefined;
+        reference.closed = true;
+    }));
+    const authorize = (directory, identity, bits, operation, path) => {
+        if (identity.privileged)
+            return Effect.void;
+        const metadata = directory.metadata;
+        const shift = metadata.uid === identity.uid ?
+            6
+            : metadata.gid === identity.gid || identity.groups.includes(metadata.gid)
+                ? 3
+                : 0;
+        return ((metadata.mode >> shift) & bits) === bits
+            ? Effect.void
+            : Effect.fail(failure("AccessDenied", operation, path));
+    };
+    const reclaim = (file) => {
+        if (file.metadata.nlink === 0 && file.openCount === 0) {
+            usedBytes -= file.data.length;
+            file.data = new Uint8Array(0);
+        }
+    };
+    const detach = (node, now) => {
+        if (node.kind === "directory") {
+            node.parent = undefined;
+            node.metadata = { ...node.metadata, nlink: 0, ctimeNs: now };
+        }
+        else {
+            node.metadata = { ...node.metadata, nlink: node.metadata.nlink - 1, ctimeNs: now };
+            if (node.kind === "file")
+                reclaim(node);
+            else if (node.metadata.nlink === 0)
+                usedBytes -= node.target.length;
+        }
+    };
+    const releaseFile = (ref) => {
+        if (ref.file !== undefined) {
+            ref.file.openCount -= 1;
+            reclaim(ref.file);
+            ref.file = undefined;
+        }
+        ref.closed = true;
+    };
+    const resize = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (file, length, operation) {
+        if (typeof length !== "bigint" || length < 0n)
+            return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", operation);
+        if (length > BigInt(maxFileBytes))
+            return yield* failure("FileTooLarge", operation);
+        const size = Number(length);
+        if (size - file.data.length > (settings.maxBytes ?? Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER) - usedBytes) {
+            return yield* failure("NoSpace", operation);
+        }
+        const data = new Uint8Array(size);
+        data.set(file.data.subarray(0, size));
+        const now = yield* timestamp(operation);
+        usedBytes += size - file.data.length;
+        file.data = data;
+        file.metadata = {
+            ...file.metadata,
+            size: length,
+            mode: file.metadata.mode & ~0o6000,
+            mtimeNs: now,
+            ctimeNs: now
+        };
+        publishNode(file);
+    });
+    const fileHandle = (ref) => {
+        const get = (operation, access) => ref.file === undefined || (access === "read" && ref.access === "write") ||
+            (access === "write" && ref.access === "read")
+            ? Effect.fail(failure("InvalidHandle", operation))
+            : Effect.succeed(ref.file);
+        const read = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (maximum, position) {
+            const file = yield* get(position === undefined ? "read" : "pread", "read");
+            if (!Schema.is(Natural)(maximum))
+                return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "read");
+            const offset = position ?? ref.offset;
+            if (typeof offset !== "bigint" || offset < 0n || offset > 0x7fffffffffffffffn) {
+                return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "read");
+            }
+            const start = Number(offset > file.metadata.size ? file.metadata.size : offset);
+            const data = file.data.slice(start, start + Math.min(maximum, file.data.length - start));
+            if (maximum > 0) {
+                file.metadata = { ...file.metadata, atimeNs: (yield* timestamp("read")) };
+            }
+            if (position === undefined)
+                ref.offset += BigInt(data.length);
+            return data;
+        }, coordinated);
+        const write = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (input, position) {
+            if (!(input instanceof Uint8Array) || !(input.buffer instanceof ArrayBuffer) || !attachedBuffer(input)) {
+                return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "write");
+            }
+            const bytes = new Uint8Array(input);
+            return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                const file = yield* get(position === undefined ? "write" : "pwrite", "write");
+                const offset = position ?? (ref.append ? file.metadata.size : ref.offset);
+                if (typeof offset !== "bigint" || offset < 0n || offset > 0x7fffffffffffffffn) {
+                    return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "write");
+                }
+                if (bytes.length === 0) {
+                    return 0;
+                }
+                if (offset >= BigInt(maxFileBytes))
+                    return yield* failure("FileTooLarge", "write");
+                const start = Number(offset);
+                const free = (settings.maxBytes ?? Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER) - usedBytes;
+                const end = Math.min(maxFileBytes, file.data.length + free);
+                const count = Math.min(bytes.length, Math.max(0, end - start));
+                if (count === 0)
+                    return yield* failure("NoSpace", "write");
+                const size = Math.max(file.data.length, start + count);
+                const data = size === file.data.length ? file.data : new Uint8Array(size);
+                if (data !== file.data)
+                    data.set(file.data);
+                const now = yield* timestamp("write");
+                data.set(bytes.subarray(0, count), start);
+                usedBytes += size - file.data.length;
+                file.data = data;
+                file.metadata = {
+                    ...file.metadata,
+                    size: BigInt(size),
+                    mode: file.metadata.mode & ~0o6000,
+                    mtimeNs: now,
+                    ctimeNs: now
+                };
+                publishNode(file);
+                if (position === undefined)
+                    ref.offset = offset + BigInt(count);
+                return count;
+            }));
+        });
+        const handle = Object.freeze({
+            [FileHandleId]: true,
+            read: Effect.fn("FileHandle.read")(function* (maximum) {
+                return yield* read(maximum);
+            }),
+            pread: Effect.fn("FileHandle.pread")(function* (maximum, offset) {
+                return yield* read(maximum, offset);
+            }),
+            write: Effect.fn("FileHandle.write")(function* (bytes) {
+                return yield* write(bytes);
+            }),
+            pwrite: Effect.fn("FileHandle.pwrite")(function* (bytes, offset) {
+                return yield* write(bytes, offset);
+            }),
+            seek: Effect.fn("FileHandle.seek")(function* (offset, mode) {
+                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const file = yield* get("seek");
+                    if (typeof offset !== "bigint" || !Schema.is(SeekMode)(mode)) {
+                        return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "seek");
+                    }
+                    let next = mode === "current" ? ref.offset + offset : mode === "end" ? file.metadata.size + offset : offset;
+                    if (next < 0n || next > 0x7fffffffffffffffn)
+                        return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "seek");
+                    if (mode === "data" || mode === "hole") {
+                        if (offset >= file.metadata.size)
+                            return yield* failure("NoData", "seek");
+                        if (mode === "hole")
+                            next = file.metadata.size;
+                    }
+                    ref.offset = next;
+                    return next;
+                }));
+            }),
+            truncate: Effect.fn("FileHandle.truncate")(function* (length) {
+                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    yield* resize(yield* get("truncate", "write"), length, "truncate");
+                }));
+            }),
+            stat: coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                return { ...(yield* get("stat")).metadata };
+            })).pipe(Effect.withSpan("FileHandle.stat")),
+            sync: coordinated(Effect.suspend(() => Effect.asVoid(get("sync")))).pipe(Effect.withSpan("FileHandle.sync")),
+            close: coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                yield* get("close");
+                releaseFile(ref);
+            })).pipe(Effect.withSpan("FileHandle.close"))
+        });
+        files.set(handle, ref);
+        return handle;
+    };
+    const createCaller = (reference, identity, umask) => {
+        const lookup = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (path, base, operation, options = {}) {
+            const { followFinalSymlink = true, allowMissing = false, parentOnly = false } = options;
+            if (reference.directory === undefined)
+                return yield* failure("ClosedCaller", operation, path.input);
+            let current = path.absolute ? root : reference.directory;
+            if (!path.absolute && base !== undefined) {
+                const target = handles.get(base);
+                if (target === undefined)
+                    return yield* failure("InvalidHandle", operation, path.input);
+                if (target.volume !== volumeIdentity)
+                    return yield* failure("ForeignHandle", operation, path.input);
+                if (target.directory === undefined)
+                    return yield* failure("InvalidHandle", operation, path.input);
