@colyseus/schema 3.0.0-alpha.34 → 3.0.0-alpha.36

package/build/umd/index.js

@@ -40,7 +40,6 @@
     const $filter = Symbol("$filter");
     const $getByIndex = Symbol("$getByIndex");
     const $deleteByIndex = Symbol("$deleteByIndex");
-    const $descriptors = Symbol("$descriptors");
     /**
      * Used to hold ChangeTree instances whitin the structures
      */
@@ -50,11 +49,6 @@
      * (MapSchema, ArraySchema, etc.)
      */
     const $childType = Symbol('$childType');
-    /**
-     * Special ChangeTree property to identify new instances
-     * (Once they're encoded, they're not new anymore)
-     */
-    const $isNew = Symbol("$isNew");
     /**
      * Optional "discard" method for custom types (ArraySchema)
      * (Discards changes for next serialization)
@@ -64,6 +58,14 @@
      * When decoding, this method is called after the instance is fully decoded
      */
     const $onDecodeEnd = Symbol("$onDecodeEnd");
+    /**
+     * Metadata
+     */
+    const $descriptors = Symbol("$descriptors");
+    const $numFields = "$__numFields";
+    const $refTypeFieldIndexes = "$__refTypeFieldIndexes";
+    const $viewFieldIndexes = "$__viewFieldIndexes";
+    const $fieldIndexesByViewTag = "$__fieldIndexesByViewTag";
 
     const registeredTypes = {};
     const identifiers = new Map();
@@ -75,6 +77,102 @@
         return registeredTypes[identifier];
     }
 
+    class TypeContext {
+        /**
+         * For inheritance support
+         * Keeps track of which classes extends which. (parent -> children)
+         */
+        static { this.inheritedTypes = new Map(); }
+        static register(target) {
+            const parent = Object.getPrototypeOf(target);
+            if (parent !== Schema) {
+                let inherits = TypeContext.inheritedTypes.get(parent);
+                if (!inherits) {
+                    inherits = new Set();
+                    TypeContext.inheritedTypes.set(parent, inherits);
+                }
+                inherits.add(target);
+            }
+        }
+        constructor(rootClass) {
+            this.types = {};
+            this.schemas = new Map();
+            this.hasFilters = false;
+            this.parentFiltered = {};
+            if (rootClass) {
+                this.discoverTypes(rootClass);
+            }
+        }
+        has(schema) {
+            return this.schemas.has(schema);
+        }
+        get(typeid) {
+            return this.types[typeid];
+        }
+        add(schema, typeid = this.schemas.size) {
+            // skip if already registered
+            if (this.schemas.has(schema)) {
+                return false;
+            }
+            this.types[typeid] = schema;
+            //
+            // Workaround to allow using an empty Schema (with no `@type()` fields)
+            //
+            if (schema[Symbol.metadata] === undefined) {
+                Metadata.init(schema);
+            }
+            this.schemas.set(schema, typeid);
+            return true;
+        }
+        getTypeId(klass) {
+            return this.schemas.get(klass);
+        }
+        discoverTypes(klass, parentIndex, parentFieldViewTag) {
+            if (!this.add(klass)) {
+                return;
+            }
+            // add classes inherited from this base class
+            TypeContext.inheritedTypes.get(klass)?.forEach((child) => {
+                this.discoverTypes(child, parentIndex, parentFieldViewTag);
+            });
+            const metadata = (klass[Symbol.metadata] ??= {});
+            // if any schema/field has filters, mark "context" as having filters.
+            if (metadata[$viewFieldIndexes]) {
+                this.hasFilters = true;
+            }
+            if (parentFieldViewTag !== undefined) {
+                this.parentFiltered[`${this.schemas.get(klass)}-${parentIndex}`] = true;
+            }
+            for (const fieldIndex in metadata) {
+                const index = fieldIndex;
+                const fieldType = metadata[index].type;
+                const viewTag = metadata[index].tag;
+                if (typeof (fieldType) === "string") {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if (Array.isArray(fieldType)) {
+                    const type = fieldType[0];
+                    // skip primitive types
+                    if (type === "string") {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    this.discoverTypes(type, index, viewTag);
+                }
+                else if (typeof (fieldType) === "function") {
+                    this.discoverTypes(fieldType, viewTag);
+                }
+                else {
+                    const type = Object.values(fieldType)[0];
+                    // skip primitive types
+                    if (typeof (type) === "string") {
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                    this.discoverTypes(type, index, viewTag);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
     const Metadata = {
         addField(metadata, index, name, type, descriptor) {
             if (index > 64) {
@@ -110,7 +208,7 @@
                 };
             }
             // map -1 as last field index
-            Object.defineProperty(metadata, -1, {
+            Object.defineProperty(metadata, $numFields, {
                 value: index,
                 enumerable: false,
                 configurable: true
@@ -123,14 +221,14 @@
             });
             // if child Ref/complex type, add to -4
             if (typeof (metadata[index].type) !== "string") {
-                if (metadata[-4] === undefined) {
-                    Object.defineProperty(metadata, -4, {
+                if (metadata[$refTypeFieldIndexes] === undefined) {
+                    Object.defineProperty(metadata, $refTypeFieldIndexes, {
                         value: [],
                         enumerable: false,
                         configurable: true,
                     });
                 }
-                metadata[-4].push(index);
+                metadata[$refTypeFieldIndexes].push(index);
             }
         },
         setTag(metadata, fieldName, tag) {
@@ -138,38 +236,63 @@
             const field = metadata[index];
             // add 'tag' to the field
             field.tag = tag;
-            if (!metadata[-2]) {
+            if (!metadata[$viewFieldIndexes]) {
                 // -2: all field indexes with "view" tag
-                Object.defineProperty(metadata, -2, {
+                Object.defineProperty(metadata, $viewFieldIndexes, {
                     value: [],
                     enumerable: false,
                     configurable: true
                 });
                 // -3: field indexes by "view" tag
-                Object.defineProperty(metadata, -3, {
+                Object.defineProperty(metadata, $fieldIndexesByViewTag, {
                     value: {},
                     enumerable: false,
                     configurable: true
                 });
             }
-            metadata[-2].push(index);
-            if (!metadata[-3][tag]) {
-                metadata[-3][tag] = [];
+            metadata[$viewFieldIndexes].push(index);
+            if (!metadata[$fieldIndexesByViewTag][tag]) {
+                metadata[$fieldIndexesByViewTag][tag] = [];
             }
-            metadata[-3][tag].push(index);
+            metadata[$fieldIndexesByViewTag][tag].push(index);
         },
         setFields(target, fields) {
-            const metadata = (target.prototype.constructor[Symbol.metadata] ??= {});
-            let index = 0;
+            // for inheritance support
+            const constructor = target.prototype.constructor;
+            TypeContext.register(constructor);
+            const parentClass = Object.getPrototypeOf(constructor);
+            const parentMetadata = parentClass && parentClass[Symbol.metadata];
+            const metadata = Metadata.initialize(constructor, parentMetadata);
+            // Use Schema's methods if not defined in the class
+            if (!constructor[$track]) {
+                constructor[$track] = Schema[$track];
+            }
+            if (!constructor[$encoder]) {
+                constructor[$encoder] = Schema[$encoder];
+            }
+            if (!constructor[$decoder]) {
+                constructor[$decoder] = Schema[$decoder];
+            }
+            if (!constructor.prototype.toJSON) {
+                constructor.prototype.toJSON = Schema.prototype.toJSON;
+            }
+            //
+            // detect index for this field, considering inheritance
+            //
+            let fieldIndex = metadata[$numFields] // current structure already has fields defined
+                ?? (parentMetadata && parentMetadata[$numFields]) // parent structure has fields defined
+                ?? -1; // no fields defined
+            fieldIndex++;
             for (const field in fields) {
                 const type = fields[field];
                 // FIXME: this code is duplicated from @type() annotation
                 const complexTypeKlass = (Array.isArray(type))
                     ? getType("array")
                     : (typeof (Object.keys(type)[0]) === "string") && getType(Object.keys(type)[0]);
-                Metadata.addField(metadata, index, field, type, getPropertyDescriptor(`_${field}`, index, type, complexTypeKlass));
-                index++;
+                Metadata.addField(metadata, fieldIndex, field, type, getPropertyDescriptor(`_${field}`, fieldIndex, type, complexTypeKlass));
+                fieldIndex++;
             }
+            return target;
         },
         isDeprecated(metadata, field) {
             return metadata[field].deprecated === true;
@@ -181,7 +304,7 @@
             //
             const metadata = {};
             klass[Symbol.metadata] = metadata;
-            Object.defineProperty(metadata, -1, {
+            Object.defineProperty(metadata, $numFields, {
                 value: 0,
                 enumerable: false,
                 configurable: true,
@@ -195,7 +318,7 @@
                 if (parentMetadata) {
                     // assign parent metadata to current
                     Object.assign(metadata, parentMetadata);
-                    for (let i = 0; i <= parentMetadata[-1]; i++) {
+                    for (let i = 0; i <= parentMetadata[$numFields]; i++) {
                         const fieldName = parentMetadata[i].name;
                         Object.defineProperty(metadata, fieldName, {
                             value: parentMetadata[fieldName],
@@ -203,8 +326,8 @@
                             configurable: true,
                         });
                     }
-                    Object.defineProperty(metadata, -1, {
-                        value: parentMetadata[-1],
+                    Object.defineProperty(metadata, $numFields, {
+                        value: parentMetadata[$numFields],
                         enumerable: false,
                         configurable: true,
                         writable: true,
@@ -216,40 +339,69 @@
         },
         isValidInstance(klass) {
             return (klass.constructor[Symbol.metadata] &&
-                Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(klass.constructor[Symbol.metadata], -1));
+                Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(klass.constructor[Symbol.metadata], $numFields));
         },
         getFields(klass) {
             const metadata = klass[Symbol.metadata];
             const fields = {};
-            for (let i = 0; i <= metadata[-1]; i++) {
+            for (let i = 0; i <= metadata[$numFields]; i++) {
                 fields[metadata[i].name] = metadata[i].type;
             }
             return fields;
         }
     };
 
-    var _a$5;
+    function setOperationAtIndex(changeSet, index) {
+        const operationsIndex = changeSet.indexes[index];
+        if (operationsIndex === undefined) {
+            changeSet.indexes[index] = changeSet.operations.push(index) - 1;
+        }
+        else {
+            changeSet.operations[operationsIndex] = index;
+        }
+    }
+    function deleteOperationAtIndex(changeSet, index) {
+        const operationsIndex = changeSet.indexes[index];
+        if (operationsIndex !== undefined) {
+            changeSet.operations[operationsIndex] = undefined;
+        }
+        delete changeSet.indexes[index];
+    }
+    function enqueueChangeTree(root, changeTree, changeSet, queueRootIndex = changeTree[changeSet].queueRootIndex) {
+        if (root && root[changeSet][queueRootIndex] !== changeTree) {
+            changeTree[changeSet].queueRootIndex = root[changeSet].push(changeTree) - 1;
+        }
+    }
     class ChangeTree {
-        static { _a$5 = $isNew; }
         constructor(ref) {
             this.isFiltered = false;
             this.isPartiallyFiltered = false;
-            this.currentOperationIndex = 0;
-            this.changes = new Map();
-            this.allChanges = new Map();
-            this[_a$5] = true;
+            this.indexedOperations = {};
+            //
+            // TODO:
+            //   try storing the index + operation per item.
