@bsv/wallet-toolbox 1.7.13 → 1.7.15

package/mobile/node_modules/@bsv/sdk/src/script/Spend.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,1085 @@
+import LockingScript from './LockingScript.js'
+import UnlockingScript from './UnlockingScript.js'
+import Script from './Script.js'
+import BigNumber from '../primitives/BigNumber.js'
+import OP from './OP.js'
+import ScriptChunk from './ScriptChunk.js'
+import { minimallyEncode } from '../primitives/utils.js'
+import ScriptEvaluationError from './ScriptEvaluationError.js'
+import * as Hash from '../primitives/Hash.js'
+import TransactionSignature, { SignatureHashCache } from '../primitives/TransactionSignature.js'
+import PublicKey from '../primitives/PublicKey.js'
+import { verify } from '../primitives/ECDSA.js'
+import TransactionInput from '../transaction/TransactionInput.js'
+import TransactionOutput from '../transaction/TransactionOutput.js'
+
+// These constants control the current behavior of the interpreter.
+const maxScriptElementSize = 1024 * 1024 * 1024
+const maxMultisigKeyCount = Math.pow(2, 31) - 1
+const maxMultisigKeyCountBigInt = BigInt(maxMultisigKeyCount)
+const requireMinimalPush = true
+const requirePushOnlyUnlockingScripts = true
+const requireLowSSignatures = true
+const requireCleanStack = true
+
+// --- Optimization: Pre-computed script numbers ---
+const SCRIPTNUM_NEG_1 = Object.freeze(new BigNumber(-1).toScriptNum())
+const SCRIPTNUMS_0_TO_16: ReadonlyArray<Readonly<number[]>> = Object.freeze(
+  Array.from({ length: 17 }, (_, i) => Object.freeze(new BigNumber(i).toScriptNum()))
+)
+
+// --- Helper functions ---
+
+function compareNumberArrays (a: Readonly<number[]>, b: Readonly<number[]>): boolean {
+  if (a.length !== b.length) return false
+  for (let i = 0; i < a.length; i++) {
+    if (a[i] !== b[i]) return false
+  }
+  return true
+}
+
+function isMinimallyEncodedHelper (
+  buf: Readonly<number[]>,
+  maxNumSize: number = Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER
+): boolean {
+  if (buf.length > maxNumSize) {
+    return false
+  }
+  if (buf.length > 0) {
+    if ((buf[buf.length - 1] & 0x7f) === 0) {
+      if (buf.length <= 1 || (buf[buf.length - 2] & 0x80) === 0) {
+        return false
+      }
+    }
+  }
+  return true
+}
+
+function isChecksigFormatHelper (buf: Readonly<number[]>): boolean {
+  // This is a simplified check. The full DER check is more complex and typically
+  // done by TransactionSignature.fromChecksigFormat which can throw.
+  // This helper is mostly for early bailout or non-throwing checks if needed.
+  if (buf.length < 9 || buf.length > 73) return false
+  if (buf[0] !== 0x30) return false // DER SEQUENCE
+  if (buf[1] !== buf.length - 3) return false // Total length (excluding type and length byte for sequence, and hash type)
+
+  const rMarker = buf[2]
+  const rLen = buf[3]
+  if (rMarker !== 0x02) return false // DER INTEGER
+  if (rLen === 0) return false // R length is zero
+  if (5 + rLen >= buf.length) return false // S length misplaced or R too long
+
+  const sMarkerOffset = 4 + rLen
+  const sMarker = buf[sMarkerOffset]
+  const sLen = buf[sMarkerOffset + 1]
+  if (sMarker !== 0x02) return false // DER INTEGER
+  if (sLen === 0) return false // S length is zero
+
+  // Check R value negative or excessively padded
+  if ((buf[4] & 0x80) !== 0) return false // R value negative
+  if (rLen > 1 && buf[4] === 0x00 && (buf[5] & 0x80) === 0) return false // R value excessively padded
+
+  // Check S value negative or excessively padded
+  const sValueOffset = sMarkerOffset + 2
+  if ((buf[sValueOffset] & 0x80) !== 0) return false // S value negative
+  if (sLen > 1 && buf[sValueOffset] === 0x00 && (buf[sValueOffset + 1] & 0x80) === 0) return false // S value excessively padded
+
+  if (rLen + sLen + 7 !== buf.length) return false // Final length check including hash type
+
+  return true
+}
+
+function isOpcodeDisabledHelper (op: number): boolean {
+  return (
+    op === OP.OP_2MUL ||
+    op === OP.OP_2DIV ||
+    op === OP.OP_VERIF ||
+    op === OP.OP_VERNOTIF ||
+    op === OP.OP_VER
+  )
+}
+
+function isChunkMinimalPushHelper (chunk: ScriptChunk): boolean {
+  const data = chunk.data
+  const op = chunk.op
+  if (!Array.isArray(data)) return true
+  if (data.length === 0) return op === OP.OP_0
+  if (data.length === 1 && data[0] >= 1 && data[0] <= 16) return op === OP.OP_1 + (data[0] - 1)
+  if (data.length === 1 && data[0] === 0x81) return op === OP.OP_1NEGATE
+  if (data.length <= 75) return op === data.length
+  if (data.length <= 255) return op === OP.OP_PUSHDATA1
+  if (data.length <= 65535) return op === OP.OP_PUSHDATA2
+  return true
+}
+
+/**
+ * The Spend class represents a spend action within a Bitcoin SV transaction.