+                current = target.directory;
+                yield* authorize(current, identity, 1, operation, path.input);
+            }
+            if (current.metadata.nlink === 0)
+                return yield* failure("NotFound", operation, path.input);
+            let work = path;
+            let parent;
+            let name;
+            let traversals = 0;
+            for (let index = 0; index < work.components.length - (parentOnly ? 1 : 0); index++) {
+                if (current.kind !== "directory")
+                    return yield* failure("NotDirectory", operation, path.input);
+                yield* authorize(current, identity, 1, operation, path.input);
+                const component = work.components[index];
+                if (component === undefined)
+                    break;
+                if (component === "2e")
+                    continue;
+                if (component === "2e2e") {
+                    current = current.parent ?? current;
+                    parent = undefined;
+                    name = undefined;
+                    continue;
+                }
+                parent = current;
+                name = component;
+                const child = current.entries.get(component);
+                if (child === undefined) {
+                    if (allowMissing && index === work.components.length - 1 && !work.trailingSlash) {
+                        return { node: undefined, parent, name };
+                    }
+                    return yield* failure("NotFound", operation, path.input);
+                }
+                if (child.kind === "symlink" && (followFinalSymlink || index < work.components.length - 1 || work.trailingSlash)) {
+                    if (child.target.length === 0)
+                        return yield* failure("NotFound", operation, path.input);
+                    if (++traversals > 40)
+                        return yield* failure("SymlinkLoop", operation, path.input);
+                    const suffix = work.suffixes[index] ?? new Uint8Array(0);
+                    if (settings.maxPathBytes !== undefined && child.target.length + suffix.length > settings.maxPathBytes) {
+                        return yield* failure("PathTooLong", operation, path.input);
+                    }
+                    const expansion = new Uint8Array(child.target.length + suffix.length);
+                    expansion.set(child.target);
+                    expansion.set(suffix, child.target.length);
+                    work = yield* Effect.fromResult(preparePath(ownedPath(expansion), operation, settings.maxPathBytes));
+                    if (work.absolute)
+                        current = root;
+                    index = -1;
+                }
+                else
+                    current = child;
+            }
+            if (!parentOnly && work.trailingSlash && current.kind !== "directory") {
+                return yield* failure("NotDirectory", operation, path.input);
+            }
+            return { node: current, parent, name };
+        });
+        const resolveNode = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (path, base, operation, options) {
+            const result = yield* lookup(path, base, operation, options);
+            if (result.node === undefined)
+                return yield* failure("NotFound", operation, path.input);
+            return result.node;
+        });
+        const locate = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (path, base, operation, options) {
+            const result = yield* lookup(path, base, operation, options);
+            const node = result.node;
+            if (node === undefined)
+                return yield* failure("NotFound", operation, path.input);
+            if (node.kind !== "directory")
+                return yield* failure("NotDirectory", operation, path.input);
+            return node;
+        });
+        const acquireDirectory = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (input, options, operation) {
+            const prepared = preparePath(input, operation, settings.maxPathBytes);
+            const base = options?.relativeTo;
+            const acquired = { volume: volumeIdentity, directory: undefined, closed: false };
+            // Register before retaining a directory. Closed scopes can run this immediately,
+            // so registration must not happen while holding the volume permit.
+            yield* Effect.addFinalizer(() => release(acquired));
+            return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                if (acquired.closed)
+                    return yield* Effect.interrupt;
+                const path = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared);
+                const directory = yield* locate(path, base, operation);
+                yield* authorize(directory, identity, 1, operation, input);
+                acquired.directory = directory;
+                return acquired;
+            }));
+        });
+        const list = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (input, options) {
+            const prepared = preparePath(input, "readDirectory", settings.maxPathBytes);
+            const base = options?.relativeTo;
+            return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                const directory = yield* locate(yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared), base, "readDirectory");
+                yield* authorize(directory, identity, 4, "readDirectory", input);
+                const result = [...directory.entries.keys()].map(nameBytes);
+                directory.metadata = { ...directory.metadata, atimeNs: (yield* timestamp("readDirectory")) };
+                return result;
+            }));
+        });
+        const readTarget = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (input, options) {
+            const prepared = preparePath(input, "readLink", settings.maxPathBytes);
+            const base = options?.relativeTo;
+            return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                const node = yield* resolveNode(yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared), base, "readLink", {
+                    followFinalSymlink: false
+                });
+                if (node.kind !== "symlink")
+                    return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "readLink", input);
+                return new Uint8Array(node.target);
+            }));
+        });
+        const canonical = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (input, options) {
+            const prepared = preparePath(input, "realPath", settings.maxPathBytes);
+            const base = options?.relativeTo;
+            return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                const result = yield* lookup(yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared), base, "realPath");
+                const components = [];
+                if (result.node?.kind !== "directory" && result.name !== undefined)
+                    components.push(result.name);
+                let directory = result.node?.kind === "directory" ? result.node : result.parent;
+                while (directory !== undefined && directory.parent !== undefined) {
+                    const parent = directory.parent;
+                    const entry = [...parent.entries].find(([, child]) => child === directory);
+                    if (entry === undefined)
+                        return yield* failure("NotFound", "realPath", input);
+                    components.push(entry[0]);
+                    directory = parent;
+                }
+                return nameBytes("2f" + components.reverse().join("2f"));
+            }));
+        });
+        const metadataNode = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (target, options, operation) {
+            if (reference.directory === undefined)
+                return yield* failure("ClosedCaller", operation);
+            if (typeof target === "object" && target !== null && (FileHandleId in target || DirectoryHandleId in target)) {
+                const ref = FileHandleId in target ? files.get(target) : handles.get(target);
+                if (ref === undefined)
+                    return yield* failure("InvalidHandle", operation);
+                if (ref.volume !== volumeIdentity)
+                    return yield* failure("ForeignHandle", operation);
+                const node = "file" in ref ? ref.file : ref.directory;
+                if (node === undefined)
+                    return yield* failure("InvalidHandle", operation);
+                return node;
+            }
+            const path = yield* Effect.fromResult(preparePath(target, operation, settings.maxPathBytes));
+            return yield* resolveNode(path, options?.relativeTo, operation, {
+                followFinalSymlink: options?.followFinalSymlink !== false
+            });
+        });
+        const permittedMode = (metadata, mode, operation, path) => {
+            if (!identity.privileged && identity.uid !== metadata.uid) {
+                return Effect.fail(failure("AccessDenied", operation, path));
+            }
+            const group = identity.gid === metadata.gid || identity.groups.includes(metadata.gid);
+            return Effect.succeed(!identity.privileged && metadata.kind === "file" && !group ? mode & ~0o2000 : mode);
+        };
+        const changeMode = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (target, mode, options) {
+            if (!Schema.is(Mode)(mode))
+                return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "chmod");
+            const chosen = options === undefined ? undefined : { ...options };
+            return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                const node = yield* metadataNode(target, chosen, "chmod");