+            //   example: 1024 & 1025 => ADD, 1026 => DELETE
+            //
+            // => https://chatgpt.com/share/67107d0c-bc20-8004-8583-83b17dd7c196
+            //
+            this.changes = { indexes: {}, operations: [] };
+            this.allChanges = { indexes: {}, operations: [] };
+            /**
+             * Is this a new instance? Used on ArraySchema to determine OPERATION.MOVE_AND_ADD operation.
+             */
+            this.isNew = true;
             this.ref = ref;
             //
             // Does this structure have "filters" declared?
             //
-            if (ref.constructor[Symbol.metadata]?.[-2]) {
-                this.allFilteredChanges = new Map();
-                this.filteredChanges = new Map();
+            if (ref.constructor[Symbol.metadata]?.[$viewFieldIndexes]) {
+                this.allFilteredChanges = { indexes: {}, operations: [] };
+                this.filteredChanges = { indexes: {}, operations: [] };
             }
         }
         setRoot(root) {
             this.root = root;
-            this.root.add(this);
+            const isNewChangeTree = this.root.add(this);
             const metadata = this.ref.constructor[Symbol.metadata];
             if (this.root.types.hasFilters) {
                 //
@@ -260,22 +412,24 @@
                 //
                 this.checkIsFiltered(metadata, this.parent, this.parentIndex);
                 if (this.isFiltered || this.isPartiallyFiltered) {
-                    this.root.allFilteredChanges.set(this, this.allFilteredChanges);
-                    this.root.filteredChanges.set(this, this.filteredChanges);
+                    enqueueChangeTree(root, this, 'filteredChanges');
+                    if (isNewChangeTree) {
+                        this.root.allFilteredChanges.push(this);
+                    }
                 }
             }
             if (!this.isFiltered) {
-                this.root.changes.set(this, this.changes);
-                this.root.allChanges.set(this, this.allChanges);
+                enqueueChangeTree(root, this, 'changes');
+                if (isNewChangeTree) {
+                    this.root.allChanges.push(this);
+                }
             }
-            this.ensureRefId();
+            // Recursively set root on child structures
             if (metadata) {
-                metadata[-4]?.forEach((index) => {
+                metadata[$refTypeFieldIndexes]?.forEach((index) => {
                     const field = metadata[index];
                     const value = this.ref[field.name];
-                    if (value) {
-                        value[$changes].setRoot(root);
-                    }
+                    value?.[$changes].setRoot(root);
                 });
             }
             else if (this.ref[$childType] && typeof (this.ref[$childType]) !== "string") {
@@ -292,31 +446,36 @@
             if (!root) {
                 return;
             }
-            root.add(this);
             const metadata = this.ref.constructor[Symbol.metadata];
             // skip if parent is already set
             if (root !== this.root) {
                 this.root = root;
+                const isNewChangeTree = root.add(this);
                 if (root.types.hasFilters) {
                     this.checkIsFiltered(metadata, parent, parentIndex);
                     if (this.isFiltered || this.isPartiallyFiltered) {
-                        this.root.filteredChanges.set(this, this.filteredChanges);
-                        this.root.allFilteredChanges.set(this, this.filteredChanges);
+                        enqueueChangeTree(root, this, 'filteredChanges');
+                        if (isNewChangeTree) {
+                            this.root.allFilteredChanges.push(this);
+                        }
                     }
                 }
                 if (!this.isFiltered) {
-                    this.root.changes.set(this, this.changes);
-                    this.root.allChanges.set(this, this.allChanges);
+                    enqueueChangeTree(root, this, 'changes');
+                    if (isNewChangeTree) {
+                        this.root.allChanges.push(this);
+                    }
                 }
-                this.ensureRefId();
+            }
+            else {
+                root.add(this);
             }
             // assign same parent on child structures
             if (metadata) {
-                metadata[-4]?.forEach((index) => {
+                metadata[$refTypeFieldIndexes]?.forEach((index) => {
                     const field = metadata[index];
                     const value = this.ref[field.name];
                     value?.[$changes].setParent(this.ref, root, index);
-                    // console.log(this.ref.constructor.name, field.name, value);
                     // try { throw new Error(); } catch (e) {
                     //     console.log(e.stack);
                     // }
@@ -335,7 +494,7 @@
             //
             const metadata = this.ref.constructor[Symbol.metadata];
             if (metadata) {
-                metadata[-4]?.forEach((index) => {
+                metadata[$refTypeFieldIndexes]?.forEach((index) => {
                     const field = metadata[index];
                     const value = this.ref[field.name];
                     if (value) {
@@ -351,8 +510,10 @@
             }
         }
         operation(op) {
-            this.changes.set(--this.currentOperationIndex, op);
-            this.root?.changes.set(this, this.changes);
+            // operations without index use negative values to represent them
+            // this is checked during .encode() time.
+            this.changes.operations.push(-op);
+            enqueueChangeTree(this.root, this, 'changes');
         }
         change(index, operation = exports.OPERATION.ADD) {
             const metadata = this.ref.constructor[Symbol.metadata];
@@ -360,7 +521,7 @@
             const changeSet = (isFiltered)
                 ? this.filteredChanges
                 : this.changes;
-            const previousOperation = changeSet.get(index);
+            const previousOperation = this.indexedOperations[index];
             if (!previousOperation || previousOperation === exports.OPERATION.DELETE) {
                 const op = (!previousOperation)
                     ? operation
@@ -370,16 +531,19 @@
                 //
                 // TODO: are DELETE operations being encoded as ADD here ??