+ * It encapsulates all the necessary data required for spending a UTXO (Unspent Transaction Output)
+ * and includes details about the source transaction, output, and the spending transaction itself.
+ *
+ * @property {string} sourceTXID - The transaction ID of the source UTXO.
+ * @property {number} sourceOutputIndex - The index of the output in the source transaction.
+ * @property {BigNumber} sourceSatoshis - The amount of satoshis in the source UTXO.
+ * @property {LockingScript} lockingScript - The locking script associated with the UTXO.
+ * @property {number} transactionVersion - The version of the current transaction.
+ * @property {Array<{ sourceTXID: string, sourceOutputIndex: number, sequence: number }>} otherInputs -
+ *           An array of other inputs in the transaction, each with a txid, outputIndex, and sequence number.
+ * @property {Array<{ satoshis: BigNumber, lockingScript: LockingScript }>} outputs -
+ *           An array of outputs of the current transaction, including the satoshi value and locking script for each.
+ * @property {number} inputIndex - The index of this input in the current transaction.
+ * @property {UnlockingScript} unlockingScript - The unlocking script that unlocks the UTXO for spending.
+ * @property {number} inputSequence - The sequence number of this input.
+ * @property {number} lockTime - The lock time of the transaction.
+ */
+export default class Spend {
+  sourceTXID: string
+  sourceOutputIndex: number
+  sourceSatoshis: number
+  lockingScript: LockingScript
+  transactionVersion: number
+  otherInputs: TransactionInput[]
+  outputs: TransactionOutput[]
+  inputIndex: number
+  unlockingScript: UnlockingScript
+  inputSequence: number
+  lockTime: number
+
+  context: 'UnlockingScript' | 'LockingScript'
+  programCounter: number
+  lastCodeSeparator: number | null
+  stack: number[][]
+  altStack: number[][]
+  ifStack: boolean[]
+  memoryLimit: number
+  stackMem: number
+  altStackMem: number
+  private sigHashCache: SignatureHashCache
+
+  /**
+   * @constructor
+   * Constructs the Spend object with necessary transaction details.
+   * @param {string} params.sourceTXID - The transaction ID of the source UTXO.
+   * @param {number} params.sourceOutputIndex - The index of the output in the source transaction.
+   * @param {BigNumber} params.sourceSatoshis - The amount of satoshis in the source UTXO.
+   * @param {LockingScript} params.lockingScript - The locking script associated with the UTXO.
+   * @param {number} params.transactionVersion - The version of the current transaction.
+   * @param {Array<{ sourceTXID: string, sourceOutputIndex: number, sequence: number }>} params.otherInputs -
+   *        An array of other inputs in the transaction.
+   * @param {Array<{ satoshis: BigNumber, lockingScript: LockingScript }>} params.outputs -
+   *        The outputs of the current transaction.
+   * @param {number} params.inputIndex - The index of this input in the current transaction.
+   * @param {UnlockingScript} params.unlockingScript - The unlocking script for this spend.
+   * @param {number} params.inputSequence - The sequence number of this input.