+                const permitted = yield* permittedMode(node.metadata, mode, "chmod");
+                node.metadata = {
+                    ...node.metadata,
+                    mode: permitted,
+                    ctimeNs: (yield* timestamp("chmod"))
+                };
+                publishNode(node);
+            }));
+        });
+        const changeOwner = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (target, owner, options) {
+            const decoded = Schema.decodeResult(OwnerUpdate, { onExcessProperty: "error" })(owner);
+            if (Result.isFailure(decoded))
+                return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "chown");
+            const update = { ...decoded.success };
+            const chosen = options === undefined ? undefined : { ...options };
+            return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                const node = yield* metadataNode(target, chosen, "chown");
+                if (!identity.privileged && (identity.uid !== node.metadata.uid ||
+                    (update.uid !== undefined && update.uid !== node.metadata.uid) ||
+                    (update.gid !== undefined && update.gid !== identity.gid && !identity.groups.includes(update.gid)))) {
+                    return yield* failure("AccessDenied", "chown");
+                }
+                if (update.uid === undefined && update.gid === undefined)
+                    return;
+                node.metadata = {
+                    ...node.metadata,
+                    uid: update.uid ?? node.metadata.uid,
+                    gid: update.gid ?? node.metadata.gid,
+                    mode: node.kind === "file" ? node.metadata.mode & ~0o6000 : node.metadata.mode,
+                    ctimeNs: (yield* timestamp("chown"))
+                };
+                publishNode(node);
+            }));
+        });
+        const changeTimes = Effect.fnUntraced(function* (target, times, options) {
+            const decoded = Schema.decodeResult(Times, { onExcessProperty: "error" })(times);
+            if (Result.isFailure(decoded))
+                return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "utimes");
+            const access = { ...decoded.success.access };
+            const modification = { ...decoded.success.modification };
+            const chosen = options === undefined ? undefined : { ...options };
+            return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                const node = yield* metadataNode(target, chosen, "utimes");
+                if (access.kind === "omit" && modification.kind === "omit")
+                    return;
+                if (!identity.privileged && identity.uid !== node.metadata.uid) {
+                    if (access.kind !== "now" || modification.kind !== "now")
+                        return yield* failure("AccessDenied", "utimes");
+                    yield* authorize(node, identity, 2, "utimes", "/");
+                }
+                const now = yield* timestamp("utimes");
+                node.metadata = {
+                    ...node.metadata,
+                    atimeNs: access.kind === "omit"
+                        ? node.metadata.atimeNs
+                        : access.kind === "now"
+                            ? now
+                            : access.nanoseconds,
+                    mtimeNs: modification.kind === "omit"
+                        ? node.metadata.mtimeNs
+                        : modification.kind === "now"
+                            ? now
+                            : modification.nanoseconds,
+                    ctimeNs: now
+                };
+                publishNode(node);
+            }));
+        });
+        const authorizeRemoval = (parent, child, operation, input) => (parent.metadata.mode & 0o1000) !== 0 && !identity.privileged &&
+            identity.uid !== parent.metadata.uid && identity.uid !== child.metadata.uid
+            ? Effect.fail(failure("AccessDenied", operation, input))
+            : Effect.void;
+        return Object.freeze({
+            [CallerId]: true,
+            readFile: Effect.fn("Caller.readFile")(function* (input, options) {
+                const prepared = preparePath(input, "readFile", settings.maxPathBytes);
+                const base = options?.relativeTo;
+                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const node = yield* resolveNode(yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared), base, "readFile");
+                    if (node.kind !== "file")
+                        return yield* failure("IsDirectory", "readFile", input);
+                    yield* authorize(node, identity, 4, "readFile", input);
+                    const data = new Uint8Array(node.data);
+                    node.metadata = { ...node.metadata, atimeNs: (yield* timestamp("readFile")) };
+                    return data;
+                }));
+            }),
+            writeFile: Effect.fn("Caller.writeFile")(function* (input, bytes, options) {
+                const prepared = preparePath(input, "writeFile", settings.maxPathBytes);
+                if (!(bytes instanceof Uint8Array) || !(bytes.buffer instanceof ArrayBuffer) || !attachedBuffer(bytes)) {
+                    return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "writeFile", input);
+                }
+                const captured = new Uint8Array(bytes);
+                const { relativeTo: base, ...raw } = options;
+                const decoded = Schema.decodeResult(WriteFileSettings, { onExcessProperty: "error" })(raw);
+                if (Result.isFailure(decoded))
+                    return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "writeFile", input);
+                const chosen = decoded.success;
+                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const path = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared);
+                    if (chosen.create === "exclusive") {
+                        const exists = yield* Effect.result(lookup(path, base, "writeFile", { followFinalSymlink: false }));
+                        if (Result.isSuccess(exists))
+                            return yield* failure("AlreadyExists", "writeFile", input);
+                        if (exists.failure.code !== "NotFound")
+                            return yield* exists.failure;
+                    }
+                    const resolved = yield* lookup(path, base, "writeFile", {
+                        followFinalSymlink: chosen.replaceFinalSymlink !== true && chosen.followFinalSymlink !== false,
+                        allowMissing: chosen.create === "ifMissing" || chosen.create === "exclusive"
+                    });
+                    const { name, parent } = resolved;
+                    if (parent === undefined || name === undefined || resolved.node?.kind === "directory") {
+                        return yield* failure("IsDirectory", "writeFile", input);
+                    }
+                    const replaced = resolved.node?.kind === "symlink" ? resolved.node : undefined;
+                    if (replaced !== undefined && !chosen.replaceFinalSymlink) {
+                        return yield* failure("SymlinkLoop", "writeFile", input);
+                    }
+                    if (chosen.access === "read")
+                        return yield* failure("InvalidHandle", "writeFile", input);
+                    const file = resolved.node?.kind === "file" ? resolved.node : undefined;
+                    if (file === undefined) {
+                        yield* authorize(parent, identity, 3, "writeFile", input);
+                        if (replaced !== undefined)
+                            yield* authorizeRemoval(parent, replaced, "writeFile", input);
+                        if (replaced === undefined && settings.maxEntries !== undefined && entries >= settings.maxEntries) {
+                            return yield* failure("NoSpace", "writeFile", input);
+                        }
+                    }
+                    else
+                        yield* authorize(file, identity, chosen.access === "readWrite" ? 6 : 2, "writeFile", input);
+                    const finalMode = chosen.finalMode === undefined ? undefined : yield* permittedMode(file?.metadata ?? { kind: "file", uid: identity.uid, gid: parent.metadata.gid }, chosen.finalMode, "writeFile", input);
+                    const previous = file?.data.length ?? 0;
+                    const initial = chosen.truncate ? 0 : previous;
+                    const position = chosen.append ? initial : 0;
+                    const size = Math.max(initial, position + captured.length);
+                    if (size > maxFileBytes)
+                        return yield* failure("FileTooLarge", "writeFile", input);
+                    const reclaimed = replaced !== undefined && replaced.metadata.nlink === 1 ? replaced.target.length : 0;
+                    if (size - previous > (settings.maxBytes ?? Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER) - usedBytes + reclaimed) {
+                        return yield* failure("NoSpace", "writeFile", input);
+                    }
+                    if (file !== undefined && !chosen.truncate && captured.length === 0 && chosen.finalMode === undefined) {
+                        return;
+                    }
+                    let data = captured;
+                    if (position !== 0 || size !== captured.length) {
+                        data = new Uint8Array(size);
+                        if (file !== undefined && !chosen.truncate)
+                            data.set(file.data);
+                        data.set(captured, position);
+                    }
+                    const now = yield* timestamp("writeFile");
+                    const node = file ??