                 //
-                changeSet.set(index, op);
+                this.indexedOperations[index] = op;
             }
+            setOperationAtIndex(changeSet, index);
             if (isFiltered) {
-                this.allFilteredChanges.set(index, exports.OPERATION.ADD);
-                this.root?.filteredChanges.set(this, this.filteredChanges);
-                this.root?.allFilteredChanges.set(this, this.allFilteredChanges);
+                setOperationAtIndex(this.allFilteredChanges, index);
+                if (this.root) {
+                    enqueueChangeTree(this.root, this, 'filteredChanges');
+                    enqueueChangeTree(this.root, this, 'allFilteredChanges');
+                }
             }
             else {
-                this.allChanges.set(index, exports.OPERATION.ADD);
-                this.root?.changes.set(this, this.changes);
+                setOperationAtIndex(this.allChanges, index);
+                enqueueChangeTree(this.root, this, 'changes');
             }
         }
         shiftChangeIndexes(shiftIndex) {
@@ -391,12 +555,15 @@
             const changeSet = (this.isFiltered)
                 ? this.filteredChanges
                 : this.changes;
-            const changeSetEntries = Array.from(changeSet.entries());
-            changeSet.clear();
-            // Re-insert each entry with the shifted index
-            for (const [index, op] of changeSetEntries) {
-                changeSet.set(index + shiftIndex, op);
+            const newIndexedOperations = {};
+            const newIndexes = {};
+            for (const index in this.indexedOperations) {
+                newIndexedOperations[Number(index) + shiftIndex] = this.indexedOperations[index];
+                newIndexes[Number(index) + shiftIndex] = changeSet[index];
             }
+            this.indexedOperations = newIndexedOperations;
+            changeSet.indexes = newIndexes;
+            changeSet.operations = changeSet.operations.map((index) => index + shiftIndex);
         }
         shiftAllChangeIndexes(shiftIndex, startIndex = 0) {
             //
@@ -412,24 +579,36 @@
                 this._shiftAllChangeIndexes(shiftIndex, startIndex, this.allChanges);
             }
         }
-        _shiftAllChangeIndexes(shiftIndex, startIndex = 0, allChangeSet) {
-            Array.from(allChangeSet.entries()).forEach(([index, op]) => {
-                if (index >= startIndex) {
-                    allChangeSet.delete(index);
-                    allChangeSet.set(index + shiftIndex, op);
+        _shiftAllChangeIndexes(shiftIndex, startIndex = 0, changeSet) {
+            const newIndexes = {};
+            for (const key in changeSet.indexes) {
+                const index = changeSet.indexes[key];
+                if (index > startIndex) {
+                    newIndexes[Number(key) + shiftIndex] = index;
                 }
-            });
+                else {
+                    newIndexes[key] = index;
+                }
+            }
+            changeSet.indexes = newIndexes;
+            for (let i = 0; i < changeSet.operations.length; i++) {
+                const index = changeSet.operations[i];
+                if (index > startIndex) {
+                    changeSet.operations[i] = index + shiftIndex;
+                }
+            }
         }
         indexedOperation(index, operation, allChangesIndex = index) {
-            if (this.filteredChanges !== undefined) {
-                this.allFilteredChanges.set(allChangesIndex, exports.OPERATION.ADD);
-                this.filteredChanges.set(index, operation);
-                this.root?.filteredChanges.set(this, this.filteredChanges);
+            this.indexedOperations[index] = operation;
+            if (this.filteredChanges) {
+                setOperationAtIndex(this.allFilteredChanges, allChangesIndex);
+                setOperationAtIndex(this.filteredChanges, index);
+                enqueueChangeTree(this.root, this, 'filteredChanges');
             }
             else {
-                this.allChanges.set(allChangesIndex, exports.OPERATION.ADD);
-                this.changes.set(index, operation);
-                this.root?.changes.set(this, this.changes);
+                setOperationAtIndex(this.allChanges, allChangesIndex);
+                setOperationAtIndex(this.changes, index);
+                enqueueChangeTree(this.root, this, 'changes');
             }
         }
         getType(index) {
@@ -448,8 +627,7 @@
             }
         }
         getChange(index) {
-            // TODO: optimize this. avoid checking against multiple instances
-            return this.changes.get(index) ?? this.filteredChanges?.get(index);
+            return this.indexedOperations[index];
         }
         //
         // used during `.encode()`
@@ -473,8 +651,9 @@
             const changeSet = (this.filteredChanges)
                 ? this.filteredChanges
                 : this.changes;
+            this.indexedOperations[index] = operation ?? exports.OPERATION.DELETE;
+            setOperationAtIndex(changeSet, index);
             const previousValue = this.getValue(index);
-            changeSet.set(index, operation ?? exports.OPERATION.DELETE);
             // remove `root` reference
             if (previousValue && previousValue[$changes]) {
                 //
@@ -490,23 +669,26 @@
                 this.root?.remove(previousValue[$changes]);
             }
             //
-            // FIXME: this is looking a bit ugly (and repeated from `.change()`)
+            // FIXME: this is looking a ugly and repeated
             //
             if (this.filteredChanges) {
-                this.root?.filteredChanges.set(this, this.filteredChanges);
-                this.allFilteredChanges.delete(allChangesIndex);
+                deleteOperationAtIndex(this.allFilteredChanges, allChangesIndex);
+                enqueueChangeTree(this.root, this, 'filteredChanges');
             }
             else {
-                this.root?.changes.set(this, this.changes);
-                this.allChanges.delete(allChangesIndex);
+                deleteOperationAtIndex(this.allChanges, allChangesIndex);
+                enqueueChangeTree(this.root, this, 'changes');
             }
         }
         endEncode() {
-            this.changes.clear();
+            this.indexedOperations = {};
+            // // clear changes
+            // this.changes.indexes = {};
+            // this.changes.operations.length = 0;
             // ArraySchema and MapSchema have a custom "encode end" method
             this.ref[$onEncodeEnd]?.();
             // Not a new instance anymore
-            delete this[$isNew];
+            this.isNew = false;
         }
         discard(discardAll = false) {
             //
@@ -515,13 +697,22 @@
             //      REPLACE in case same key is used on next patches.
             //
             this.ref[$onEncodeEnd]?.();
-            this.changes.clear();
-            this.filteredChanges?.clear();
-            // reset operation index
-            this.currentOperationIndex = 0;
+            this.indexedOperations = {};
+            this.changes.indexes = {};
+            this.changes.operations.length = 0;
+            this.changes.queueRootIndex = undefined;
+            if (this.filteredChanges !== undefined) {
+                this.filteredChanges.indexes = {};
+                this.filteredChanges.operations.length = 0;
+                this.filteredChanges.queueRootIndex = undefined;
+            }
             if (discardAll) {
-                this.allChanges.clear();
-                this.allFilteredChanges?.clear();
+                this.allChanges.indexes = {};
+                this.allChanges.operations.length = 0;
+                if (this.allFilteredChanges !== undefined) {
+                    this.allFilteredChanges.indexes = {};
+                    this.allFilteredChanges.operations.length = 0;
+                }
                 // remove children references
                 this.forEachChild((changeTree, _) => this.root?.remove(changeTree));
             }
@@ -530,12 +721,13 @@
          * Recursively discard all changes from this, and child structures.
          */
         discardAll() {
-            this.changes.forEach((_, fieldIndex) => {
-                const value = this.getValue(fieldIndex);
+            const keys = Object.keys(this.indexedOperations);
+            for (let i = 0, len = keys.length; i < len; i++) {
+                const value = this.getValue(Number(keys[i]));
                 if (value && value[$changes]) {
                     value[$changes].discardAll();
                 }
-            });
+            }
             this.discard();
         }
         ensureRefId() {
@@ -546,42 +738,48 @@
             this.refId = this.root.getNextUniqueId();
         }
         get changed() {
-            return this.changes.size > 0;
+            return (Object.entries(this.indexedOperations).length > 0);
         }
         checkIsFiltered(metadata, parent, parentIndex) {
             // Detect if current structure has "filters" declared
-            this.isPartiallyFiltered = metadata?.[-2] !== undefined;
+            this.isPartiallyFiltered = metadata?.[$viewFieldIndexes] !== undefined;
             if (this.isPartiallyFiltered) {
-                this.filteredChanges = this.filteredChanges || new Map();
-                this.allFilteredChanges = this.allFilteredChanges || new Map();
+                this.filteredChanges = this.filteredChanges || { indexes: {}, operations: [] };
+                this.allFilteredChanges = this.allFilteredChanges || { indexes: {}, operations: [] };
             }
-            if (parent) {
-                if (!Metadata.isValidInstance(parent)) {
-                    const parentChangeTree = parent[$changes];
-                    parent = parentChangeTree.parent;
-                    parentIndex = parentChangeTree.parentIndex;
-                }
-                const parentMetadata = parent?.constructor?.[Symbol.metadata];
-                this.isFiltered = (parent && parentMetadata?.[-2]?.includes(parentIndex));
-                //
-                // TODO: refactor this!
-                //
-                //      swapping `changes` and `filteredChanges` is required here
-                //      because "isFiltered" may not be imedialely available on `change()`
-                //
-                if (this.isFiltered) {
-                    this.filteredChanges = new Map();
-                    this.allFilteredChanges = new Map();
-                    if (this.changes.size > 0) {
-                        // swap changes reference
-                        const changes = this.changes;
-                        this.changes = this.filteredChanges;
-                        this.filteredChanges = changes;
-                        // swap "all changes" reference
-                        const allFilteredChanges = this.allFilteredChanges;
-                        this.allFilteredChanges = this.allChanges;
-                        this.allChanges = allFilteredChanges;
-                    }
+            // skip if parent is not set
+            if (!parent) {
+                return;
+            }
+            if (!Metadata.isValidInstance(parent)) {
+                const parentChangeTree = parent[$changes];
+                parent = parentChangeTree.parent;
+                parentIndex = parentChangeTree.parentIndex;
+            }
+            const parentMetadata = parent.constructor?.[Symbol.metadata];
+            this.isFiltered = parentMetadata?.[$viewFieldIndexes]?.includes(parentIndex);
+            //
+            // TODO: refactor this!