+   * @param {number} params.lockTime - The lock time of the transaction.
+   *
+   * @example
+   * const spend = new Spend({
+   *   sourceTXID: "abcd1234", // sourceTXID
+   *   sourceOutputIndex: 0, // sourceOutputIndex
+   *   sourceSatoshis: new BigNumber(1000), // sourceSatoshis
+   *   lockingScript: LockingScript.fromASM("OP_DUP OP_HASH160 abcd1234... OP_EQUALVERIFY OP_CHECKSIG"),
+   *   transactionVersion: 1, // transactionVersion
+   *   otherInputs: [{ sourceTXID: "abcd1234", sourceOutputIndex: 1, sequence: 0xffffffff }], // otherInputs
+   *   outputs: [{ satoshis: new BigNumber(500), lockingScript: LockingScript.fromASM("OP_DUP...") }], // outputs
+   *   inputIndex: 0, // inputIndex
+   *   unlockingScript: UnlockingScript.fromASM("3045... 02ab..."),
+   *   inputSequence: 0xffffffff // inputSequence
+   *   memoryLimit: 100000 // memoryLimit
+   * });
+   */
+  constructor (params: {
+    sourceTXID: string
+    sourceOutputIndex: number
+    sourceSatoshis: number
+    lockingScript: LockingScript
+    transactionVersion: number
+    otherInputs: TransactionInput[]
+    outputs: TransactionOutput[]
+    unlockingScript: UnlockingScript
+    inputSequence: number
+    inputIndex: number
+    lockTime: number
+    memoryLimit?: number
+  }) {
+    this.sourceTXID = params.sourceTXID
+    this.sourceOutputIndex = params.sourceOutputIndex
+    this.sourceSatoshis = params.sourceSatoshis
+    this.lockingScript = params.lockingScript
+    this.transactionVersion = params.transactionVersion
+    this.otherInputs = params.otherInputs
+    this.outputs = params.outputs
+    this.inputIndex = params.inputIndex
+    this.unlockingScript = params.unlockingScript
+    this.inputSequence = params.inputSequence
+    this.lockTime = params.lockTime
+    this.memoryLimit = params.memoryLimit ?? 32000000
+    this.stack = []
+    this.altStack = []
+    this.ifStack = []
+    this.stackMem = 0
+    this.altStackMem = 0
+    this.sigHashCache = { hashOutputsSingle: new Map() }
+    this.reset()
+  }
+
+  reset (): void {
+    this.context = 'UnlockingScript'
+    this.programCounter = 0
+    this.lastCodeSeparator = null
+    this.stack = []
+    this.altStack = []
+    this.ifStack = []
+    this.stackMem = 0
+    this.altStackMem = 0
+    this.sigHashCache = { hashOutputsSingle: new Map() }
+  }
+
+  private ensureStackMem (additional: number): void {
+    if (this.stackMem + additional > this.memoryLimit) {
+      this.scriptEvaluationError(
+        'Stack memory usage has exceeded ' + String(this.memoryLimit) + ' bytes'
+      )
+    }
+  }
+
+  private ensureAltStackMem (additional: number): void {
+    if (this.altStackMem + additional > this.memoryLimit) {
+      this.scriptEvaluationError(
+        'Alt stack memory usage has exceeded ' + String(this.memoryLimit) + ' bytes'
+      )
+    }
+  }
+
+  private pushStack (item: number[]): void {
+    this.ensureStackMem(item.length)
+    this.stack.push(item)
+    this.stackMem += item.length
+  }
+
+  private pushStackCopy (item: Readonly<number[]>): void {
+    this.ensureStackMem(item.length)
+    const copy = item.slice()
+    this.stack.push(copy)
+    this.stackMem += copy.length
+  }
+
+  private popStack (): number[] {
+    if (this.stack.length === 0) {
+      this.scriptEvaluationError('Attempted to pop from an empty stack.')
+    }
+    const item = this.stack.pop() as number[]
+    this.stackMem -= item.length
+    return item
+  }
+
+  private stackTop (index: number = -1): number[] {
+    // index = -1 for top, -2 for second top, etc.