+                        {
+                            kind: "file",
+                            data,
+                            openCount: 0,
+                            metadata: {
+                                ...directoryMetadata(nextInode++, identity.uid, parent.metadata.gid, (chosen.mode ?? 0o666) & 0o777 & ~umask, now),
+                                kind: "file",
+                                nlink: 1
+                            }
+                        };
+                    node.data = data;
+                    node.metadata = {
+                        ...node.metadata,
+                        mode: finalMode ?? node.metadata.mode & ~0o6000,
+                        size: BigInt(size),
+                        mtimeNs: now,
+                        ctimeNs: now
+                    };
+                    usedBytes += size - previous;
+                    if (file === undefined) {
+                        if (replaced !== undefined)
+                            detach(replaced, now);
+                        parent.entries.set(name, node);
+                        parent.metadata = { ...parent.metadata, mtimeNs: now, ctimeNs: now };
+                        if (replaced === undefined)
+                            entries += 1;
+                        publishEntry(replaced === undefined ? "Create" : "Update", parent, name);
+                    }
+                    else
+                        publishNode(node);
+                }));
+            }),
+            chmod: Effect.fn("Caller.chmod")(function* (path, mode, options) {
+                yield* changeMode(path, mode, options);
+            }),
+            chmodHandle: Effect.fn("Caller.chmodHandle")(function* (handle, mode) {
+                yield* changeMode(handle, mode);
+            }),
+            chown: Effect.fn("Caller.chown")(function* (path, owner, options) {
+                yield* changeOwner(path, owner, options);
+            }),
+            chownHandle: Effect.fn("Caller.chownHandle")(function* (handle, owner) {
+                yield* changeOwner(handle, owner);
+            }),
+            utimes: Effect.fn("Caller.utimes")(function* (path, times, options) {
+                yield* changeTimes(path, times, options);
+            }),
+            utimesHandle: Effect.fn("Caller.utimesHandle")(function* (handle, times) {
+                yield* changeTimes(handle, times);
+            }),
+            access: Effect.fn("Caller.access")(function* (input, bits = 0, options) {
+                const prepared = preparePath(input, "access", settings.maxPathBytes);
+                const base = options?.relativeTo;
+                if (!Number.isInteger(bits) || bits < 0 || bits > 7)
+                    return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "access", input);
+                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const node = yield* resolveNode(yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared), base, "access");
+                    if (node.kind === "file" && (bits & 1) !== 0 && (node.metadata.mode & 0o111) === 0) {
+                        return yield* failure("AccessDenied", "access", input);
+                    }
+                    yield* authorize(node, identity, bits, "access", input);
+                }));
+            }),
+            truncate: Effect.fn("Caller.truncate")(function* (input, length, options) {
+                const prepared = preparePath(input, "truncate", settings.maxPathBytes);
+                const base = options?.relativeTo;
+                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const node = yield* resolveNode(yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared), base, "truncate");
+                    if (node.kind !== "file")
+                        return yield* failure("IsDirectory", "truncate", input);
+                    yield* authorize(node, identity, 2, "truncate", input);
+                    yield* resize(node, length, "truncate");
+                }));
+            }),
+            lstat: Effect.fn("Caller.lstat")(function* (input, options) {
+                const prepared = preparePath(input, "lstat", settings.maxPathBytes);
+                const base = options?.relativeTo;
+                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const node = yield* resolveNode(yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared), base, "lstat", {
+                        followFinalSymlink: false
+                    });
+                    return { ...node.metadata };
+                }));
+            }),
+            link: Effect.fn("Caller.link")(function* (source, destination, options) {
+                const a = preparePath(source, "link", settings.maxPathBytes);
+                const b = preparePath(destination, "link", settings.maxPathBytes);
+                const sourceBase = options?.sourceRelativeTo;
+                const destinationBase = options?.destinationRelativeTo;
+                const follow = options?.followSourceSymlink ?? false;
+                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const node = yield* resolveNode(yield* Effect.fromResult(a), sourceBase, "link", {
+                        followFinalSymlink: follow
+                    });
+                    if (node.kind === "directory")
+                        return yield* failure("IsDirectory", "link", source);
+                    const path = yield* Effect.fromResult(b);
+                    const parent = yield* locate(path, destinationBase, "link", { parentOnly: true });
+                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, 3, "link", destination);
+                    const name = path.components.at(-1);
+                    if (name === undefined || name === "2e" || name === "2e2e" || parent.entries.has(name)) {
+                        return yield* failure("AlreadyExists", "link", destination);
+                    }
+                    if (path.trailingSlash)
+                        return yield* failure("NotDirectory", "link", destination);
+                    if (settings.maxEntries !== undefined && entries >= settings.maxEntries) {
+                        return yield* failure("NoSpace", "link", destination);
+                    }
+                    const now = yield* timestamp("link");
+                    parent.entries.set(name, node);
+                    parent.metadata = { ...parent.metadata, mtimeNs: now, ctimeNs: now };
+                    node.metadata = { ...node.metadata, nlink: node.metadata.nlink + 1, ctimeNs: now };
+                    entries += 1;
+                    publishEntry("Create", parent, name);
+                }));
+            }),
+            symlink: Effect.fn("Caller.symlink")(function* (target, input, options) {
+                const prepared = preparePath(input, "symlink", settings.maxPathBytes);
+                if (typeof target === "string" && !wellFormed(target)) {
+                    return yield* failure("InvalidPathEncoding", "symlink", target);
+                }
+                const rawTarget = typeof target === "string" ? new TextEncoder().encode(target) : bytePaths.get(target);
+                if (rawTarget === undefined || rawTarget.includes(0)) {
+                    return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "symlink", target);
+                }
+                const targetBytes = new Uint8Array(rawTarget);
+                const base = options?.relativeTo;
+                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const path = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared);
+                    const bytes = targetBytes;
+                    const parent = yield* locate(path, base, "symlink", { parentOnly: true });
+                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, 3, "symlink", input);
+                    const name = path.components.at(-1);
+                    if (name === undefined || name === "2e" || name === "2e2e" || parent.entries.has(name)) {
+                        return yield* failure("AlreadyExists", "symlink", input);
+                    }
+                    if (path.trailingSlash)
+                        return yield* failure("NotDirectory", "symlink", input);
+                    if ((settings.maxEntries !== undefined && entries >= settings.maxEntries) ||
+                        bytes.length > (settings.maxBytes ?? Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER) - usedBytes)
+                        return yield* failure("NoSpace", "symlink", input);
+                    const now = yield* timestamp("symlink");
+                    const node = {
+                        kind: "symlink",
+                        target: new Uint8Array(bytes),
+                        metadata: {
+                            ...directoryMetadata(nextInode, identity.uid, parent.metadata.gid, 0o777, now),
+                            kind: "symlink",
+                            nlink: 1,