+            //
+            //      swapping `changes` and `filteredChanges` is required here
+            //      because "isFiltered" may not be imedialely available on `change()`
+            //
+            if (this.isFiltered) {
+                this.filteredChanges = { indexes: {}, operations: [] };
+                this.allFilteredChanges = { indexes: {}, operations: [] };
+                if (this.changes.operations.length > 0) {
+                    // swap changes reference
+                    const changes = this.changes;
+                    this.changes = this.filteredChanges;
+                    this.filteredChanges = changes;
+                    // swap "all changes" reference
+                    const allFilteredChanges = this.allFilteredChanges;
+                    this.allFilteredChanges = this.allChanges;
+                    this.allChanges = allFilteredChanges;
+                    // console.log("SWAP =>", {
+                    //     "this.allFilteredChanges": this.allFilteredChanges,
+                    //     "this.allChanges": this.allChanges
+                    // })
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -650,21 +848,24 @@
                 view[it.offset++] = c;
             }
             else if (c < 0x800) {
-                view[it.offset++] = 0xc0 | (c >> 6);
-                view[it.offset++] = 0x80 | (c & 0x3f);
+                view[it.offset] = 0xc0 | (c >> 6);
+                view[it.offset + 1] = 0x80 | (c & 0x3f);
+                it.offset += 2;
             }
             else if (c < 0xd800 || c >= 0xe000) {
-                view[it.offset++] = 0xe0 | (c >> 12);
-                view[it.offset++] = 0x80 | (c >> 6 & 0x3f);
-                view[it.offset++] = 0x80 | (c & 0x3f);
+                view[it.offset] = 0xe0 | (c >> 12);
+                view[it.offset + 1] = 0x80 | (c >> 6 & 0x3f);
+                view[it.offset + 2] = 0x80 | (c & 0x3f);
+                it.offset += 3;
             }
             else {
                 i++;
                 c = 0x10000 + (((c & 0x3ff) << 10) | (str.charCodeAt(i) & 0x3ff));
-                view[it.offset++] = 0xf0 | (c >> 18);
-                view[it.offset++] = 0x80 | (c >> 12 & 0x3f);
-                view[it.offset++] = 0x80 | (c >> 6 & 0x3f);
-                view[it.offset++] = 0x80 | (c & 0x3f);
+                view[it.offset] = 0xf0 | (c >> 18);
+                view[it.offset + 1] = 0x80 | (c >> 12 & 0x3f);
+                view[it.offset + 2] = 0x80 | (c >> 6 & 0x3f);
+                view[it.offset + 3] = 0x80 | (c & 0x3f);
+                it.offset += 4;
             }
         }
     }
@@ -893,7 +1094,7 @@
      * Used for Schema instances.
      * @private
      */
-    const encodeSchemaOperation = function (encoder, bytes, changeTree, index, operation, it) {
+    const encodeSchemaOperation = function (encoder, bytes, changeTree, index, operation, it, _, __, metadata) {
         // "compress" field index + operation
         bytes[it.offset++] = (index | operation) & 255;
         // Do not encode value for DELETE operations
@@ -901,7 +1102,7 @@
             return;
         }
         const ref = changeTree.ref;
-        const metadata = ref.constructor[Symbol.metadata];
+        // const metadata: Metadata = ref.constructor[Symbol.metadata];
         const field = metadata[index];
         // TODO: inline this function call small performance gain
         encodeValue(encoder, bytes, metadata[index].type, ref[field.name], operation, it);
@@ -1596,6 +1797,7 @@
             const proxy = new Proxy(this, {
                 get: (obj, prop) => {
                     if (typeof (prop) !== "symbol" &&
+                        // FIXME: d8 accuses this as low performance
                         !isNaN(prop) // https://stackoverflow.com/a/175787/892698
                     ) {
                         return this.items[prop];
@@ -1613,7 +1815,7 @@
                             if (setValue[$changes]) {
                                 assertInstanceType(setValue, obj[$childType], obj, key);
                                 if (obj.items[key] !== undefined) {
-                                    if (setValue[$changes][$isNew]) {
+                                    if (setValue[$changes].isNew) {
                                         this[$changes].indexedOperation(Number(key), exports.OPERATION.MOVE_AND_ADD);
                                     }
                                     else {
@@ -1625,7 +1827,7 @@
                                         }
                                     }
                                 }
-                                else if (setValue[$changes][$isNew]) {
+                                else if (setValue[$changes].isNew) {
                                     this[$changes].indexedOperation(Number(key), exports.OPERATION.ADD);
                                 }
                             }
@@ -1659,7 +1861,9 @@
             });
             this[$changes] = new ChangeTree(proxy);
             this[$changes].indexes = {};
-            this.push.apply(this, items);
+            if (items.length > 0) {
+                this.push(...items);
+            }
             return proxy;
         }
         set length(newLength) {
@@ -1678,15 +1882,18 @@
         }
         push(...values) {
             let length = this.tmpItems.length;
-            values.forEach((value, i) => {
-                // skip null values
+            const changeTree = this[$changes];
+            // values.forEach((value, i) => {
+            for (let i = 0, l = values.length; i < values.length; i++, length++) {
+                const value = values[i];
                 if (value === undefined || value === null) {
+                    // skip null values
                     return;
                 }
                 else if (typeof (value) === "object" && this[$childType]) {
                     assertInstanceType(value, this[$childType], this, i);
+                    // TODO: move value[$changes]?.setParent() to this block.
                 }
-                const changeTree = this[$changes];
                 changeTree.indexedOperation(length, exports.OPERATION.ADD, this.items.length);
                 this.items.push(value);
                 this.tmpItems.push(value);
@@ -1695,8 +1902,9 @@
                 // (to avoid encoding "refId" operations before parent's "ADD" operation)
                 //
                 value[$changes]?.setParent(this, changeTree.root, length);
-                length++;
-            });
+            }
+            //     length++;
+            // });
             return length;
         }
         /**
@@ -1717,6 +1925,7 @@
             }
             this[$changes].delete(index, undefined, this.items.length - 1);
             // this.tmpItems[index] = undefined;
+            // this.tmpItems.pop();
             this.deletedIndexes[index] = true;
             return this.items.pop();
         }
@@ -1781,9 +1990,12 @@
                 //
                 // TODO: do not use [$changes] at decoding time.
                 //
-                changeTree.root?.changes.delete(changeTree);
-                changeTree.root?.allChanges.delete(changeTree);
-                changeTree.root?.allFilteredChanges.delete(changeTree);
+                const root = changeTree.root;
+                if (root !== undefined) {
+                    root.removeChangeFromChangeSet("changes", changeTree);
+                    root.removeChangeFromChangeSet("allChanges", changeTree);
+                    root.removeChangeFromChangeSet("allFilteredChanges", changeTree);
+                }
             });
             changeTree.discard(true);
             changeTree.operation(exports.OPERATION.CLEAR);
@@ -1827,6 +2039,7 @@
             const changeTree = this[$changes];
             changeTree.delete(index);
             changeTree.shiftAllChangeIndexes(-1, index);
+            // this.deletedIndexes[index] = true;
             return this.items.shift();
         }
         /**
@@ -1907,10 +2120,12 @@
             changeTree.shiftChangeIndexes(items.length);
             // new index
             if (changeTree.isFiltered) {
-                changeTree.filteredChanges.set(this.items.length, exports.OPERATION.ADD);
+                setOperationAtIndex(changeTree.filteredChanges, this.items.length);
+                // changeTree.filteredChanges[this.items.length] = OPERATION.ADD;
             }
             else {
-                changeTree.allChanges.set(this.items.length, exports.OPERATION.ADD);
+                setOperationAtIndex(changeTree.allChanges, this.items.length);
+                // changeTree.allChanges[this.items.length] = OPERATION.ADD;
             }
             // FIXME: should we use OPERATION.MOVE here instead?
