@clickzetta/cz-cli-darwin-x64 0.3.94 → 0.3.96

package/bin/skills/lakehouse-doc-en/references/groupby.md

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+# GROUP BY
+
+## Overview
+
+The `GROUP BY` clause is a core component in SQL queries used for data grouping and aggregation analysis. With `GROUP BY`, you can group a dataset by specified columns or expressions and apply aggregate functions (such as `SUM()`, `COUNT()`, `AVG()`, `MAX()`, `MIN()`, etc.) to each group to compute summary values.
+
+Singdata Lakehouse fully supports standard SQL GROUP BY syntax and provides advanced aggregation capabilities:
+
+| Feature                | Description                          | Use Case                                   |
+| ----------------- | ---------------------------------------- | --------------------------------------- |
+| **Standard GROUP BY**   | Basic grouping and aggregation               | Daily statistics, basic reports              |
+| **GROUPING SETS** | Custom multiple grouping sets                  | Multi-dimensional business analysis               |
+| **ROLLUP**        | Hierarchical rollup (from detail to total)          | Financial reports, sales hierarchy analysis           |
+| **CUBE**          | Full dimensional cross analysis                 | BI multi-dimensional data pivot, cross analysis        |
+
+***
+
+## Syntax Structure
+
+```sql
+SELECT 
+    column1,
+    column2,
+    aggregate_function(column3) AS alias
+FROM table_name
+WHERE condition
+GROUP BY 
+    [ group_expression [, group_expression, ...] |
+      GROUPING SETS (grouping_set [, grouping_set, ...]) |
+      ROLLUP(expression [, expression, ...]) |
+      CUBE(expression [, expression, ...]) ]
+HAVING aggregate_condition
+ORDER BY column
+LIMIT n;
+```
+
+### Key Points
+
+1. **SELECT clause constraint**: Non-aggregate columns in the SELECT list must appear in the GROUP BY clause
+2. **Execution order**: FROM → WHERE → GROUP BY → HAVING → SELECT → ORDER BY → LIMIT
+3. **HAVING filter**: Used to filter aggregation results, while WHERE filters original rows
+4. **NULL value handling**: NULL is treated as a separate group
+
+***
+
+## Prepare Test Data
+
+This document uses car dealership sales data as an example. Create the test view:
+
+```sql
+CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW dealer (id, city, car_model, quantity) AS
+VALUES 
+    (100, 'Fremont', 'Honda Civic', 10),
+    (100, 'Fremont', 'Honda Accord', 15),
+    (100, 'Fremont', 'Honda CRV', 7),
+    (200, 'Dublin', 'Honda Civic', 20),
+    (200, 'Dublin', 'Honda Accord', 10),
+    (200, 'Dublin', 'Honda CRV', 3),
+    (300, 'San Jose', 'Honda Civic', 5),
+    (300, 'San Jose', 'Honda Accord', 8);
+```
+
+View the original data:
+
+```sql
+SELECT * FROM dealer ORDER BY id, car_model LIMIT 50;
+```
+
+**Query result**:
+
+| id  | city     | car\_model   | quantity |
+| --- | -------- | ------------ | -------- |
+| 100 | Fremont  | Honda Accord | 15       |
+| 100 | Fremont  | Honda CRV    | 7        |
+| 100 | Fremont  | Honda Civic  | 10       |
+| 200 | Dublin   | Honda Accord | 10       |
+| 200 | Dublin   | Honda CRV    | 3        |
+| 200 | Dublin   | Honda Civic  | 20       |
+| 300 | San Jose | Honda Accord | 8        |
+| 300 | San Jose | Honda Civic  | 5        |
+
+***
+
+## 1. Standard GROUP BY
+
+### 1.1 Single-Column Grouping
+
+Group by dealer ID and calculate the total quantity for each dealer:
+
+```sql
+SELECT 
+    id, 
+    SUM(quantity) AS total_quantity
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY id
+ORDER BY id
+LIMIT 50;
+```
+
+**Query result**:
+
+| id  | total\_quantity |
+| --- | --------------- |
+| 100 | 32              |
+| 200 | 33              |
+| 300 | 13              |
+
+**Business interpretation**:
+
+*   Dealer 100 (Fremont) sold 32 cars
+*   Dealer 200 (Dublin) sold 33 cars
+*   Dealer 300 (San Jose) sold 13 cars
+
+***
+
+### 1.2 Multi-Column Grouping
+
+Group by the combination of city and car model:
+
+```sql
+SELECT 
+    id, 
+    city, 
+    SUM(quantity) AS total_quantity
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY id, city
+ORDER BY total_quantity DESC
+LIMIT 50;
+```
+
+**Query result**:
+
+| id  | city     | total\_quantity |
+| --- | -------- | --------------- |
+| 200 | Dublin   | 33              |
+| 100 | Fremont  | 32              |
+| 300 | San Jose | 13              |
+
+In this example, each dealer ID corresponds to a unique city, so the result is the same as single-column grouping.