+    // stack.length + index provides 0-based index from start
+    if (this.stack.length === 0 || this.stack.length < Math.abs(index) || (index >= 0 && index >= this.stack.length)) {
+      this.scriptEvaluationError(`Stack underflow accessing element at index ${index}. Stack length is ${this.stack.length}.`)
+    }
+    return this.stack[this.stack.length + index]
+  }
+
+  private pushAltStack (item: number[]): void {
+    this.ensureAltStackMem(item.length)
+    this.altStack.push(item)
+    this.altStackMem += item.length
+  }
+
+  private popAltStack (): number[] {
+    if (this.altStack.length === 0) {
+      this.scriptEvaluationError('Attempted to pop from an empty alt stack.')
+    }
+    const item = this.altStack.pop() as number[]
+    this.altStackMem -= item.length
+    return item
+  }
+
+  private checkSignatureEncoding (buf: Readonly<number[]>): boolean {
+    if (buf.length === 0) return true
+
+    if (!isChecksigFormatHelper(buf)) {
+      this.scriptEvaluationError('The signature format is invalid.') // Generic message like original
+      return false
+    }
+    try {
+      const sig = TransactionSignature.fromChecksigFormat(buf as number[]) // This can throw for stricter DER rules
+      if (requireLowSSignatures && !sig.hasLowS()) {
+        this.scriptEvaluationError('The signature must have a low S value.')
+        return false
+      }
+      if ((sig.scope & TransactionSignature.SIGHASH_FORKID) === 0) {
+        this.scriptEvaluationError('The signature must use SIGHASH_FORKID.')
+        return false
+      }
+    } catch (e) {
+      this.scriptEvaluationError('The signature format is invalid.')
+      return false
+    }
+    return true
+  }
+
+  private checkPublicKeyEncoding (buf: Readonly<number[]>): boolean {
+    if (buf.length === 0) {
+      this.scriptEvaluationError('Public key is empty.')
+      return false
+    }
+    if (buf.length < 33) {
+      this.scriptEvaluationError('The public key is too short, it must be at least 33 bytes.')
+      return false
+    }
+    if (buf[0] === 0x04) {
+      if (buf.length !== 65) {
+        this.scriptEvaluationError('The non-compressed public key must be 65 bytes.')
+        return false
+      }
+    } else if (buf[0] === 0x02 || buf[0] === 0x03) {
+      if (buf.length !== 33) {
+        this.scriptEvaluationError('The compressed public key must be 33 bytes.')
+        return false
+      }
+    } else {
+      this.scriptEvaluationError('The public key is in an unknown format.')
+      return false
+    }
+    try {
+      PublicKey.fromDER(buf as number[]) // This can throw for stricter DER rules
+    } catch (e) {
+      this.scriptEvaluationError('The public key is in an unknown format.')
+      return false
+    }
+    return true
+  }
+
+  private verifySignature (
+    sig: TransactionSignature,
+    pubkey: PublicKey,
+    subscript: Script
+  ): boolean {
+    const preimage = TransactionSignature.formatBytes({
+      sourceTXID: this.sourceTXID,
+      sourceOutputIndex: this.sourceOutputIndex,
+      sourceSatoshis: this.sourceSatoshis,
+      transactionVersion: this.transactionVersion,
+      otherInputs: this.otherInputs,
+      outputs: this.outputs,
+      inputIndex: this.inputIndex,
+      subscript,
+      inputSequence: this.inputSequence,
+      lockTime: this.lockTime,
+      scope: sig.scope,
+      cache: this.sigHashCache
+    })
+    const hash = new BigNumber(Hash.hash256(preimage))
+    return verify(hash, sig, pubkey)
+  }
+
+  step (): boolean {
+    if (this.stackMem > this.memoryLimit) {
+      this.scriptEvaluationError('Stack memory usage has exceeded ' + String(this.memoryLimit) + ' bytes')
+      return false // Error thrown
+    }
+    if (this.altStackMem > this.memoryLimit) {
+      this.scriptEvaluationError('Alt stack memory usage has exceeded ' + String(this.memoryLimit) + ' bytes')
+      return false // Error thrown
+    }
+
+    if (