             items.forEach((_, index) => {
@@ -2251,7 +2466,7 @@
             const isReplace = typeof (changeTree.indexes[key]) !== "undefined";
             const index = (isReplace)
                 ? changeTree.indexes[key]
-                : changeTree.indexes[-1] ?? 0;
+                : changeTree.indexes[$numFields] ?? 0;
             let operation = (isReplace)
                 ? exports.OPERATION.REPLACE
                 : exports.OPERATION.ADD;
@@ -2263,7 +2478,7 @@
             if (!isReplace) {
                 this.$indexes.set(index, key);
                 changeTree.indexes[key] = index;
-                changeTree.indexes[-1] = index + 1;
+                changeTree.indexes[$numFields] = index + 1;
             }
             else if (!isRef &&
                 this.$items.get(key) === value) {
@@ -2338,8 +2553,11 @@
         }
         [$onEncodeEnd]() {
             const changeTree = this[$changes];
-            const changes = changeTree.changes.entries();
-            for (const [fieldIndex, operation] of changes) {
+            const keys = Object.keys(changeTree.indexedOperations);
+            for (let i = 0, len = keys.length; i < len; i++) {
+                const key = keys[i];
+                const fieldIndex = Number(key);
+                const operation = changeTree.indexedOperations[key];
                 if (operation === exports.OPERATION.DELETE) {
                     const index = this[$getByIndex](fieldIndex);
                     delete changeTree.indexes[index];
@@ -2382,102 +2600,6 @@
     }
     registerType("map", { constructor: MapSchema });
 
-    class TypeContext {
-        /**
-         * For inheritance support
-         * Keeps track of which classes extends which. (parent -> children)
-         */
-        static { this.inheritedTypes = new Map(); }
-        static register(target) {
-            const parent = Object.getPrototypeOf(target);
-            if (parent !== Schema) {
-                let inherits = TypeContext.inheritedTypes.get(parent);
-                if (!inherits) {
-                    inherits = new Set();
-                    TypeContext.inheritedTypes.set(parent, inherits);
-                }
-                inherits.add(target);
-            }
-        }
-        constructor(rootClass) {
-            this.types = {};
-            this.schemas = new Map();
-            this.hasFilters = false;
-            this.parentFiltered = {};
-            if (rootClass) {
-                this.discoverTypes(rootClass);
-            }
-        }
-        has(schema) {
-            return this.schemas.has(schema);
-        }
-        get(typeid) {
-            return this.types[typeid];
-        }
-        add(schema, typeid = this.schemas.size) {
-            // skip if already registered
-            if (this.schemas.has(schema)) {
-                return false;
-            }
-            this.types[typeid] = schema;
-            //
-            // Workaround to allow using an empty Schema (with no `@type()` fields)
-            //
-            if (schema[Symbol.metadata] === undefined) {
-                Metadata.init(schema);
-            }
-            this.schemas.set(schema, typeid);
-            return true;
-        }
-        getTypeId(klass) {
-            return this.schemas.get(klass);
-        }
-        discoverTypes(klass, parentIndex, parentFieldViewTag) {
-            if (!this.add(klass)) {
-                return;
-            }
-            // add classes inherited from this base class
-            TypeContext.inheritedTypes.get(klass)?.forEach((child) => {
-                this.discoverTypes(child, parentIndex, parentFieldViewTag);
-            });
-            const metadata = (klass[Symbol.metadata] ??= {});
-            // if any schema/field has filters, mark "context" as having filters.
-            if (metadata[-2]) {
-                this.hasFilters = true;
-            }
-            if (parentFieldViewTag !== undefined) {
-                this.parentFiltered[`${this.schemas.get(klass)}-${parentIndex}`] = true;
-            }
-            for (const fieldIndex in metadata) {
-                const index = fieldIndex;
-                const fieldType = metadata[index].type;
-                const viewTag = metadata[index].tag;
-                if (typeof (fieldType) === "string") {
-                    continue;
-                }
-                if (Array.isArray(fieldType)) {
-                    const type = fieldType[0];
-                    // skip primitive types
-                    if (type === "string") {
-                        continue;
-                    }
-                    this.discoverTypes(type, index, viewTag);
-                }
-                else if (typeof (fieldType) === "function") {
-                    this.discoverTypes(fieldType, viewTag);
-                }
-                else {
-                    const type = Object.values(fieldType)[0];
-                    // skip primitive types
-                    if (typeof (type) === "string") {
-                        continue;
-                    }
-                    this.discoverTypes(type, index, viewTag);
-                }
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
     const DEFAULT_VIEW_TAG = -1;
     /**
      * [See documentation](https://docs.colyseus.io/state/schema/)
@@ -2505,8 +2627,8 @@
     //         // detect index for this field, considering inheritance
     //         //
     //         const parent = Object.getPrototypeOf(context.metadata);
-    //         let fieldIndex: number = context.metadata[-1] // current structure already has fields defined
-    //             ?? (parent && parent[-1]) // parent structure has fields defined
+    //         let fieldIndex: number = context.metadata[$numFields] // current structure already has fields defined
+    //             ?? (parent && parent[$numFields]) // parent structure has fields defined
     //             ?? -1; // no fields defined
     //         fieldIndex++;
     //         if (
@@ -2635,8 +2757,8 @@
             //     //
             //     metadata[fieldIndex] = {
             //         type: undefined,
-            //         index: (metadata[-1] // current structure already has fields defined
-            //             ?? (parentMetadata && parentMetadata[-1]) // parent structure has fields defined
+            //         index: (metadata[$numFields] // current structure already has fields defined
+            //             ?? (parentMetadata && parentMetadata[$numFields]) // parent structure has fields defined
             //             ?? -1) + 1 // no fields defined
             //     }
             // }
@@ -2679,8 +2801,8 @@
                 //
                 // detect index for this field, considering inheritance
                 //
-                fieldIndex = metadata[-1] // current structure already has fields defined
-                    ?? (parentMetadata && parentMetadata[-1]) // parent structure has fields defined
+                fieldIndex = metadata[$numFields] // current structure already has fields defined
+                    ?? (parentMetadata && parentMetadata[$numFields]) // parent structure has fields defined
                     ?? -1; // no fields defined
                 fieldIndex++;
             }
@@ -2707,7 +2829,7 @@
         return {
             get: function () { return this[fieldCached]; },
             set: function (value) {
-                const previousValue = this[fieldCached] || undefined;
+                const previousValue = this[fieldCached] ?? undefined;
                 // skip if value is the same as cached.
                 if (value === previousValue) {
                     return;
@@ -2779,8 +2901,8 @@
             //     //
             //     metadata[field] = {
             //         type: undefined,
-            //         index: (metadata[-1] // current structure already has fields defined
-            //             ?? (parentMetadata && parentMetadata[-1]) // parent structure has fields defined
+            //         index: (metadata[$numFields] // current structure already has fields defined
+            //             ?? (parentMetadata && parentMetadata[$numFields]) // parent structure has fields defined
             //             ?? -1) + 1 // no fields defined
             //     }
             // }
@@ -2818,15 +2940,18 @@
             ops: {},
             refs: []
         };
-        $root.changes.forEach((operations, changeTree) => {
+        // for (const refId in $root.changes) {
+        $root.changes.forEach(changeTree => {
+            const changes = changeTree.indexedOperations;
             dump.refs.push(`refId#${changeTree.refId}`);
-            operations.forEach((op, index) => {
+            for (const index in changes) {
+                const op = changes[index];
                 const opName = exports.OPERATION[op];
                 if (!dump.ops[opName]) {
                     dump.ops[opName] = 0;
                 }
                 dump.ops[exports.OPERATION[op]]++;
-            });
+            }
         });
         return dump;
     }
@@ -2852,6 +2977,7 @@
     class Schema {
         static { this[_a$2] = encodeSchemaOperation; }
         static { this[_b$2] = decodeSchemaOperation; }
+        // public [$changes]: ChangeTree;
         /**
          * Assign the property descriptors required to track changes on this instance.