+
+***
+
+### 1.3 Grouping with Expressions
+
+Use a `CASE` expression to segment sales volumes:
+
+```sql
+SELECT 
+    CASE 
+        WHEN quantity < 10 THEN 'Low (< 10)'
+        WHEN quantity < 15 THEN 'Medium (10-14)'
+        ELSE 'High (>= 15)'
+    END AS sales_level,
+    COUNT(*) AS record_count,
+    SUM(quantity) AS total_quantity
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY 
+    CASE 
+        WHEN quantity < 10 THEN 'Low (< 10)'
+        WHEN quantity < 15 THEN 'Medium (10-14)'
+        ELSE 'High (>= 15)'
+    END
+ORDER BY sales_level
+LIMIT 50;
+```
+
+**Query result**:
+
+| sales\_level   | record\_count | total\_quantity |
+| -------------- | ------------- | --------------- |
+| High (>= 15)   | 2             | 35              |
+| Low (< 10)     | 4             | 23              |
+| Medium (10-14) | 2             | 20              |
+
+**Business interpretation**:
+
+* High-volume records (>= 15 cars): 2 records, 35 cars total
+* Low-volume records (< 10 cars): 4 records, 23 cars total
+* Medium-volume records (10-14 cars): 2 records, 20 cars total
+
+***
+
+### 1.4 Global Aggregation (No Grouping)
+
+When GROUP BY is not used, a global aggregation is performed on the entire table:
+
+```sql
+SELECT SUM(quantity) AS total_quantity 
+FROM dealer
+LIMIT 50;
+```
+
+**Query result**:
+
+| total\_quantity |
+| --------------- |
+| 78              |
+
+The total quantity across all 8 records is 78 cars.
+
+***
+
+## 2. Combining Multiple Aggregate Functions
+
+### 2.1 Common Aggregate Functions Summary
+
+Use multiple aggregate functions in a single query:
+
+```sql
+SELECT 
+    city,
+    COUNT(*) AS model_count,
+    SUM(quantity) AS total_quantity,
+    AVG(quantity) AS avg_quantity,
+    MAX(quantity) AS max_quantity,
+    MIN(quantity) AS min_quantity
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY city
+ORDER BY total_quantity DESC
+LIMIT 50;
+```
+
+**Query result**:
+
+| city     | model\_count | total\_quantity | avg\_quantity      | max\_quantity | min\_quantity |
+| -------- | ------------ | --------------- | ------------------ | ------------- | ------------- |
+| Dublin   | 3            | 33              | 11.0               | 20            | 3             |
+| Fremont  | 3            | 32              | 10.666666666666666 | 15            | 7             |
+| San Jose | 2            | 13              | 6.5                | 8             | 5             |
+
+**Business insights**:
+
+* **Dublin**: 3 car models, average 11 cars per model, highest single item 20 (Honda Civic)
+* **Fremont**: 3 car models, average 10.67 cars, relatively balanced distribution
+* **San Jose**: Only 2 car models, average 6.5 cars, the smallest market
+
+***
+
+### 2.2 Statistics by Car Model Covering Number of Cities
+
+Count how many cities each car model is sold in:
+
+```sql
+SELECT 
+    car_model,
+    SUM(quantity) AS total_sales,
+    COUNT(DISTINCT city) AS city_count,
+    ROUND(AVG(quantity), 2) AS avg_per_dealer
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY car_model
+ORDER BY total_sales DESC
+LIMIT 50;
+```
+
+**Query result**:
+
+| car\_model   | total\_sales | city\_count | avg\_per\_dealer |
+| ------------ | ------------ | ----------- | ---------------- |
+| Honda Civic  | 35           | 3           | 11.67            |
+| Honda Accord | 33           | 3           | 11.00            |
+| Honda CRV    | 10           | 2           | 5.00             |
+
+**Business insights**:
+
+* **Honda Civic**: Best-selling model, total sales 35 cars, covering 3 cities, average 11.67 per location
+* **Honda Accord**: Total sales 33 cars, covering 3 cities
+* **Honda CRV**: Lowest total sales, sold in only 2 cities (not present in San Jose market)
+
+***
+
+## 3. GROUPING SETS (Custom Grouping Sets)
+
+### 3.1 Basic Concepts
+
+`GROUPING SETS` allows generating multiple grouping results at different dimensions in a single query. It is essentially a shorthand for combining multiple `GROUP BY` queries via `UNION ALL`.
+
+**Syntax**:
+
+```sql
+GROUP BY GROUPING SETS (
+    (column1, column2),  -- Grouping set 1: group by column1 and column2
+    (column1),           -- Grouping set 2: group by column1 only
+    ()                   -- Grouping set 3: global aggregation (no grouping)
+)
+```
+
+***
+
+### 3.2 Multi-Dimensional Aggregation Analysis
+
+Generate four-dimensional statistical results in a single query:
+
+```sql
+SELECT 
+    city, 
+    car_model, 
+    SUM(quantity) AS total_quantity
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY GROUPING SETS (
+    (city, car_model),  -- City + model detail
+    (city),             -- City subtotal
+    (car_model),        -- Model subtotal
+    ()                  -- Grand total
+)
+ORDER BY city, car_model
+LIMIT 50;
+```
+
+**Query result**:
+
+| city     | car\_model   | total\_quantity |
+| -------- | ------------ | --------------- |
+| NULL     | NULL         | 78              |
+| NULL     | Honda Accord | 33              |
+| NULL     | Honda CRV    | 10              |
+| NULL     | Honda Civic  | 35              |
+| Dublin   | NULL         | 33              |
+| Dublin   | Honda Accord | 10              |
+| Dublin   | Honda CRV    | 3               |
+| Dublin   | Honda Civic  | 20              |
+| Fremont  | NULL         | 32              |
+| Fremont  | Honda Accord | 15              |
+| Fremont  | Honda CRV    | 7               |
+| Fremont  | Honda Civic  | 10              |
+| San Jose | NULL         | 13              |
+| San Jose | Honda Accord | 8               |
+| San Jose | Honda Civic  | 5               |
+
+**Result interpretation**:
+
+* **Grand total row** (city=NULL, car\_model=NULL): Total sales 78 cars
+* **Model subtotal rows** (city=NULL, car\_model has value): Cross-city totals for each car model
+* **City subtotal rows** (city has value, car\_model=NULL): Cross-model totals for each city
+* **Detail rows** (both city and car\_model have values): Specific city + model combination sales
+
+**Equivalent query**:
+
+```sql
+-- GROUPING SETS is equivalent to the following UNION ALL query
+SELECT city, car_model, SUM(quantity) FROM dealer GROUP BY city, car_model
+UNION ALL
+SELECT city, NULL, SUM(quantity) FROM dealer GROUP BY city
+UNION ALL
+SELECT NULL, car_model, SUM(quantity) FROM dealer GROUP BY car_model
+UNION ALL
+SELECT NULL, NULL, SUM(quantity) FROM dealer;
+```
+
+**Performance advantage**: `GROUPING SETS` only scans the data once internally, making it more efficient than `UNION ALL`.