+      this.context === 'UnlockingScript' &&
+      this.programCounter >= this.unlockingScript.chunks.length
+    ) {
+      this.context = 'LockingScript'
+      this.programCounter = 0
+    }
+
+    const currentScript = this.context === 'UnlockingScript' ? this.unlockingScript : this.lockingScript
+    if (this.programCounter >= currentScript.chunks.length) {
+      return false
+    }
+    const operation = currentScript.chunks[this.programCounter]
+
+    const currentOpcode = operation.op
+    if (typeof currentOpcode === 'undefined') {
+      this.scriptEvaluationError(`Missing opcode in ${this.context} at pc=${this.programCounter}.`) // Error thrown
+    }
+    if (Array.isArray(operation.data) && operation.data.length > maxScriptElementSize) {
+      this.scriptEvaluationError(`Data push > ${maxScriptElementSize} bytes (pc=${this.programCounter}).`) // Error thrown
+    }
+
+    const isScriptExecuting = !this.ifStack.includes(false)
+
+    if (isScriptExecuting && isOpcodeDisabledHelper(currentOpcode)) {
+      this.scriptEvaluationError(`This opcode is currently disabled. (Opcode: ${OP[currentOpcode] as string}, PC: ${this.programCounter})`) // Error thrown
+    }
+
+    if (isScriptExecuting && currentOpcode >= 0 && currentOpcode <= OP.OP_PUSHDATA4) {
+      if (requireMinimalPush && !isChunkMinimalPushHelper(operation)) {
+        this.scriptEvaluationError(`This data is not minimally-encoded. (PC: ${this.programCounter})`) // Error thrown
+      }
+      this.pushStack(Array.isArray(operation.data) ? operation.data : [])
+    } else if (isScriptExecuting || (currentOpcode >= OP.OP_IF && currentOpcode <= OP.OP_ENDIF)) {
+      let buf: number[], buf1: number[], buf2: number[], buf3: number[]
+      let x1: number[], x2: number[], x3: number[]
+      let bn: BigNumber, bn1: BigNumber, bn2: BigNumber, bn3: BigNumber
+      let n: number, size: number, fValue: boolean, fSuccess: boolean, subscript: Script
+      let bufSig: number[], bufPubkey: number[]
+      let sig: TransactionSignature, pubkey: PublicKey
+      let i: number, ikey: number, isig: number, nKeysCount: number, nSigsCount: number, fOk: boolean
+
+      switch (currentOpcode) {
+        case OP.OP_1NEGATE: this.pushStackCopy(SCRIPTNUM_NEG_1); break
+        case OP.OP_0: this.pushStackCopy(SCRIPTNUMS_0_TO_16[0]); break
+        case OP.OP_1: case OP.OP_2: case OP.OP_3: case OP.OP_4:
+        case OP.OP_5: case OP.OP_6: case OP.OP_7: case OP.OP_8:
+        case OP.OP_9: case OP.OP_10: case OP.OP_11: case OP.OP_12:
+        case OP.OP_13: case OP.OP_14: case OP.OP_15: case OP.OP_16:
+          n = currentOpcode - (OP.OP_1 - 1)
+          this.pushStackCopy(SCRIPTNUMS_0_TO_16[n])
+          break
+
+        case OP.OP_NOP:
+        case OP.OP_NOP2: // Formerly CHECKLOCKTIMEVERIFY
+        case OP.OP_NOP3: // Formerly CHECKSEQUENCEVERIFY
+        case OP.OP_NOP1:
+        case OP.OP_NOP4:
+        case OP.OP_NOP5:
+        case OP.OP_NOP6:
+        case OP.OP_NOP7:
+        case OP.OP_NOP8:
+        case OP.OP_NOP9:
+        case OP.OP_NOP10:
+          /* falls through */
+          // eslint-disable-next-line no-fallthrough
+        // eslint-disable-next-line no-fallthrough
+        case OP.OP_NOP11: case OP.OP_NOP12: case OP.OP_NOP13: case OP.OP_NOP14: case OP.OP_NOP15:
+        case OP.OP_NOP16: case OP.OP_NOP17: case OP.OP_NOP18: case OP.OP_NOP19: case OP.OP_NOP20:
+        case OP.OP_NOP21: case OP.OP_NOP22: case OP.OP_NOP23: case OP.OP_NOP24: case OP.OP_NOP25:
+        case OP.OP_NOP26: case OP.OP_NOP27: case OP.OP_NOP28: case OP.OP_NOP29: case OP.OP_NOP30:
+        case OP.OP_NOP31: case OP.OP_NOP32: case OP.OP_NOP33: case OP.OP_NOP34: case OP.OP_NOP35:
+        case OP.OP_NOP36: case OP.OP_NOP37: case OP.OP_NOP38: case OP.OP_NOP39: case OP.OP_NOP40:
+        case OP.OP_NOP41: case OP.OP_NOP42: case OP.OP_NOP43: case OP.OP_NOP44: case OP.OP_NOP45:
+        case OP.OP_NOP46: case OP.OP_NOP47: case OP.OP_NOP48: case OP.OP_NOP49: case OP.OP_NOP50:
+        case OP.OP_NOP51: case OP.OP_NOP52: case OP.OP_NOP53: case OP.OP_NOP54: case OP.OP_NOP55:
+        case OP.OP_NOP56: case OP.OP_NOP57: case OP.OP_NOP58: case OP.OP_NOP59: case OP.OP_NOP60:
+        case OP.OP_NOP61: case OP.OP_NOP62: case OP.OP_NOP63: case OP.OP_NOP64: case OP.OP_NOP65:
+        case OP.OP_NOP66: case OP.OP_NOP67: case OP.OP_NOP68: case OP.OP_NOP69: case OP.OP_NOP70:
+        case OP.OP_NOP71: case OP.OP_NOP72: case OP.OP_NOP73:
+        case OP.OP_NOP77:
+          break
+
+        case OP.OP_IF:
+        case OP.OP_NOTIF:
+          fValue = false
+          if (isScriptExecuting) {
+            if (this.stack.length < 1) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_IF and OP_NOTIF require at least one item on the stack when they are used!')
+            buf = this.popStack()
+            fValue = this.castToBool(buf)
+            if (currentOpcode === OP.OP_NOTIF) fValue = !fValue
+          }
+          this.ifStack.push(fValue)
+          break
+        case OP.OP_ELSE:
+          if (this.ifStack.length === 0) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_ELSE requires a preceeding OP_IF.')
+          this.ifStack[this.ifStack.length - 1] = !this.ifStack[this.ifStack.length - 1]
+          break
+        case OP.OP_ENDIF:
+          if (this.ifStack.length === 0) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_ENDIF requires a preceeding OP_IF.')
+          this.ifStack.pop()
+          break
+        case OP.OP_VERIFY:
+          if (this.stack.length < 1) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_VERIFY requires at least one item to be on the stack.')
+          buf1 = this.stackTop()
+          fValue = this.castToBool(buf1)
+          if (!fValue) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_VERIFY requires the top stack value to be truthy.')
+          this.popStack()
+          break
+        case OP.OP_RETURN:
+          if (this.context === 'UnlockingScript') this.programCounter = this.unlockingScript.chunks.length
+          else this.programCounter = this.lockingScript.chunks.length
+          this.ifStack = []
+          this.programCounter-- // To counteract the final increment and ensure loop termination
+          break
+
+        case OP.OP_TOALTSTACK:
+          if (this.stack.length < 1) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_TOALTSTACK requires at oeast one item to be on the stack.')
+          this.pushAltStack(this.popStack())
+          break
+        case OP.OP_FROMALTSTACK:
+          if (this.altStack.length < 1) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_FROMALTSTACK requires at least one item to be on the stack.') // "stack" here means altstack
+          this.pushStack(this.popAltStack())
+          break
+        case OP.OP_2DROP:
+          if (this.stack.length < 2) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_2DROP requires at least two items to be on the stack.')
+          this.popStack(); this.popStack()
+          break
+        case OP.OP_2DUP:
+          if (this.stack.length < 2) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_2DUP requires at least two items to be on the stack.')
+          buf1 = this.stackTop(-2)
+          buf2 = this.stackTop(-1)
+          this.pushStackCopy(buf1); this.pushStackCopy(buf2)
+          break
+        case OP.OP_3DUP:
+          if (this.stack.length < 3) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_3DUP requires at least three items to be on the stack.')
+          buf1 = this.stackTop(-3)
+          buf2 = this.stackTop(-2)
+          buf3 = this.stackTop(-1)
+          this.pushStackCopy(buf1); this.pushStackCopy(buf2); this.pushStackCopy(buf3)
+          break
+        case OP.OP_2OVER:
+          if (this.stack.length < 4) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_2OVER requires at least four items to be on the stack.')