          * @param instance
@@ -2911,12 +3037,7 @@
             // inline
             // Schema.initialize(this);
             //
-            Object.defineProperty(this, $changes, {
-                value: new ChangeTree(this),
-                enumerable: false,
-                writable: true
-            });
-            Object.defineProperties(this, this.constructor[Symbol.metadata]?.[$descriptors] || {});
+            Schema.initialize(this);
             //
             // Assign initial values
             //
@@ -2990,7 +3111,7 @@
             const changeTree = ref[$changes];
             const contents = (jsonContents) ? ` - ${JSON.stringify(ref.toJSON())}` : "";
             let output = "";
-            output += `${getIndent(level)}${ref.constructor.name} (${ref[$changes].refId})${contents}\n`;
+            output += `${getIndent(level)}${ref.constructor.name} (refId: ${ref[$changes].refId})${contents}\n`;
             changeTree.forEachChild((childChangeTree) => output += this.debugRefIds(childChangeTree.ref, jsonContents, level + 1));
             return output;
         }
@@ -3008,18 +3129,26 @@
             const changeSetName = (isEncodeAll) ? "allChanges" : "changes";
             let output = `${instance.constructor.name} (${changeTree.refId}) -> .${changeSetName}:\n`;
             function dumpChangeSet(changeSet) {
-                Array.from(changeSet)
-                    .sort((a, b) => a[0] - b[0])
-                    .forEach(([index, operation]) => output += `- [${index}]: ${exports.OPERATION[operation]} (${JSON.stringify(changeTree.getValue(index, isEncodeAll))})\n`);
+                changeSet.operations
+                    .filter(op => op)
+                    .forEach((index) => {
+                    const operation = changeTree.indexedOperations[index];
+                    console.log({ index, operation });
+                    output += `- [${index}]: ${exports.OPERATION[operation]} (${JSON.stringify(changeTree.getValue(Number(index), isEncodeAll))})\n`;
+                });
             }
             dumpChangeSet(changeSet);
             // display filtered changes
-            if (!isEncodeAll && changeTree.filteredChanges?.size > 0) {
+            if (!isEncodeAll &&
+                changeTree.filteredChanges &&
+                (changeTree.filteredChanges.operations).filter(op => op).length > 0) {
                 output += `${instance.constructor.name} (${changeTree.refId}) -> .filteredChanges:\n`;
                 dumpChangeSet(changeTree.filteredChanges);
             }
             // display filtered changes
-            if (isEncodeAll && changeTree.allFilteredChanges?.size > 0) {
+            if (isEncodeAll &&
+                changeTree.allFilteredChanges &&
+                (changeTree.allFilteredChanges.operations).filter(op => op).length > 0) {
                 output += `${instance.constructor.name} (${changeTree.refId}) -> .allFilteredChanges:\n`;
                 dumpChangeSet(changeTree.allFilteredChanges);
             }
@@ -3028,10 +3157,12 @@
         static debugChangesDeep(ref, changeSetName = "changes") {
             let output = "";
             const rootChangeTree = ref[$changes];
+            const root = rootChangeTree.root;
             const changeTrees = new Map();
             let totalInstances = 0;
             let totalOperations = 0;
-            for (const [changeTree, changes] of (rootChangeTree.root[changeSetName].entries())) {
+            for (const [refId, changes] of Object.entries(root[changeSetName])) {
+                const changeTree = root.changeTrees[refId];
                 let includeChangeTree = false;
                 let parentChangeTrees = [];
                 let parentChangeTree = changeTree.parent?.[$changes];
@@ -3050,7 +3181,7 @@
                 }
                 if (includeChangeTree) {
                     totalInstances += 1;
-                    totalOperations += changes.size;
+                    totalOperations += Object.keys(changes).length;
                     changeTrees.set(changeTree, parentChangeTrees.reverse());
                 }
             }
@@ -3068,12 +3199,13 @@
                         visitedParents.add(parentChangeTree);
                     }
                 });
-                const changes = changeTree.changes;
+                const changes = changeTree.indexedOperations;
                 const level = parentChangeTrees.length;
                 const indent = getIndent(level);
                 const parentIndex = (level > 0) ? `(${changeTree.parentIndex}) ` : "";
-                output += `${indent}${parentIndex}${changeTree.ref.constructor.name} (refId: ${changeTree.refId}) - changes: ${changes.size}\n`;
-                for (const [index, operation] of changes) {
+                output += `${indent}${parentIndex}${changeTree.ref.constructor.name} (refId: ${changeTree.refId}) - changes: ${Object.keys(changes).length}\n`;
+                for (const index in changes) {
+                    const operation = changes[index];
                     output += `${getIndent(level + 1)}${exports.OPERATION[operation]}: ${index}\n`;
                 }
             }
@@ -3434,59 +3566,90 @@
         return e.name = "SuppressedError", e.error = error, e.suppressed = suppressed, e;
     };
 
+    function spliceOne(arr, index) {
+        // manually splice an array
+        if (index === -1 || index >= arr.length) {
+            return false;
+        }
+        const len = arr.length - 1;
+        for (let i = index; i < len; i++) {
+            arr[i] = arr[i + 1];
+        }
+        arr.length = len;
+        return true;
+    }
+
     class Root {
         constructor(types) {
             this.types = types;
             this.nextUniqueId = 0;
-            this.refCount = new WeakMap();
+            this.refCount = {};
+            this.changeTrees = {};
             // all changes
-            this.allChanges = new Map();
-            this.allFilteredChanges = new Map();
+            this.allChanges = [];
+            this.allFilteredChanges = []; // TODO: do not initialize it if filters are not used
             // pending changes to be encoded
-            this.changes = new Map();
-            this.filteredChanges = new Map();
+            this.changes = [];
+            this.filteredChanges = []; // TODO: do not initialize it if filters are not used
         }
         getNextUniqueId() {
             return this.nextUniqueId++;
         }
         add(changeTree) {
-            const previousRefCount = this.refCount.get(changeTree);
+            // FIXME: move implementation of `ensureRefId` to `Root` class
+            changeTree.ensureRefId();
+            const isNewChangeTree = (this.changeTrees[changeTree.refId] === undefined);
+            if (isNewChangeTree) {
+                this.changeTrees[changeTree.refId] = changeTree;
+            }
+            const previousRefCount = this.refCount[changeTree.refId];
             if (previousRefCount === 0) {
                 //
                 // When a ChangeTree is re-added, it means that it was previously removed.
                 // We need to re-add all changes to the `changes` map.
                 //
-                changeTree.allChanges.forEach((operation, index) => {
-                    changeTree.changes.set(index, operation);
-                });
+                const ops = changeTree.allChanges.operations;
+                let len = ops.length;
+                while (len--) {
+                    changeTree.indexedOperations[ops[len]] = exports.OPERATION.ADD;
+                    setOperationAtIndex(changeTree.changes, len);
+                }
             }
-            const refCount = (previousRefCount || 0) + 1;
-            this.refCount.set(changeTree, refCount);
-            return refCount;
+            this.refCount[changeTree.refId] = (previousRefCount || 0) + 1;
+            return isNewChangeTree;
         }
         remove(changeTree) {
-            const refCount = (this.refCount.get(changeTree)) - 1;
+            const refCount = (this.refCount[changeTree.refId]) - 1;
             if (refCount <= 0) {
                 //
                 // Only remove "root" reference if it's the last reference
                 //
                 changeTree.root = undefined;
-                this.allChanges.delete(changeTree);
-                this.changes.delete(changeTree);
+                delete this.changeTrees[changeTree.refId];
+                this.removeChangeFromChangeSet("allChanges", changeTree);
+                this.removeChangeFromChangeSet("changes", changeTree);
                 if (changeTree.isFiltered || changeTree.isPartiallyFiltered) {
-                    this.allFilteredChanges.delete(changeTree);
-                    this.filteredChanges.delete(changeTree);
+                    this.removeChangeFromChangeSet("allFilteredChanges", changeTree);
+                    this.removeChangeFromChangeSet("filteredChanges", changeTree);
                 }
-                this.refCount.set(changeTree, 0);
+                this.refCount[changeTree.refId] = 0;
             }
             else {
-                this.refCount.set(changeTree, refCount);
+                this.refCount[changeTree.refId] = refCount;
             }
             changeTree.forEachChild((child, _) => this.remove(child));
             return refCount;
         }
+        removeChangeFromChangeSet(changeSetName, changeTree) {
+            const changeSet = this[changeSetName];
+            const index = changeSet.indexOf(changeTree);
+            if (index !== -1) {
+                spliceOne(changeSet, index);
+                // changeSet[index] = undefined;
+            }
+        }
         clear() {
-            this.changes.clear();
+            this.changes.length = 0;
         }
     }
 
@@ -3510,20 +3673,26 @@
             this.state = state;
             this.state[$changes].setRoot(this.root);
         }
-        encode(it = { offset: 0 }, view, buffer = this.sharedBuffer, changeTrees = this.root.changes, isEncodeAll = this.root.allChanges === changeTrees, initialOffset = it.offset // cache current offset in case we need to resize the buffer
+        encode(it = { offset: 0 }, view, buffer = this.sharedBuffer, changeSetName = "changes", isEncodeAll = changeSetName === "allChanges", initialOffset = it.offset // cache current offset in case we need to resize the buffer
         ) {
             const hasView = (view !== undefined);
             const rootChangeTree = this.state[$changes];
-            const shouldClearChanges = !isEncodeAll && !hasView;
-            for (const [changeTree, changes] of changeTrees.entries()) {
+            const shouldDiscardChanges = !isEncodeAll && !hasView;
+            const changeTrees = this.root[changeSetName];
+            for (let i = 0, numChangeTrees = changeTrees.length; i < numChangeTrees; i++) {
+                const changeTree = changeTrees[i];
+                // // Root#removeChangeFromChangeSet() is now removing instead of setting to "undefined"
+                // if (changeTree === undefined) { continue; }
+                const operations = changeTree[changeSetName];
                 const ref = changeTree.ref;
                 const ctor = ref.constructor;
                 const encoder = ctor[$encoder];
                 const filter = ctor[$filter];
+                const metadata = ctor[Symbol.metadata];
                 // try { throw new Error(); } catch (e) {
                 //     // only print if not coming from Reflection.ts
                 //     if (!e.stack.includes("src/Reflection.ts")) {
-                //         console.log("ChangeTree:", { ref: ref.constructor.name, });
+                //         console.log("ChangeTree:", { refId: changeTree.refId, ref: ref.constructor.name });
                 //     }
                 // }
                 if (hasView) {
@@ -3541,7 +3710,13 @@
                     buffer[it.offset++] = SWITCH_TO_STRUCTURE & 255;
                     number$1(buffer, changeTree.refId, it);
                 }
-                for (const [fieldIndex, operation] of changes.entries()) {
+                for (let j = 0, numChanges = operations.operations.length; j < numChanges; j++) {
+                    const fieldIndex = operations.operations[j];
+                    const operation = (fieldIndex < 0)
+                        ? Math.abs(fieldIndex) // "pure" operation without fieldIndex (e.g. CLEAR, REVERSE, etc.)