+
+***
+
+### 3.3 Identifying Aggregation Levels
+
+Use the `COALESCE` function to replace NULL values, making aggregation rows more readable:
+
+```sql
+SELECT 
+    COALESCE(city, 'All Cities') AS city,
+    COALESCE(car_model, 'All Models') AS car_model,
+    SUM(quantity) AS total_quantity
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY ROLLUP(city, car_model)
+ORDER BY city, car_model
+LIMIT 50;
+```
+
+**Query result**:
+
+| city       | car\_model   | total\_quantity |
+| ---------- | ------------ | --------------- |
+| All Cities | All Models   | 78              |
+| Dublin     | All Models   | 33              |
+| Dublin     | Honda Accord | 10              |
+| Dublin     | Honda CRV    | 3               |
+| Dublin     | Honda Civic  | 20              |
+| Fremont    | All Models   | 32              |
+| Fremont    | Honda Accord | 15              |
+| Fremont    | Honda CRV    | 7               |
+| Fremont    | Honda Civic  | 10              |
+| San Jose   | All Models   | 13              |
+| San Jose   | Honda Accord | 8               |
+| San Jose   | Honda Civic  | 5               |
+
+***
+
+## 4. ROLLUP (Hierarchical Rollup)
+
+### 4.1 Basic Concepts
+
+`ROLLUP` generates hierarchical rollups from fine granularity to global. For `ROLLUP(a, b, c)`, the following grouping sets are generated:
+
+* `(a, b, c)` - Finest granularity
+* `(a, b)` - Intermediate level
+* `(a)` - Higher level
+* `()` - Global aggregation
+
+**Equivalence relationship**:
+
+```sql
+ROLLUP(city, car_model) 
+-- Is equivalent to
+GROUPING SETS (
+    (city, car_model),
+    (city),
+    ()
+)
+```
+
+***
+
+### 4.2 Sales Hierarchy Rollup
+
+Generate "city → car model" two-level rollup:
+
+```sql
+SELECT 
+    city, 
+    car_model, 
+    SUM(quantity) AS total_quantity 
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY ROLLUP(city, car_model)
+LIMIT 50;
+```
+
+**Query result**:
+
+| city     | car\_model   | total\_quantity |
+| -------- | ------------ | --------------- |
+| Fremont  | Honda Civic  | 10              |
+| Fremont  | Honda Accord | 15              |
+| Fremont  | Honda CRV    | 7               |
+| Dublin   | Honda Civic  | 20              |
+| Dublin   | Honda Accord | 10              |
+| Dublin   | Honda CRV    | 3               |
+| San Jose | Honda Civic  | 5               |
+| San Jose | Honda Accord | 8               |
+| Fremont  | NULL         | 32              |
+| Dublin   | NULL         | 33              |
+| San Jose | NULL         | 13              |
+| NULL     | NULL         | 78              |
+
+**Data hierarchy**:
+
+1. **Detail layer** (first 8 rows): Sales of each car model in each city
+2. **City subtotals** (car\_model=NULL): Total sales for each city
+3. **Grand total** (city=NULL, car\_model=NULL): Total sales across all cities
+
+***
+
+### 4.3 Using the GROUPING() Function to Identify Levels
+
+The `GROUPING()` function returns 0 or 1, used to distinguish real NULLs from aggregation markers:
+
+* **Returns 0**: The column participates in grouping, the value is actual data
+* **Returns 1**: The column does not participate in grouping, NULL indicates aggregation
+
+```sql
+SELECT 
+    city,
+    car_model,
+    SUM(quantity) AS total_quantity,
+    GROUPING(city) AS city_grouping,
+    GROUPING(car_model) AS model_grouping
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY ROLLUP(city, car_model)
+ORDER BY city_grouping, city, model_grouping, car_model
+LIMIT 50;
+```
+
+**Query result**:
+
+| city     | car\_model   | total\_quantity | city\_grouping | model\_grouping |
+| -------- | ------------ | --------------- | -------------- | --------------- |
+| Dublin   | Honda Accord | 10              | 0              | 0               |
+| Dublin   | Honda CRV    | 3               | 0              | 0               |
+| Dublin   | Honda Civic  | 20              | 0              | 0               |
+| Dublin   | NULL         | 33              | 0              | 1               |
+| Fremont  | Honda Accord | 15              | 0              | 0               |
+| Fremont  | Honda CRV    | 7               | 0              | 0               |
+| Fremont  | Honda Civic  | 10              | 0              | 0               |
+| Fremont  | NULL         | 32              | 0              | 1               |
+| San Jose | Honda Accord | 8               | 0              | 0               |