+          buf1 = this.stackTop(-4)
+          buf2 = this.stackTop(-3)
+          this.pushStackCopy(buf1); this.pushStackCopy(buf2)
+          break
+        case OP.OP_2ROT: {
+          if (this.stack.length < 6) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_2ROT requires at least six items to be on the stack.')
+          const rot6 = this.popStack(); const rot5 = this.popStack()
+          const rot4 = this.popStack(); const rot3 = this.popStack()
+          const rot2 = this.popStack(); const rot1 = this.popStack()
+          this.pushStack(rot3); this.pushStack(rot4)
+          this.pushStack(rot5); this.pushStack(rot6)
+          this.pushStack(rot1); this.pushStack(rot2)
+          break
+        }
+        case OP.OP_2SWAP: {
+          if (this.stack.length < 4) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_2SWAP requires at least four items to be on the stack.')
+          const swap4 = this.popStack(); const swap3 = this.popStack()
+          const swap2 = this.popStack(); const swap1 = this.popStack()
+          this.pushStack(swap3); this.pushStack(swap4)
+          this.pushStack(swap1); this.pushStack(swap2)
+          break
+        }
+        case OP.OP_IFDUP:
+          if (this.stack.length < 1) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_IFDUP requires at least one item to be on the stack.')
+          buf1 = this.stackTop()
+          if (this.castToBool(buf1)) {
+            this.pushStackCopy(buf1)
+          }
+          break
+        case OP.OP_DEPTH:
+          this.pushStack(new BigNumber(this.stack.length).toScriptNum())
+          break
+        case OP.OP_DROP:
+          if (this.stack.length < 1) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_DROP requires at least one item to be on the stack.')
+          this.popStack()
+          break
+        case OP.OP_DUP:
+          if (this.stack.length < 1) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_DUP requires at least one item to be on the stack.')
+          this.pushStackCopy(this.stackTop())
+          break
+        case OP.OP_NIP:
+          if (this.stack.length < 2) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_NIP requires at least two items to be on the stack.')
+          buf2 = this.popStack()
+          this.popStack()
+          this.pushStack(buf2)
+          break
+        case OP.OP_OVER:
+          if (this.stack.length < 2) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_OVER requires at least two items to be on the stack.')
+          this.pushStackCopy(this.stackTop(-2))
+          break
+        case OP.OP_PICK:
+        case OP.OP_ROLL: {
+          if (this.stack.length < 2) this.scriptEvaluationError(`${OP[currentOpcode] as string} requires at least two items to be on the stack.`)
+          bn = BigNumber.fromScriptNum(this.popStack(), requireMinimalPush)
+          const nBigInt = bn.toBigInt()
+          if (nBigInt < 0n || nBigInt >= BigInt(this.stack.length)) {
+            this.scriptEvaluationError(`${OP[currentOpcode] as string} requires the top stack element to be 0 or a positive number less than the current size of the stack.`)
+          }
+          const nIndex = Number(nBigInt)
+          const itemToMoveOrCopy = this.stack[this.stack.length - 1 - nIndex]
+          if (currentOpcode === OP.OP_ROLL) {
+            this.stack.splice(this.stack.length - 1 - nIndex, 1)
+            this.stackMem -= itemToMoveOrCopy.length
+            this.pushStack(itemToMoveOrCopy)
+          } else { // OP_PICK
+            this.pushStackCopy(itemToMoveOrCopy)
+          }
+          break
+        }
+        case OP.OP_ROT:
+          if (this.stack.length < 3) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_ROT requires at least three items to be on the stack.')
+          x3 = this.popStack()
+          x2 = this.popStack()
+          x1 = this.popStack()
+          this.pushStack(x2); this.pushStack(x3); this.pushStack(x1)
+          break
+        case OP.OP_SWAP:
+          if (this.stack.length < 2) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_SWAP requires at least two items to be on the stack.')
+          x2 = this.popStack()
+          x1 = this.popStack()
+          this.pushStack(x2); this.pushStack(x1)
+          break
+        case OP.OP_TUCK:
+          if (this.stack.length < 2) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_TUCK requires at least two items to be on the stack.')