+                        : (isEncodeAll)
+                            ? exports.OPERATION.ADD
+                            : changeTree.indexedOperations[fieldIndex];
                     //
                     // first pass (encodeAll), identify "filtered" operations without encoding them
                     // they will be encoded per client, based on their view.
@@ -3549,7 +3724,7 @@
                     // TODO: how can we optimize filtering out "encode all" operations?
                     // TODO: avoid checking if no view tags were defined
                     //
-                    if (filter && !filter(ref, fieldIndex, view)) {
+                    if (fieldIndex === undefined || operation === undefined || (filter && !filter(ref, fieldIndex, view))) {
                         // console.log("ADD AS INVISIBLE:", fieldIndex, changeTree.ref.constructor.name)
                         // view?.invisible.add(changeTree);
                         continue;
@@ -3564,16 +3739,14 @@
                     //         });
                     //     }
                     // }
-                    encoder(this, buffer, changeTree, fieldIndex, operation, it, isEncodeAll, hasView);
+                    // console.log("encode...", { ref: changeTree.ref.constructor.name, refId: changeTree.refId, fieldIndex, operation });
+                    encoder(this, buffer, changeTree, fieldIndex, operation, it, isEncodeAll, hasView, metadata);
+                }
+                if (shouldDiscardChanges) {
+                    changeTree.discard();
+                    // Not a new instance anymore
+                    changeTree.isNew = false;
                 }
-                // if (shouldClearChanges) {
-                //     // changeTree.endEncode();
-                //     changeTree.changes.clear();
-                //     // ArraySchema and MapSchema have a custom "encode end" method
-                //     changeTree.ref[$onEncodeEnd]?.();
-                //     // Not a new instance anymore
-                //     delete changeTree[$isNew];
-                // }
             }
             if (it.offset > buffer.byteLength) {
                 const newSize = getNextPowerOf2(buffer.byteLength * 2);
@@ -3590,51 +3763,54 @@
                 if (buffer === this.sharedBuffer) {
                     this.sharedBuffer = buffer;
                 }
-                return this.encode({ offset: initialOffset }, view, buffer, changeTrees, isEncodeAll);
+                return this.encode({ offset: initialOffset }, view, buffer, changeSetName, isEncodeAll);
             }
             else {
-                //
-                // only clear changes after making sure buffer resize is not required.
-                //
-                if (shouldClearChanges) {
-                    //
-                    // FIXME: avoid iterating over change trees twice.
-                    //
-                    this.onEndEncode(changeTrees);
-                }
+                // //
+                // // only clear changes after making sure buffer resize is not required.
+                // //
+                // if (shouldClearChanges) {
+                //     //
+                //     // FIXME: avoid iterating over change trees twice.
+                //     //
+                //     this.onEndEncode(changeTrees);
+                // }
                 return buffer.subarray(0, it.offset);
             }
         }
         encodeAll(it = { offset: 0 }, buffer = this.sharedBuffer) {
-            // console.log(`\nencodeAll(), this.root.allChanges (${this.root.allChanges.size})`);
+            // console.log(`\nencodeAll(), this.root.allChanges (${(Object.keys(this.root.allChanges).length)})`);
             // this.debugChanges("allChanges");
-            return this.encode(it, undefined, buffer, this.root.allChanges, true);
+            return this.encode(it, undefined, buffer, "allChanges", true);
         }
         encodeAllView(view, sharedOffset, it, bytes = this.sharedBuffer) {
             const viewOffset = it.offset;
-            // console.log(`\nencodeAllView(), this.root.allFilteredChanges (${this.root.allFilteredChanges.size})`);
+            // console.log(`\nencodeAllView(), this.root.allFilteredChanges (${(Object.keys(this.root.allFilteredChanges).length)})`);
             // this.debugChanges("allFilteredChanges");
+            // console.log("\n\nENCODE ALL FOR VIEW...\n\n")
             // try to encode "filtered" changes
-            this.encode(it, view, bytes, this.root.allFilteredChanges, true, viewOffset);
+            this.encode(it, view, bytes, "allFilteredChanges", true, viewOffset);
             return Buffer.concat([
                 bytes.subarray(0, sharedOffset),
                 bytes.subarray(viewOffset, it.offset)
             ]);
         }
         debugChanges(field) {
-            const changeSet = (typeof (field) === "string")
+            const rootChangeSet = (typeof (field) === "string")
                 ? this.root[field]
                 : field;
-            Array.from(changeSet.entries()).map((item) => {
-                const metadata = item[0].ref.constructor[Symbol.metadata];
-                console.log("->", { ref: item[0].ref.constructor.name, refId: item[0].refId, changes: item[1].size });
-                item[1].forEach((op, index) => {
+            rootChangeSet.forEach((changeTree) => {
+                const changeSet = changeTree[field];
+                const metadata = changeTree.ref.constructor[Symbol.metadata];
+                console.log("->", { ref: changeTree.ref.constructor.name, refId: changeTree.refId, changes: Object.keys(changeSet).length });
+                for (const index in changeSet) {
+                    const op = changeSet[index];
                     console.log("  ->", {
                         index,
                         field: metadata?.[index],
                         op: exports.OPERATION[op],
                     });
-                });
+                }
             });
         }
         encodeView(view, sharedOffset, it, bytes = this.sharedBuffer) {
@@ -3644,23 +3820,31 @@
             // console.log(`\nencodeView(), this.root.filteredChanges (${this.root.filteredChanges.size})`);
             // this.debugChanges("filteredChanges");
             // encode visibility changes (add/remove for this view)
-            const viewChangesIterator = view.changes.entries();
-            for (const [changeTree, changes] of viewChangesIterator) {
-                if (changes.size === 0) {
-                    // FIXME: avoid having empty changes if no changes were made
-                    // console.log("changes.size === 0", changeTree.ref.constructor.name);
+            const refIds = Object.keys(view.changes);
+            // console.log("ENCODE VIEW:", refIds);
+            for (let i = 0, numRefIds = refIds.length; i < numRefIds; i++) {
+                const refId = refIds[i];
+                const changes = view.changes[refId];
+                const changeTree = this.root.changeTrees[refId];
+                if (changeTree === undefined ||
+                    Object.keys(changes).length === 0 // FIXME: avoid having empty changes if no changes were made
+                ) {
+                    // console.log("changes.size === 0, skip", changeTree.ref.constructor.name);
                     continue;
                 }
                 const ref = changeTree.ref;
-                const ctor = ref['constructor'];
+                const ctor = ref.constructor;
                 const encoder = ctor[$encoder];
+                const metadata = ctor[Symbol.metadata];
                 bytes[it.offset++] = SWITCH_TO_STRUCTURE & 255;
                 number$1(bytes, changeTree.refId, it);
-                const changesIterator = changes.entries();
-                for (const [fieldIndex, operation] of changesIterator) {
+                const keys = Object.keys(changes);
+                for (let i = 0, numChanges = keys.length; i < numChanges; i++) {
+                    const key = keys[i];
+                    const operation = changes[key];
                     // isEncodeAll = false
                     // hasView = true
-                    encoder(this, bytes, changeTree, fieldIndex, operation, it, false, true);
+                    encoder(this, bytes, changeTree, Number(key), operation, it, false, true, metadata);
                 }
             }
             //
@@ -3668,40 +3852,55 @@
             // (to allow re-using StateView's for multiple clients)
             //
             // clear "view" changes after encoding
-            view.changes.clear();
+            view.changes = {};
+            // console.log("FILTERED CHANGES:", this.root.filteredChanges);
             // try to encode "filtered" changes
-            this.encode(it, view, bytes, this.root.filteredChanges, false, viewOffset);
+            this.encode(it, view, bytes, "filteredChanges", false, viewOffset);
             return Buffer.concat([
                 bytes.subarray(0, sharedOffset),
                 bytes.subarray(viewOffset, it.offset)
             ]);
         }
         onEndEncode(changeTrees = this.root.changes) {
-            const changeTreesIterator = changeTrees.entries();
-            for (const [changeTree, _] of changeTreesIterator) {
-                changeTree.endEncode();
-                // changeTree.changes.clear();
-                // // ArraySchema and MapSchema have a custom "encode end" method
-                // changeTree.ref[$onEncodeEnd]?.();
-                // // Not a new instance anymore
-                // delete changeTree[$isNew];
-            }
+            // changeTrees.forEach(function(changeTree) {
+            //     changeTree.endEncode();
+            // });
+            // for (const refId in changeTrees) {
+            //     const changeTree = this.root.changeTrees[refId];
+            //     changeTree.endEncode();
+            //     // changeTree.changes.clear();
+            //     // // ArraySchema and MapSchema have a custom "encode end" method
+            //     // changeTree.ref[$onEncodeEnd]?.();
+            //     // // Not a new instance anymore
+            //     // delete changeTree[$isNew];
+            // }
         }
         discardChanges() {
+            // console.log("DISCARD CHANGES!");
             // discard shared changes
-            if (this.root.changes.size > 0) {
-                this.onEndEncode(this.root.changes);
-                this.root.changes.clear();
+            let length = this.root.changes.length;
+            if (length > 0) {
+                while (length--) {
+                    this.root.changes[length]?.endEncode();
+                }
+                this.root.changes.length = 0;
             }
             // discard filtered changes
-            if (this.root.filteredChanges.size > 0) {
-                this.onEndEncode(this.root.filteredChanges);
-                this.root.filteredChanges.clear();
+            length = this.root.filteredChanges.length;
+            if (length > 0) {
+                while (length--) {
+                    this.root.filteredChanges[length]?.endEncode();
+                }
+                this.root.filteredChanges.length = 0;
             }
         }
         tryEncodeTypeId(bytes, baseType, targetType, it) {
             const baseTypeId = this.context.getTypeId(baseType);
             const targetTypeId = this.context.getTypeId(targetType);
+            if (targetTypeId === undefined) {
+                console.warn(`@colyseus/schema WARNING: Class "${targetType.name}" is not registered on TypeRegistry - Please either tag the class with @entity or define a @type() field.`);
+                return;
+            }
             if (baseTypeId !== targetTypeId) {
                 bytes[it.offset++] = TYPE_ID & 255;
                 number$1(bytes, targetTypeId, it);
@@ -3709,19 +3908,6 @@
         }
     }
 
-    function spliceOne(arr, index) {
-        // manually splice an array
-        if (index === -1 || index >= arr.length) {
-            return false;
-        }
-        const len = arr.length - 1;
-        for (let i = index; i < len; i++) {
-            arr[i] = arr[i + 1];
-        }
-        arr.length = len;
-        return true;
-    }
-
     class DecodingWarning extends Error {
         constructor(message) {
             super(message);
@@ -3883,7 +4069,7 @@
                     }
                     ref[$onDecodeEnd]?.();
                     ref = nextRef;
-                    decoder = ref['constructor'][$decoder];
+                    decoder = ref.constructor[$decoder];
                     continue;
                 }
                 const result = decoder(this, bytes, it, ref, allChanges);
@@ -3984,10 +4170,16 @@
             super(...arguments);
             this.types = new ArraySchema();
         }
-        static encode(instance, context, it = { offset: 0 }) {
-            context ??= new TypeContext(instance.constructor);
+        /**
+         * Encodes the TypeContext of an Encoder into a buffer.