+| San Jose | Honda Civic  | 5               | 0              | 0               |
+| San Jose | NULL         | 13              | 0              | 1               |
+| NULL     | NULL         | 78              | 1              | 1               |
+
+**GROUPING() value interpretation**:
+
+* (**0, 0**): Detail data, both columns participate in grouping
+* (**0, 1**): City subtotal, only city participates in grouping
+* (**1, 1**): Grand total, neither column participates in grouping
+
+***
+
+## 5. CUBE (Full Dimensional Cross Analysis)
+
+### 5.1 Basic Concepts
+
+`CUBE` generates grouping sets for all possible combinations of the specified columns. For `CUBE(a, b)`, it generates 2^2 = 4 grouping sets:
+
+* `(a, b)` - Detail
+* `(a)` - Aggregated by a
+* `(b)` - Aggregated by b
+* `()` - Global aggregation
+
+**Equivalence relationship**:
+
+```sql
+CUBE(city, car_model)
+-- Is equivalent to
+GROUPING SETS (
+    (city, car_model),
+    (city),
+    (car_model),
+    ()
+)
+```
+
+***
+
+### 5.2 Multi-Dimensional Cross Analysis
+
+Generate all dimension combinations for city and car model:
+
+```sql
+SELECT 
+    city, 
+    car_model, 
+    SUM(quantity) AS total_quantity 
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY city, car_model WITH CUBE
+LIMIT 50;
+```
+
+**Query result**:
+
+| city     | car\_model   | total\_quantity |
+| -------- | ------------ | --------------- |
+| Fremont  | Honda Civic  | 10              |
+| Fremont  | Honda Accord | 15              |
+| Fremont  | Honda CRV    | 7               |
+| Dublin   | Honda Civic  | 20              |
+| Dublin   | Honda Accord | 10              |
+| Dublin   | Honda CRV    | 3               |
+| San Jose | Honda Civic  | 5               |
+| San Jose | Honda Accord | 8               |
+| NULL     | Honda CRV    | 10              |
+| NULL     | Honda Civic  | 35              |
+| NULL     | Honda Accord | 33              |
+| Fremont  | NULL         | 32              |
+| Dublin   | NULL         | 33              |
+| San Jose | NULL         | 13              |
+| NULL     | NULL         | 78              |
+
+**Result includes**:
+
+1. **Detail rows** (first 8 rows): City + model combinations
+2. **Model subtotal rows** (city=NULL): Cross-city model sales
+3. **City subtotal rows** (car\_model=NULL): Cross-model city sales
+4. **Grand total row** (city=NULL, car\_model=NULL): Global total
+
+***
+
+### 5.3 Identifying Aggregation Levels
+
+Use a `CASE` statement with the `GROUPING()` function to identify the aggregation level of each row:
+
+```sql
+SELECT 
+    city,
+    car_model,
+    SUM(quantity) AS total_quantity,
+    CASE 
+        WHEN GROUPING(city) = 1 AND GROUPING(car_model) = 1 THEN 'Total'
+        WHEN GROUPING(city) = 0 AND GROUPING(car_model) = 1 THEN 'City Subtotal'
+        WHEN GROUPING(city) = 1 AND GROUPING(car_model) = 0 THEN 'Model Subtotal'
+        ELSE 'Detail'
+    END AS aggregation_level
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY CUBE(city, car_model)
+ORDER BY 
+    GROUPING(city),
+    GROUPING(car_model),
+    city,
+    car_model
+LIMIT 50;
+```
+
+**Query result**:
+
+| city     | car\_model   | total\_quantity | aggregation\_level |
+| -------- | ------------ | --------------- | ------------------ |
+| Dublin   | Honda Accord | 10              | Detail             |
+| Dublin   | Honda CRV    | 3               | Detail             |
+| Dublin   | Honda Civic  | 20              | Detail             |
+| Fremont  | Honda Accord | 15              | Detail             |
+| Fremont  | Honda CRV    | 7               | Detail             |
+| Fremont  | Honda Civic  | 10              | Detail             |
+| San Jose | Honda Accord | 8               | Detail             |
+| San Jose | Honda Civic  | 5               | Detail             |
+| Dublin   | NULL         | 33              | City Subtotal      |
+| Fremont  | NULL         | 32              | City Subtotal      |
+| San Jose | NULL         | 13              | City Subtotal      |
+| NULL     | Honda Accord | 33              | Model Subtotal     |
+| NULL     | Honda CRV    | 10              | Model Subtotal     |
+| NULL     | Honda Civic  | 35              | Model Subtotal     |
+| NULL     | NULL         | 78              | Total              |
+
+This query clearly identifies the aggregation level to which each row belongs.