+                            size: BigInt(bytes.length)
+                        }
+                    };
+                    parent.entries.set(name, node);
+                    parent.metadata = { ...parent.metadata, mtimeNs: now, ctimeNs: now };
+                    nextInode += 1n;
+                    entries += 1;
+                    usedBytes += bytes.length;
+                    publishEntry("Create", parent, name);
+                }));
+            }),
+            readDirectoryBytes: Effect.fn("Caller.readDirectoryBytes")(function* (input, options) {
+                return yield* list(input, options);
+            }),
+            readDirectory: Effect.fn("Caller.readDirectory")(function* (input, options) {
+                return yield* Effect.forEach(yield* list(input, options), (bytes) => strictString(bytes, "readDirectory"));
+            }),
+            readLinkBytes: Effect.fn("Caller.readLinkBytes")(function* (input, options) {
+                return yield* readTarget(input, options);
+            }),
+            readLink: Effect.fn("Caller.readLink")(function* (input, options) {
+                return yield* strictString(yield* readTarget(input, options), "readLink");
+            }),
+            realPathBytes: Effect.fn("Caller.realPathBytes")(function* (input, options) {
+                return ownedPath(yield* canonical(input, options));
+            }),
+            realPath: Effect.fn("Caller.realPath")(function* (input, options) {
+                return yield* strictString(yield* canonical(input, options), "realPath");
+            }),
+            open: Effect.fn("Caller.open")(function* (input, options) {
+                const prepared = preparePath(input, "open", settings.maxPathBytes);
+                const { relativeTo: base, ...raw } = options;
+                const decoded = Schema.decodeResult(OpenSettings, { onExcessProperty: "error" })(raw);
+                if (Result.isFailure(decoded))
+                    return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "open", input);
+                const chosen = { ...decoded.success };
+                if (chosen.access === "read" && (chosen.append || chosen.truncate)) {
+                    return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "open", input);
+                }
+                if (chosen.mode !== undefined && (chosen.create === undefined || chosen.create === "never")) {
+                    return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "open", input);
+                }
+                const acquired = {
+                    volume: volumeIdentity,
+                    file: undefined,
+                    closed: false,
+                    offset: 0n,
+                    access: chosen.access,
+                    append: chosen.append ?? false
+                };
+                yield* Effect.addFinalizer(() => coordinated(Effect.sync(() => releaseFile(acquired))));
+                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    if (acquired.closed)
+                        return yield* Effect.interrupt;
+                    const path = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared);
+                    if (chosen.create === "exclusive") {
+                        const existing = yield* Effect.result(lookup(path, base, "open", { followFinalSymlink: false }));
+                        if (Result.isSuccess(existing))
+                            return yield* failure("AlreadyExists", "open", input);
+                        if (existing.failure.code !== "NotFound")
+                            return yield* existing.failure;
+                    }
+                    const resolved = yield* lookup(path, base, "open", {
+                        followFinalSymlink: chosen.followFinalSymlink !== false,
+                        allowMissing: chosen.create === "ifMissing" || chosen.create === "exclusive"
+                    });
+                    const parent = resolved.parent;
+                    if (parent === undefined)
+                        return yield* failure("IsDirectory", "open", input);
+                    const name = resolved.name;
+                    if (name === undefined || name === "2e" || name === "2e2e") {
+                        return yield* failure("IsDirectory", "open", input);
+                    }
+                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, 1, "open", input);
+                    let file = resolved.node;
+                    if (file !== undefined && chosen.create === "exclusive") {
+                        return yield* failure("AlreadyExists", "open", input);
+                    }
+                    if (file === undefined) {
+                        if (chosen.create === undefined || chosen.create === "never" || path.trailingSlash) {
+                            return yield* failure("NotFound", "open", input);
+                        }
+                        yield* authorize(parent, identity, 3, "open", input);
+                        if (settings.maxEntries !== undefined && entries >= settings.maxEntries) {
+                            return yield* failure("NoSpace", "open", input);
+                        }
+                        const now = yield* timestamp("open");
+                        file = {
+                            kind: "file",
+                            data: new Uint8Array(0),
+                            openCount: 0,
+                            metadata: {
+                                ...directoryMetadata(nextInode, identity.uid, parent.metadata.gid, (chosen.mode ?? 0o666) & 0o777 & ~umask, now),
+                                kind: "file",
+                                nlink: 1
+                            }
+                        };
+                        parent.entries.set(name, file);
+                        parent.metadata = { ...parent.metadata, mtimeNs: now, ctimeNs: now };
+                        entries += 1;
+                        nextInode += 1n;
+                        publishEntry("Create", parent, name);
+                    }
+                    else {
+                        if (file.kind === "symlink")
+                            return yield* failure("SymlinkLoop", "open", input);
+                        if (file.kind !== "file")
+                            return yield* failure("IsDirectory", "open", input);
+                        if (path.trailingSlash)
+                            return yield* failure("NotDirectory", "open", input);
+                        yield* authorize(file, identity, chosen.access === "read" ? 4 : chosen.access === "write" ? 2 : 6, "open", input);
+                        if (chosen.truncate)
+                            yield* resize(file, 0n, "open");
+                    }
+                    file.openCount += 1;
+                    acquired.file = file;
+                    return fileHandle(acquired);
+                }));
+            }),
+            unlink: Effect.fn("Caller.unlink")(function* (input, options) {
+                const prepared = preparePath(input, "unlink", settings.maxPathBytes);
+                const base = options?.relativeTo;
+                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const path = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared);
+                    const parent = yield* locate(path, base, "unlink", { parentOnly: true });
+                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, 3, "unlink", input);
+                    const name = path.components.at(-1);
+                    if (name === undefined || name === "2e" || name === "2e2e") {
+                        return yield* failure("IsDirectory", "unlink", input);
+                    }
+                    const child = parent.entries.get(name);
+                    if (child === undefined)
+                        return yield* failure("NotFound", "unlink", input);
+                    if (child.kind === "directory")
+                        return yield* failure("IsDirectory", "unlink", input);
+                    if (path.trailingSlash)
+                        return yield* failure("NotDirectory", "unlink", input);
+                    yield* authorizeRemoval(parent, child, "unlink", input);
+                    const now = yield* timestamp("unlink");
+                    parent.entries.delete(name);
+                    parent.metadata = { ...parent.metadata, mtimeNs: now, ctimeNs: now };
+                    detach(child, now);
+                    entries -= 1;
+                    publishEntry("Remove", parent, name);
+                }));
+            }),
+            rename: Effect.fn("Caller.rename")(function* (source, destination, options) {
+                const oldPrepared = preparePath(source, "rename", settings.maxPathBytes);
+                const newPrepared = preparePath(destination, "rename", settings.maxPathBytes);
+                const oldBase = options?.sourceRelativeTo;
+                const newBase = options?.destinationRelativeTo;