+         *
+         * @param context TypeContext instance
+         * @param it
+         * @returns
+         */
+        static encode(context, it = { offset: 0 }) {
             const reflection = new Reflection();
-            const encoder = new Encoder(reflection);
+            const reflectionEncoder = new Encoder(reflection);
             const buildType = (currentType, metadata) => {
                 for (const fieldIndex in metadata) {
                     const index = Number(fieldIndex);
@@ -4041,9 +4233,16 @@
                 }
                 buildType(type, klass[Symbol.metadata]);
             }
-            const buf = encoder.encodeAll(it);
+            const buf = reflectionEncoder.encodeAll(it);
             return Buffer.from(buf, 0, it.offset);
         }
+        /**
+         * Decodes the TypeContext from a buffer into a Decoder instance.
+         *
+         * @param bytes Reflection.encode() output
+         * @param it
+         * @returns Decoder instance
+         */
         static decode(bytes, it) {
             const reflection = new Reflection();
             const reflectionDecoder = new Decoder(reflection);
@@ -4089,8 +4288,8 @@
                     }
                 });
             });
-            // @ts-ignore
-            return new (typeContext.get(0))();
+            const state = new (typeContext.get(0))();
+            return new Decoder(state, typeContext);
         }
     }
     __decorate([
@@ -4360,7 +4559,7 @@
              * Manual "ADD" operations for changes per ChangeTree, specific to this view.
              * (This is used to force encoding a property, even if it was not changed)
              */
-            this.changes = new Map();
+            this.changes = {};
         }
         // TODO: allow to set multiple tags at once
         add(obj, tag = DEFAULT_VIEW_TAG, checkIncludeParent = true) {
@@ -4382,10 +4581,10 @@
             // TODO: when adding an item of a MapSchema, the changes may not
             // be set (only the parent's changes are set)
             //
-            let changes = this.changes.get(changeTree);
+            let changes = this.changes[changeTree.refId];
             if (changes === undefined) {
-                changes = new Map();
-                this.changes.set(changeTree, changes);
+                changes = {};
+                this.changes[changeTree.refId] = changes;
             }
             // set tag
             if (tag !== DEFAULT_VIEW_TAG) {
@@ -4402,9 +4601,9 @@
                 }
                 tags.add(tag);
                 // Ref: add tagged properties
-                metadata?.[-3]?.[tag]?.forEach((index) => {
+                metadata?.[$fieldIndexesByViewTag]?.[tag]?.forEach((index) => {
                     if (changeTree.getChange(index) !== exports.OPERATION.DELETE) {
-                        changes.set(index, exports.OPERATION.ADD);
+                        changes[index] = exports.OPERATION.ADD;
                     }
                 });
             }
@@ -4413,16 +4612,21 @@
                 const changeSet = (changeTree.isFiltered || changeTree.isPartiallyFiltered)
                     ? changeTree.allFilteredChanges
                     : changeTree.allChanges;
-                changeSet.forEach((op, index) => {
+                for (let i = 0, len = changeSet.operations.length; i < len; i++) {
+                    const index = changeSet.operations[i];
+                    if (index === undefined) {
+                        continue;
+                    } // skip "undefined" indexes
+                    const op = changeTree.indexedOperations[index];
                     const tagAtIndex = metadata?.[index].tag;
                     if ((isInvisible || // if "invisible", include all
                         tagAtIndex === undefined || // "all change" with no tag
                         tagAtIndex === tag // tagged property
                     ) &&
                         op !== exports.OPERATION.DELETE) {
-                        changes.set(index, op);
+                        changes[index] = op;
                     }
-                });
+                }
             }
             // Add children of this ChangeTree to this view
             changeTree.forEachChild((change, index) => {
@@ -4448,10 +4652,10 @@
             }
             // add parent's tag properties
             if (changeTree.getChange(parentIndex) !== exports.OPERATION.DELETE) {
-                let changes = this.changes.get(changeTree);
+                let changes = this.changes[changeTree.refId];
                 if (changes === undefined) {
-                    changes = new Map();
-                    this.changes.set(changeTree, changes);
+                    changes = {};
+                    this.changes[changeTree.refId] = changes;
                 }
                 if (!this.tags) {
                     this.tags = new WeakMap();
@@ -4465,7 +4669,7 @@
                     tags = this.tags.get(changeTree);
                 }
                 tags.add(tag);
-                changes.set(parentIndex, exports.OPERATION.ADD);
+                changes[parentIndex] = exports.OPERATION.ADD;
             }
         }
         remove(obj, tag = DEFAULT_VIEW_TAG) {
@@ -4477,32 +4681,32 @@
             this.items.delete(changeTree);
             const ref = changeTree.ref;
             const metadata = ref.constructor[Symbol.metadata];
-            let changes = this.changes.get(changeTree);
+            let changes = this.changes[changeTree.refId];
             if (changes === undefined) {
-                changes = new Map();
-                this.changes.set(changeTree, changes);
+                changes = {};
+                this.changes[changeTree.refId] = changes;
             }
             if (tag === DEFAULT_VIEW_TAG) {
                 // parent is collection (Map/Array)
                 const parent = changeTree.parent;
                 if (!Metadata.isValidInstance(parent)) {
                     const parentChangeTree = parent[$changes];
-                    let changes = this.changes.get(parentChangeTree);
+                    let changes = this.changes[parentChangeTree.refId];
                     if (changes === undefined) {
-                        changes = new Map();
-                        this.changes.set(parentChangeTree, changes);
+                        changes = {};
+                        this.changes[parentChangeTree.refId] = changes;
                     }
                     // DELETE / DELETE BY REF ID
-                    changes.set(changeTree.parentIndex, exports.OPERATION.DELETE);
+                    changes[changeTree.parentIndex] = exports.OPERATION.DELETE;
                 }
                 else {
                     // delete all "tagged" properties.
-                    metadata[-2].forEach((index) => changes.set(index, exports.OPERATION.DELETE));
+                    metadata[$viewFieldIndexes].forEach((index) => changes[index] = exports.OPERATION.DELETE);
                 }
             }
             else {
                 // delete only tagged properties
-                metadata[-3][tag].forEach((index) => changes.set(index, exports.OPERATION.DELETE));
+                metadata[$fieldIndexesByViewTag][tag].forEach((index) => changes[index] = exports.OPERATION.DELETE);
             }
             // remove tag
             if (this.tags && this.tags.has(changeTree)) {