+
+***
+
+### 5.4 ROLLUP vs CUBE
+
+| Dimension          | ROLLUP         | CUBE                |
+| --------------- | -------------- | ------------------- |
+| **Generated grouping sets** | Hierarchical subset (left to right) | All possible combinations |
+| **ROLLUP(a,b**) | (a,b), (a), () | (a,b), (a), (b), () |
+| **Number of groupings** | n+1 (n = number of columns) | 2^n |
+| **Use case**     | Hierarchical reports, top-down analysis | Multi-dimensional cross analysis, BI pivot tables |
+| **Performance**  | Fewer grouping sets, better performance | More grouping sets, higher performance overhead |
+
+**Selection suggestions**:
+
+* Use `ROLLUP` when you need **hierarchical rollups** (e.g., Region → City → Store)
+* Use `CUBE` when you need **multi-dimensional cross analysis** (e.g., Region x Product x Time)
+* Use `GROUPING SETS` when you need **custom combinations**
+
+***
+
+## 6. HAVING Clause: Filtering Aggregation Results
+
+### 6.1 WHERE vs HAVING
+
+| Clause      | Execution Timing | Target     | Available Functions            |
+| ---------- | ---- | -------- | ----------------- |
+| **WHERE**  | Before grouping  | Original row data | Scalar functions, column comparisons     |
+| **HAVING** | After grouping   | Aggregation results | Aggregate functions, GROUP BY columns |
+
+**Execution order**: FROM → WHERE → GROUP BY → HAVING → SELECT → ORDER BY → LIMIT
+
+***
+
+### 6.2 Using HAVING to Filter Aggregation Results
+
+Filter cities with total sales exceeding 15 cars:
+
+```sql
+SELECT 
+    city,
+    COUNT(*) AS record_count,
+    SUM(quantity) AS total_quantity
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY city
+HAVING SUM(quantity) > 15
+ORDER BY total_quantity DESC
+LIMIT 50;
+```
+
+**Query result**:
+
+| city    | record\_count | total\_quantity |
+| ------- | ------------- | --------------- |
+| Dublin  | 3             | 33              |
+| Fremont | 3             | 32              |
+
+San Jose (total sales 13 cars) is filtered out because it does not meet the `HAVING` condition.
+
+***
+
+### 6.3 Combining WHERE and HAVING
+
+Filter original data with `WHERE` first, then filter aggregation results with `HAVING`:
+
+```sql
+SELECT 
+    city,
+    COUNT(*) AS record_count,
+    SUM(quantity) AS total_quantity
+FROM dealer
+WHERE quantity >= 10  -- Filter first: only include records with quantity >= 10
+GROUP BY city
+HAVING COUNT(*) >= 2  -- Filter after: only show cities with record count >= 2
+ORDER BY total_quantity DESC
+LIMIT 50;
+```
+
+**Execution logic**:
+
+1. **WHERE filter**: Exclude records where quantity < 10 (filters out 4 records)
+2. **GROUP BY grouping**: Group remaining records by city
+3. **HAVING filter**: Keep only groups with record count >= 2
+
+***
+
+## 7. Advanced Use Cases
+
+### 7.1 Row-to-Column: Pivot Analysis
+
+Convert car models from rows to columns to achieve a pivot table effect:
+
+```sql
+SELECT 
+    city,
+    SUM(CASE WHEN car_model = 'Honda Civic' THEN quantity ELSE 0 END) AS civic_sales,
+    SUM(CASE WHEN car_model = 'Honda Accord' THEN quantity ELSE 0 END) AS accord_sales,
+    SUM(CASE WHEN car_model = 'Honda CRV' THEN quantity ELSE 0 END) AS crv_sales,
+    SUM(quantity) AS total_sales
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY city
+ORDER BY total_sales DESC
+LIMIT 50;
+```
+
+**Query result**:
+
+| city     | civic\_sales | accord\_sales | crv\_sales | total\_sales |
+| -------- | ------------ | ------------- | ---------- | ------------ |
+| Dublin   | 20           | 10            | 3          | 33           |
+| Fremont  | 10           | 15            | 7          | 32           |
+| San Jose | 5            | 8             | 0          | 13           |
+
+**Business value**:
+
+* Clearly shows the sales distribution of each car model in each city
+* San Jose has no CRV sales records (shown as 0)
+* Suitable for Excel reports and BI dashboards
+
+***
+
+### 7.2 Proportion Analysis: Window Functions and GROUP BY
+
+Calculate the sales proportion of each car model within its city:
+
+```sql
+SELECT 
+    city,
+    car_model,
+    quantity,
+    SUM(quantity) OVER (PARTITION BY city) AS city_total,
+    ROUND(quantity * 100.0 / SUM(quantity) OVER (PARTITION BY city), 2) AS percentage
+FROM dealer
+ORDER BY city, car_model
+LIMIT 50;
+```
+
+**Query result**:
+
+| city     | car\_model   | quantity | city\_total | percentage |
+| -------- | ------------ | -------- | ----------- | ---------- |
+| Dublin   | Honda Accord | 10       | 33          | 30.30      |
+| Dublin   | Honda CRV    | 3        | 33          | 9.09       |
+| Dublin   | Honda Civic  | 20       | 33          | 60.61      |
+| Fremont  | Honda Accord | 15       | 32          | 46.88      |
+| Fremont  | Honda CRV    | 7        | 32          | 21.88      |
+| Fremont  | Honda Civic  | 10       | 32          | 31.25      |
+| San Jose | Honda Accord | 8        | 13          | 61.54      |
+| San Jose | Honda Civic  | 5        | 13          | 38.46      |
+
+**Business insights**:
+
+* **Dublin**: Honda Civic accounts for 60.61%, the absolute flagship model
+* **Fremont**: Sales distribution is relatively balanced, Accord accounts for the highest (46.88%)
+* **San Jose**: Accord accounts for 61.54%, clear market preference
+
+**Technical note**: The window function `SUM() OVER (PARTITION BY city)` calculates the total sales for each city without changing the number of rows.