+                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const oldPath = yield* Effect.fromResult(oldPrepared);
+                    const newPath = yield* Effect.fromResult(newPrepared);
+                    const oldParent = yield* locate(oldPath, oldBase, "rename", { parentOnly: true });
+                    const newParent = yield* locate(newPath, newBase, "rename", { parentOnly: true });
+                    yield* authorize(oldParent, identity, 3, "rename", source);
+                    yield* authorize(newParent, identity, 3, "rename", destination);
+                    const oldName = oldPath.components.at(-1);
+                    const newName = newPath.components.at(-1);
+                    if (oldName === undefined || newName === undefined || oldName === "2e" || oldName === "2e2e" ||
+                        newName === "2e" || newName === "2e2e") {
+                        return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "rename", source);
+                    }
+                    const child = oldParent.entries.get(oldName);
+                    if (child === undefined)
+                        return yield* failure("NotFound", "rename", source);
+                    const replaced = newParent.entries.get(newName);
+                    if (newPath.trailingSlash && replaced === undefined) {
+                        return yield* failure("NotFound", "rename", destination);
+                    }
+                    if (oldPath.trailingSlash && child.kind !== "directory") {
+                        return yield* failure("NotDirectory", "rename", source);
+                    }
+                    if (newPath.trailingSlash && replaced?.kind !== "directory") {
+                        return yield* failure("NotDirectory", "rename", destination);
+                    }
+                    if (child === replaced)
+                        return;
+                    yield* authorizeRemoval(oldParent, child, "rename", source);
+                    if (replaced !== undefined) {
+                        yield* authorizeRemoval(newParent, replaced, "rename", destination);
+                        if (child.kind === "directory" && replaced.kind !== "directory") {
+                            return yield* failure("NotDirectory", "rename", destination);
+                        }
+                        if (child.kind !== "directory" && replaced.kind === "directory") {
+                            return yield* failure("IsDirectory", "rename", destination);
+                        }
+                        if (replaced.kind === "directory" && replaced.entries.size > 0) {
+                            return yield* failure("NotEmpty", "rename", destination);
+                        }
+                    }
+                    for (let ancestor = newParent; ancestor !== undefined; ancestor = ancestor.parent) {
+                        if (ancestor === child)
+                            return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "rename", destination);
+                    }
+                    const now = yield* timestamp("rename");
+                    // All rejection checks precede namespace, ancestry, quota, and metadata publication.
+                    const oldEvent = subscribers > 0
+                        ? ownedPath(nameBytes(directoryHex(oldParent) + (oldParent === root ? "" : "2f") + oldName))
+                        : undefined;
+                    oldParent.entries.delete(oldName);
+                    newParent.entries.set(newName, child);
+                    if (child.kind === "directory")
+                        child.parent = newParent;
+                    oldParent.metadata = {
+                        ...oldParent.metadata,
+                        nlink: oldParent.metadata.nlink - (child.kind === "directory" ? 1 : 0),
+                        mtimeNs: now,
+                        ctimeNs: now
+                    };
+                    newParent.metadata = {
+                        ...newParent.metadata,
+                        nlink: newParent.metadata.nlink + (child.kind === "directory" && replaced === undefined ? 1 : 0),
+                        mtimeNs: now,
+                        ctimeNs: now
+                    };
+                    child.metadata = { ...child.metadata, ctimeNs: now };
+                    if (replaced !== undefined) {
+                        detach(replaced, now);
+                        entries -= 1;
+                    }
+                    if (oldEvent !== undefined)
+                        PubSub.publishUnsafe(events, { _tag: "Remove", path: oldEvent });
+                    publishEntry("Create", newParent, newName);
+                }));
+            }),
+            rmdir: Effect.fn("Caller.rmdir")(function* (input, options) {
+                const prepared = preparePath(input, "rmdir", settings.maxPathBytes);
+                const base = options?.relativeTo;
+                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const path = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared);
+                    const parent = yield* locate(path, base, "rmdir", { parentOnly: true });
+                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, 3, "rmdir", input);
+                    const name = path.components.at(-1);
+                    if (name === undefined || name === "2e" || name === "2e2e") {
+                        return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "rmdir", input);
+                    }
+                    const child = parent.entries.get(name);
+                    if (child === undefined)
+                        return yield* failure("NotFound", "rmdir", input);
+                    yield* authorizeRemoval(parent, child, "rmdir", input);
+                    if (child.kind !== "directory")
+                        return yield* failure("NotDirectory", "rmdir", input);
+                    if (child.entries.size > 0)
+                        return yield* failure("NotEmpty", "rmdir", input);
+                    const now = yield* timestamp("rmdir");
+                    parent.entries.delete(name);
+                    parent.metadata = { ...parent.metadata, nlink: parent.metadata.nlink - 1, mtimeNs: now, ctimeNs: now };
+                    child.parent = undefined;
+                    child.metadata = { ...child.metadata, nlink: 0, ctimeNs: now };
+                    entries -= 1;
+                    publishEntry("Remove", parent, name);
+                }));
+            }),
+            stat: Effect.fn("Caller.stat")(function* (input, options) {
+                const prepared = preparePath(input, "stat", settings.maxPathBytes);
+                const base = options?.relativeTo;
+                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const path = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared);
+                    const directory = yield* resolveNode(path, base, "stat");
+                    return { ...directory.metadata };
+                }));
+            }),
+            mkdir: Effect.fn("Caller.mkdir")(function* (input, options) {
+                const prepared = preparePath(input, "mkdir", settings.maxPathBytes);
+                const base = options?.relativeTo;
+                const mode = options?.mode === undefined ? 0o777 : options.mode;
+                if (!Schema.is(Mode)(mode))
+                    return yield* failure("InvalidArgument", "mkdir", input);
+                return yield* coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+                    const path = yield* Effect.fromResult(prepared);
+                    const parent = yield* locate(path, base, "mkdir", { parentOnly: true });
+                    yield* authorize(parent, identity, 3, "mkdir", input);
+                    const name = path.components.at(-1);
+                    if (name === undefined || name === "2e" || name === "2e2e" || parent.entries.has(name)) {
+                        return yield* failure("AlreadyExists", "mkdir", input);
+                    }
+                    if (settings.maxEntries !== undefined && entries >= settings.maxEntries) {
+                        return yield* failure("NoSpace", "mkdir", input);
+                    }
+                    const now = yield* timestamp("mkdir");
+                    const child = {
+                        kind: "directory",
+                        parent,
+                        entries: new Map(),
+                        metadata: directoryMetadata(nextInode, identity.uid, parent.metadata.gid, (mode & 0o777 & ~umask) | (mode & 0o1000), now)
+                    };
+                    const parentMetadata = {
+                        ...parent.metadata,
+                        nlink: parent.metadata.nlink + 1,
+                        mtimeNs: now,
+                        ctimeNs: now
+                    };
+                    // No Effect yield or expected failure between these publication writes.