+
+***
+
+### 7.3 Year-over-Year and Month-over-Month Analysis Pattern
+
+Although the sample data does not include a time dimension, here is a standard YoY/MoM analysis SQL pattern:
+
+```sql
+-- Example: monthly sales with month-over-month growth rate
+SELECT 
+    DATE_FORMAT(sale_date, 'yyyy-MM') AS month,
+    SUM(quantity) AS monthly_sales,
+    LAG(SUM(quantity)) OVER (ORDER BY DATE_FORMAT(sale_date, 'yyyy-MM')) AS prev_month_sales,
+    ROUND(
+        (SUM(quantity) - LAG(SUM(quantity)) OVER (ORDER BY DATE_FORMAT(sale_date, 'yyyy-MM'))) * 100.0 / 
+        LAG(SUM(quantity)) OVER (ORDER BY DATE_FORMAT(sale_date, 'yyyy-MM')), 
+        2
+    ) AS mom_growth_rate
+FROM sales_table
+GROUP BY DATE_FORMAT(sale_date, 'yyyy-MM')
+ORDER BY month;
+```
+
+**Key techniques**:
+
+* `LAG()` window function to get the previous row's value
+* MoM growth rate = (current value - previous value) / previous value x 100%
+
+***
+
+### 7.4 TopN Analysis: Taking Top N per Group
+
+Use window functions combined with GROUP BY to implement grouped TopN:
+
+```sql
+-- Example: top 2 car models by sales in each city
+SELECT *
+FROM (
+    SELECT 
+        city,
+        car_model,
+        quantity,
+        ROW_NUMBER() OVER (PARTITION BY city ORDER BY quantity DESC) AS rank
+    FROM dealer
+) ranked
+WHERE rank <= 2
+ORDER BY city, rank;
+```
+
+**Expected logic** (based on current data):
+
+* Dublin: Honda Civic (20), Honda Accord (10)
+* Fremont: Honda Accord (15), Honda Civic (10)
+* San Jose: Honda Accord (8), Honda Civic (5)
+
+***
+
+## 8. Performance Optimization and Best Practices
+
+### 8.1 Query Performance Optimization
+
+#### 1. Use LIMIT Appropriately
+
+For large datasets, always add `LIMIT` to restrict the number of returned rows:
+
+```sql
+-- Recommended
+SELECT city, SUM(quantity) 
+FROM large_table 
+GROUP BY city
+LIMIT 100;
+
+-- Avoid: may return millions of rows
+SELECT city, SUM(quantity) 
+FROM large_table 
+GROUP BY city;
+```
+
+#### 2. Choose the Right Aggregation Tool
+
+| Requirement     | Recommended Solution  | Grouping Sets Generated | Performance |
+| ------ | ------------------------- | ------------ | -------- |
+| Simple hierarchical rollup | `ROLLUP`        | n+1          | Highest |
+| Multi-dimensional cross analysis | `CUBE`          | 2^n          | Moderate |
+| Custom grouping sets | `GROUPING SETS` | Custom       | High |
+
+**Example**: For 3-column grouping
+
+* `ROLLUP(a,b,c)` generates 4 grouping sets
+* `CUBE(a,b,c)` generates 8 grouping sets
+* `GROUPING SETS` can customize any combination
+
+#### 3. Reduce Grouping Column Cardinality
+
+Use functions to reduce granularity on high-cardinality columns (e.g., ID, timestamp):
+
+```sql
+-- Avoid: grouping by second-level timestamp
+GROUP BY timestamp  -- May generate millions of groups
+
+-- Recommended: group by hour or day
+GROUP BY DATE_FORMAT(timestamp, 'yyyy-MM-dd')
+GROUP BY DATE_TRUNC('hour', timestamp)
+```
+
+#### 4. WHERE Filtering is Better than HAVING Filtering
+
+Try to filter data in `WHERE` to reduce the data volume processed by `GROUP BY`:
+
+```sql
+-- Recommended: filter first, then group
+SELECT city, SUM(quantity)
+FROM dealer
+WHERE car_model = 'Honda Civic'  -- Filter first to reduce data volume
+GROUP BY city;
+
+-- Avoid: group first, then filter (processes unnecessary data)
+SELECT city, car_model, SUM(quantity)
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY city, car_model
+HAVING car_model = 'Honda Civic';
+```
+
+***
+
+### 8.2 Common Errors and Solutions
+
+#### Error 1: SELECT Column Not in GROUP BY
+
+```sql
+-- Incorrect example
+SELECT city, car_model, quantity
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY city;
+-- Error: car_model and quantity are not grouped or aggregated
+
+-- Correct solution 1: Add to GROUP BY
+SELECT city, car_model, SUM(quantity)
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY city, car_model;
+
+-- Correct solution 2: Use aggregate functions
+SELECT city, MAX(car_model), SUM(quantity)
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY city;
+```
+
+#### Error 2: Using Aggregate Functions in WHERE
+
+```sql
+-- Incorrect example
+SELECT city, SUM(quantity)
+FROM dealer
+WHERE SUM(quantity) > 20  -- WHERE cannot use aggregate functions
+GROUP BY city;
+
+-- Correct solution: Use HAVING
+SELECT city, SUM(quantity)
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY city
+HAVING SUM(quantity) > 20;
+```
+
+#### Error 3: Confusing ROLLUP/CUBE Syntax
+
+```sql
+-- Incorrect example
+GROUP BY city, ROLLUP(car_model)  -- Mixed syntax not supported
+
+-- Correct solution
+GROUP BY ROLLUP(city, car_model)
+```
+
+#### Error 4: Ignoring NULL Value Impact
+
+```sql
+-- In ROLLUP/CUBE, NULL can be either a real NULL or an aggregation marker
+-- Use GROUPING() function to distinguish
+
+SELECT 
+    CASE WHEN GROUPING(city) = 1 THEN 'Total' ELSE city END AS city,
+    SUM(quantity)
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY ROLLUP(city);
+```
+
+***
+
+### 8.3 Data Quality Checks
+
+#### Verify Grouping Completeness
+
+Verify that the sum of group subtotals equals the grand total:
+
+```sql
+-- Method 1: Use ROLLUP to automatically generate grand total row
+SELECT 
+    COALESCE(city, 'TOTAL') AS city,
+    SUM(quantity) AS total
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY ROLLUP(city);
+
+-- Method 2: Manual verification
+WITH group_totals AS (
+    SELECT SUM(quantity) AS grouped_sum
+    FROM dealer
+    GROUP BY city
+),
+grand_total AS (
+    SELECT SUM(quantity) AS total_sum
+    FROM dealer
+)
+SELECT 
+    (SELECT SUM(grouped_sum) FROM group_totals) AS sum_of_groups,
+    (SELECT total_sum FROM grand_total) AS grand_total,
+    CASE 
+        WHEN (SELECT SUM(grouped_sum) FROM group_totals) = (SELECT total_sum FROM grand_total)
+        THEN 'PASS'
+        ELSE 'FAIL'
+    END AS validation_result;
+```
+
+***
+
+## 9. Practical Case Summary
+
+### 9.1 Sales Analysis Report
+
+**Requirement**: Generate a sales report with detail rows, subtotals, and grand total
+
+```sql
+SELECT 
+    COALESCE(city, 'All Cities') AS city,
+    COALESCE(car_model, 'All Models') AS car_model,
+    SUM(quantity) AS total_quantity
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY ROLLUP(city, car_model)
+ORDER BY 
+    GROUPING(city),
+    city,
+    GROUPING(car_model),
+    car_model
+LIMIT 50;
+```
+
+***
+
+### 9.2 Multi-Dimensional Cross Analysis
+
+**Requirement**: BI pivot table, needing all dimension combinations of city and car model
+
+```sql
+SELECT 
+    city,
+    car_model,
+    SUM(quantity) AS total_quantity,
+    CASE 
+        WHEN GROUPING(city) = 1 AND GROUPING(car_model) = 1 THEN 'Grand Total'
+        WHEN GROUPING(city) = 1 THEN 'Model Total'
+        WHEN GROUPING(car_model) = 1 THEN 'City Total'
+        ELSE 'Detail'
+    END AS level
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY CUBE(city, car_model)
+ORDER BY 
+    GROUPING(city),
+    GROUPING(car_model),
+    city,
+    car_model
+LIMIT 50;
+```
+
+***
+
+### 9.3 Top/Bottom N Analysis
+
+**Requirement**: Find the cities with the highest and lowest sales
+
+```sql
+-- Top 2 cities
+SELECT city, SUM(quantity) AS total_quantity
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY city
+ORDER BY total_quantity DESC
+LIMIT 2;
+
+-- Bottom 2 cities
+SELECT city, SUM(quantity) AS total_quantity
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY city
+ORDER BY total_quantity ASC
+LIMIT 2;
+```
+
+***
+
+### 9.4 Proportion and Ranking
+
+**Requirement**: Calculate the sales proportion and ranking of each car model
+
+```sql
+SELECT 
+    car_model,
+    SUM(quantity) AS total_sales,
+    ROUND(SUM(quantity) * 100.0 / (SELECT SUM(quantity) FROM dealer), 2) AS percentage,
+    RANK() OVER (ORDER BY SUM(quantity) DESC) AS rank
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY car_model
+ORDER BY total_sales DESC
+LIMIT 50;
+```
+
+***
+
+## 10. Feature Comparison and Selection Guide
+
+### 10.1 Comparison of Four Grouping Methods
+
+| Feature      | GROUP BY | GROUPING SETS | ROLLUP | CUBE     |
+| --------- | -------- | ------------- | ------ | -------- |
+| **Syntax complexity** | Simple       | Moderate          | Simple     | Simple       |
+| **Grouping sets generated** | 1        | Custom           | n+1    | 2^n       |
+| **Flexibility**   | Low        | High             | Medium      | Medium        |
+| **Performance**    | Best       | Good             | Good      | Poorer (with many columns) |
+| **Applicable scenarios**  | Basic statistics     | Custom multi-dimensional analysis    | Hierarchical reports   | Full dimensional cross analysis   |
+
+***
+
+### 10.2 Selection Decision Tree
+
+```
+Do you need multi-dimensional rollup?
+├─ No → Use standard GROUP BY
+└─ Yes → Which dimension combinations are needed?