+                    parent.entries.set(name, child);
+                    parent.metadata = parentMetadata;
+                    nextInode += 1n;
+                    entries += 1;
+                    publishEntry("Create", parent, name);
+                }));
+            }),
+            withDirectory: Effect.fn("Caller.withDirectory")(function* (input, options) {
+                const acquired = yield* acquireDirectory(input, options, "withDirectory");
+                return createCaller(acquired, identity, umask);
+            }),
+            openDirectory: Effect.fn("Caller.openDirectory")(function* (input, options) {
+                const acquired = yield* acquireDirectory(input, options, "openDirectory");
+                const handle = Object.freeze({
+                    [DirectoryHandleId]: true,
+                    stat: coordinated(Effect.suspend(() => acquired.directory === undefined
+                        ? Effect.fail(failure("InvalidHandle", "stat"))
+                        : Effect.succeed({ ...acquired.directory.metadata }))).pipe(Effect.withSpan("DirectoryHandle.stat")),
+                    close: coordinated(Effect.suspend(() => {
+                        if (acquired.directory === undefined)
+                            return Effect.fail(failure("InvalidHandle", "close"));
+                        acquired.directory = undefined;
+                        acquired.closed = true;
+                        return Effect.void;
+                    })).pipe(Effect.withSpan("DirectoryHandle.close"))
+                });
+                handles.set(handle, acquired);
+                return handle;
+            })
+        });
+    };
+    const volume = Object.freeze({
+        [VolumeId]: true,
+        watch: Effect.gen(function* () {
+            const subscription = yield* PubSub.subscribe(events);
+            subscribers += 1;
+            yield* Effect.addFinalizer(() => Effect.sync(() => {
+                subscribers -= 1;
+            }));
+            return Stream.fromEffectRepeat(PubSub.take(subscription));
+        }).pipe(Effect.withSpan("Volume.watch")),
+        snapshot: coordinated(Effect.gen(function* () {
+            const ids = new Map([[root, "0"]]);
+            const pending = [root];
+            const records = [];
+            for (let index = 0; index < pending.length; index++) {
+                const node = pending[index];
+                if (node === undefined)
+                    continue;
+                const id = ids.get(node);
+                if (id === undefined)
+                    return yield* new ImageError({ code: "InvalidStructure" });
+                const metadata = storedMetadata(node.metadata);
+                if (node.kind === "directory") {
+                    const children = [];
+                    for (const [name, child] of node.entries) {
+                        let target = ids.get(child);
+                        if (target === undefined) {
+                            target = String(ids.size);
+                            ids.set(child, target);
+                            pending.push(child);
+                        }
+                        children.push({ name: Image.base64(nameBytes(name)), target });
+                    }
+                    records.push({ id, kind: "directory", metadata, entries: children });
+                }
+                else if (node.kind === "file") {
+                    records.push({ id, kind: "file", metadata, data: Image.base64(node.data) });
+                }
+                else
+                    records.push({ id, kind: "symlink", metadata, target: Image.base64(node.target) });
+            }
+            return yield* Image.capture({ format: "effect-vfs", version: 1, root: "0", records });
+        })).pipe(Effect.withSpan("Volume.snapshot")),
+        caller: Effect.fn("Volume.caller")(function* (options) {
+            const decoded = decodeConfiguration(RootCallerOptions, options === undefined ? {} : options);
+            if (Result.isFailure(decoded))
+                return yield* decoded.failure;
+            const chosen = decoded.success.identity ?? { uid: 0, gid: 0, groups: [], privileged: true };
+            const identity = Object.freeze({ ...chosen, groups: Object.freeze([...chosen.groups]) });
+            return createCaller({ volume: volumeIdentity, directory: root, closed: false }, identity, decoded.success.umask ?? 0o022);
+        })
+    });
+    return volume;
+});
+/**
+ * Creates a fresh empty volume and captures the current Effect `Clock`.
+ *
+ * **Details**
+ *
+ * Each execution creates independent storage. Snapshot image failures cannot
+ * arise because this constructor does not accept persisted input.
+ *
+ * @category constructors
+ * @since 0.1.0
+ */
+export const make = Effect.fn("VirtualFileSystem.make")(function* (options) {
+    return yield* makeVolume(options).pipe(Effect.catchTag("ImageError", Effect.die));
+});
+/**
+ * Restores a fresh volume from an opaque snapshot under the supplied destination limits.
+ *
+ * @category constructors
+ * @since 0.1.0
+ */
+export const fromSnapshot = Effect.fn("VirtualFileSystem.fromSnapshot")(function* (snapshot, options) {
+    const image = yield* Image.inspect(snapshot);
+    return yield* makeVolume(options, image);
+});
+const FixtureMetadata = Schema.Struct({
+    uid: Schema.optionalKey(Natural),
+    gid: Schema.optionalKey(Natural),
+    mode: Schema.optionalKey(Mode),
+    atimeNs: Schema.optionalKey(Timestamp),
+    mtimeNs: Schema.optionalKey(Timestamp),
+    ctimeNs: Schema.optionalKey(Timestamp),
+    birthtimeNs: Schema.optionalKey(Timestamp)
+});
+const FixturePath = Schema.Union([
+    Schema.String,
+    Schema.declare((value) => typeof value === "object" && value !== null && BytePathId in value && value[BytePathId] === true)
+]);
+/**
+ * Schema for a complete fixture namespace with optional metadata and forward hard links.