+    ├─ All possible combinations → Use CUBE
+    ├─ Hierarchical rollup (from detail to total) → Use ROLLUP
+    └─ Custom specific combinations → Use GROUPING SETS
+```
+
+***
+
+### 10.3 Recommended Use Cases
+
+| Business Scenario     | Recommended Solution           | Example           |
+| -------- | ------------------------------ | -------------- |
+| Daily statistics and reports   | `GROUP BY`                     | Statistics by department     |
+| Financial hierarchical rollup   | `ROLLUP`                       | Company → Department → Team hierarchical rollup |
+| BI data pivot tables | `CUBE`                         | Product x Region x Time three-dimensional analysis |
+| Custom business reports  | `GROUPING SETS`                | Generate daily, weekly, and monthly reports simultaneously |
+| Proportion analysis     | `GROUP BY` + window functions  | Sales proportion of each product |
+| Top N analysis | `GROUP BY` + `LIMIT`           | Top 10 products by sales |
+
+***
+
+## 11. Advanced Techniques
+
+### 11.1 Dynamic Grouping
+
+Use variables or subqueries to implement dynamic grouping conditions (example logic):
+
+```sql
+-- Dynamic grouping based on sales volume range
+SELECT 
+    CASE 
+        WHEN SUM(quantity) >= 30 THEN 'High Volume'
+        WHEN SUM(quantity) >= 15 THEN 'Medium Volume'
+        ELSE 'Low Volume'
+    END AS volume_tier,
+    COUNT(DISTINCT city) AS city_count
+FROM (
+    SELECT city, SUM(quantity) AS city_total
+    FROM dealer
+    GROUP BY city
+) city_summary
+GROUP BY 
+    CASE 
+        WHEN city_total >= 30 THEN 'High Volume'
+        WHEN city_total >= 15 THEN 'Medium Volume'
+        ELSE 'Low Volume'
+    END;
+```
+
+***
+
+### 11.2 Recursive Rollup (Simulated)
+
+Although Singdata Lakehouse does not yet directly support recursive CTE, you can simulate multi-level rollups via UNION ALL:
+
+```sql
+-- Three-level rollup: Detail, City Subtotal, Grand Total
+SELECT city, car_model, quantity, 'Detail' AS level
+FROM dealer
+UNION ALL
+SELECT city, NULL, SUM(quantity), 'City Subtotal'
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY city
+UNION ALL
+SELECT NULL, NULL, SUM(quantity), 'Grand Total'
+FROM dealer
+ORDER BY 
+    CASE level 
+        WHEN 'Detail' THEN 1
+        WHEN 'City Subtotal' THEN 2
+        WHEN 'Grand Total' THEN 3
+    END,
+    city,
+    car_model;
+```
+
+***
+
+### 11.3 NULL Value Handling Tips
+
+#### Tip 1: Distinguish Real NULLs from Aggregation NULLs
+
+```sql
+SELECT 
+    city,
+    car_model,
+    SUM(quantity) AS total,
+    CASE 
+        WHEN GROUPING(city) = 1 THEN '[Subtotal]'
+        WHEN city IS NULL THEN '[Real NULL]'
+        ELSE city
+    END AS city_display
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY ROLLUP(city, car_model);
+```
+
+#### Tip 2: Use COALESCE to Beautify Output
+
+```sql
+SELECT 
+    COALESCE(city, '📊 All Cities') AS city,
+    COALESCE(car_model, '🚗 All Models') AS car_model,
+    SUM(quantity) AS total
+FROM dealer
+GROUP BY CUBE(city, car_model);
+```
+
+***
+
+## 12. Summary
+
+### Key Takeaways
+
+1. **GROUP BY** is the foundation of data aggregation analysis; mastering its usage is an essential SQL analysis skill
+2. **GROUPING SETS / ROLLUP / CUBE** provide powerful multi-dimensional analysis capabilities, generating multi-level rollups in a single query
+3. **HAVING** is used to filter aggregation results, working with WHERE for flexible data filtering
+4. **Window functions** combined with GROUP BY enable complex proportion, ranking, and period-over-period analysis
+5. **Performance optimization** requires balancing flexibility and efficiency, choosing the right grouping method
+
+***
+
+### Learning Path Suggestions
+
+1. **Basic stage**: Master standard GROUP BY and common aggregate functions
+2. **Advanced stage**: Learn the use cases of GROUPING SETS, ROLLUP, and CUBE
+3. **Expert stage**: Combine window functions and CTE for complex business analysis
+4. **Practical stage**: Apply to real business scenarios and optimize query performance
+
+***
+
+### Quick Reference
+
+```sql
+-- Basic grouping
+SELECT column, AGG_FUNC(column) FROM table GROUP BY column;
+
+-- Multi-dimensional grouping
+SELECT col1, col2, AGG_FUNC(col3) 
+FROM table 
+GROUP BY GROUPING SETS ((col1, col2), (col1), ());
+
+-- Hierarchical rollup
+SELECT col1, col2, AGG_FUNC(col3) 
+FROM table 
+GROUP BY ROLLUP(col1, col2);
+
+-- Cross analysis
+SELECT col1, col2, AGG_FUNC(col3) 
+FROM table 
+GROUP BY col1, col2 WITH CUBE;
+
+-- Conditional filtering
+SELECT col1, AGG_FUNC(col2) 
+FROM table 
+WHERE condition
+GROUP BY col1 
+HAVING AGG_FUNC(col2) > value;
+```