+ *
+ * **Details**
+ *
+ * Fixture paths must be absolute, unique, and explicitly include their parent directories.
+ *
+ * @category schemas
+ * @since 0.1.0
+ */
+export const Fixture = Schema.Struct({
+    rootMetadata: Schema.optionalKey(FixtureMetadata),
+    entries: Schema.Array(Schema.Union([
+        Schema.Struct({
+            kind: Schema.Literal("directory"),
+            path: FixturePath,
+            metadata: Schema.optionalKey(FixtureMetadata)
+        }),
+        Schema.Struct({
+            kind: Schema.Literal("file"),
+            path: FixturePath,
+            bytes: Schema.Uint8Array,
+            metadata: Schema.optionalKey(FixtureMetadata)
+        }),
+        Schema.Struct({
+            kind: Schema.Literal("symlink"),
+            path: FixturePath,
+            target: FixturePath,
+            metadata: Schema.optionalKey(FixtureMetadata)
+        }),
+        Schema.Struct({ kind: Schema.Literal("hardLink"), path: FixturePath, target: FixturePath })
+    ]))
+});
+/**
+ * Builds a fresh volume from a validated final-state fixture.
+ *
+ * @category constructors
+ * @since 0.1.0
+ */
+export const fromFixture = Effect.fn("VirtualFileSystem.fromFixture")(function* (fixture, options) {
+    const config = decodeConfiguration(VolumeOptions, options ?? {});
+    if (Result.isFailure(config))
+        return yield* config.failure;
+    const decoded = Schema.decodeResult(Fixture, { onExcessProperty: "error" })(fixture);
+    if (Result.isFailure(decoded))
+        return yield* new ImageError({ code: "InvalidStructure", field: "fixture" });
+    const source = decoded.success;
+    for (const entry of source.entries) {
+        if (entry.kind === "file" && (!(entry.bytes.buffer instanceof ArrayBuffer) || !attachedBuffer(entry.bytes)))
+            return yield* new ImageError({ code: "InvalidEncoding", field: "bytes" });
+    }
+    const metadata = (kind, overrides) => ({
+        uid: overrides?.uid ?? 0,
+        gid: overrides?.gid ?? 0,
+        mode: overrides?.mode ?? (kind === "directory" ? 0o755 : kind === "file" ? 0o644 : 0o777),
+        atimeNs: String(overrides?.atimeNs ?? 0n),
+        mtimeNs: String(overrides?.mtimeNs ?? 0n),
+        ctimeNs: String(overrides?.ctimeNs ?? 0n),
+        birthtimeNs: String(overrides?.birthtimeNs ?? 0n)
+    });
+    const declarations = new Map();
+    const aliases = new Map();
+    const paths = new Map();
+    const root = {
+        id: "root",
+        kind: "directory",
+        metadata: metadata("directory", source.rootMetadata),
+        entries: []
+    };
+    declarations.set("", root);
+    const fixturePath = (input) => preparePath(input, "fixture", config.success.maxPathBytes).pipe(Result.flatMap((path) => !path.absolute || path.components.length === 0 ||
+        path.components.some((name) => name === "2e" || name === "2e2e")
+        ? Result.fail(failure("InvalidArgument", "fixture", input)) :
+        Result.succeed(path.components)));
+    // All byte inputs become immutable strings before the first successful suspension.
+    for (const entry of source.entries) {
+        const parsed = fixturePath(entry.path);
+        if (Result.isFailure(parsed)) {
+            return yield* new ImageError({ code: "InvalidStructure", field: "path" });
+        }
+        const components = parsed.success;
+        const key = components.join("/");
+        if (paths.has(key))
+            return yield* new ImageError({ code: "InvalidStructure", field: "duplicate" });
+        paths.set(key, components);
+        if (entry.kind === "hardLink") {
+            const target = fixturePath(entry.target);
+            if (Result.isFailure(target))
+                return yield* new ImageError({ code: "InvalidStructure", field: "target" });
+            aliases.set(key, target.success.join("/"));
+        }
+        else if (entry.kind === "directory") {
+            declarations.set(key, {
+                id: String(paths.size),
+                kind: "directory",
+                metadata: metadata("directory", entry.metadata),
+                entries: []
+            });
+        }
+        else if (entry.kind === "file") {
+            declarations.set(key, {
+                id: String(paths.size),
+                kind: "file",
+                metadata: metadata("file", entry.metadata),
+                data: Image.base64(entry.bytes)
+            });
+        }
+        else {
+            if (typeof entry.target === "string" && !wellFormed(entry.target)) {
+                return yield* new ImageError({
+                    code: "InvalidEncoding",
+                    field: "target"
+                });
+            }
+            const target = typeof entry.target === "string"
+                ? new TextEncoder().encode(entry.target)
+                : bytePaths.get(entry.target);
+            if (target === undefined || target.includes(0)) {
+                return yield* new ImageError({
+                    code: "InvalidStructure",
+                    field: "target"
+                });
+            }
+            declarations.set(key, {
+                id: String(paths.size),
+                kind: "symlink",
+                metadata: metadata("symlink", entry.metadata),
+                target: Image.base64(target)
+            });
+        }
+    }
+    for (const [key] of aliases) {
+        let target = key;
+        const seen = new Set();
+        while (!declarations.has(target)) {
+            if (seen.has(target))
+                return yield* new ImageError({ code: "InvalidStructure", field: "hardLink" });
+            seen.add(target);
+            const next = aliases.get(target);
+            if (next === undefined)
+                return yield* new ImageError({ code: "InvalidStructure", field: "hardLink" });
+            target = next;
+        }
+        const node = declarations.get(target);
+        if (node === undefined || node.kind === "directory") {
+            return yield* new ImageError({
+                code: "InvalidStructure",
+                field: "hardLink"
+            });
+        }
+        for (const alias of seen)
+            declarations.set(alias, node);
+    }
+    const children = new Map();
+    for (const [key, components] of paths) {
+        const parent = declarations.get(components.slice(0, -1).join("/"));
+        const child = declarations.get(key);
+        const name = components.at(-1);
+        if (parent?.kind !== "directory" || child === undefined || name === undefined) {
+            return yield* new ImageError({ code: "InvalidStructure", field: "parent" });
+        }
+        const entries = children.get(parent.id) ?? [];
+        entries.push({ name: Image.base64(nameBytes(name)), target: child.id });
+        children.set(parent.id, entries);
+    }
+    const records = [...new Set(declarations.values())].map((record) => record.kind === "directory" ? { ...record, entries: children.get(record.id) ?? [] } : record);
+    const snapshot = yield* Image.capture({ format: "effect-vfs", version: 1, root: "root", records });
+    return yield* makeVolume(config.success, yield* Image.inspect(snapshot));
+});