+          buf1 = this.stackTop(-1) // Top element (x2)
+          // stack is [... rest, x1, x2]
+          // We want [... rest, x2_copy, x1, x2]
+          this.ensureStackMem(buf1.length)
+          this.stack.splice(this.stack.length - 2, 0, buf1.slice()) // Insert copy of x2 before x1
+          this.stackMem += buf1.length // Account for the new copy
+          break
+        case OP.OP_SIZE:
+          if (this.stack.length < 1) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_SIZE requires at least one item to be on the stack.')
+          this.pushStack(new BigNumber(this.stackTop().length).toScriptNum())
+          break
+
+        case OP.OP_AND:
+        case OP.OP_OR:
+        case OP.OP_XOR: {
+          if (this.stack.length < 2) this.scriptEvaluationError(`${OP[currentOpcode] as string} requires at least two items on the stack.`)
+          buf2 = this.popStack()
+          buf1 = this.popStack()
+          if (buf1.length !== buf2.length) this.scriptEvaluationError(`${OP[currentOpcode] as string} requires the top two stack items to be the same size.`)
+
+          const resultBufBitwiseOp = new Array(buf1.length)
+          for (let k = 0; k < buf1.length; k++) {
+            if (currentOpcode === OP.OP_AND) resultBufBitwiseOp[k] = buf1[k] & buf2[k]
+            else if (currentOpcode === OP.OP_OR) resultBufBitwiseOp[k] = buf1[k] | buf2[k]
+            else resultBufBitwiseOp[k] = buf1[k] ^ buf2[k]
+          }
+          this.pushStack(resultBufBitwiseOp)
+          break
+        }
+        case OP.OP_INVERT: {
+          if (this.stack.length < 1) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_INVERT requires at least one item to be on the stack.')
+          buf = this.popStack()
+          const invertedBufOp = new Array(buf.length)
+          for (let k = 0; k < buf.length; k++) {
+            invertedBufOp[k] = (~buf[k]) & 0xff
+          }
+          this.pushStack(invertedBufOp)
+          break
+        }
+        case OP.OP_LSHIFT:
+        case OP.OP_RSHIFT: {
+          if (this.stack.length < 2) this.scriptEvaluationError(`${OP[currentOpcode] as string} requires at least two items to be on the stack.`)
+          bn2 = BigNumber.fromScriptNum(this.popStack(), requireMinimalPush) // n (shift amount)
+          buf1 = this.popStack() // value to shift
+          const shiftBits = bn2.toBigInt()
+          if (shiftBits < 0n) this.scriptEvaluationError(`${OP[currentOpcode] as string} requires the top item on the stack not to be negative.`)
+          if (buf1.length === 0) {
+            this.pushStack([])
+            break
+          }
+          bn1 = new BigNumber(buf1)
+          let shiftedBn: BigNumber
+          if (currentOpcode === OP.OP_LSHIFT) shiftedBn = bn1.ushln(shiftBits)
+          else shiftedBn = bn1.ushrn(shiftBits)
+
+          const shiftedArr = shiftedBn.toArray('be', buf1.length)
+          this.pushStack(shiftedArr)
+          break
+        }
+        case OP.OP_EQUAL:
+        case OP.OP_EQUALVERIFY:
+          if (this.stack.length < 2) this.scriptEvaluationError(`${OP[currentOpcode] as string} requires at least two items to be on the stack.`)
+          buf2 = this.popStack()
+          buf1 = this.popStack()
+          fValue = compareNumberArrays(buf1, buf2)
+          this.pushStack(fValue ? [1] : [])
+          if (currentOpcode === OP.OP_EQUALVERIFY) {
+            if (!fValue) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_EQUALVERIFY requires the top two stack items to be equal.')
+            this.popStack()
+          }
+          break
+
+        case OP.OP_1ADD: case OP.OP_1SUB:
+        case OP.OP_NEGATE: case OP.OP_ABS:
+        case OP.OP_NOT: case OP.OP_0NOTEQUAL:
+          if (this.stack.length < 1) this.scriptEvaluationError(`${OP[currentOpcode] as string} requires at least one item to be on the stack.`)
+          bn = BigNumber.fromScriptNum(this.popStack(), requireMinimalPush)
+          switch (currentOpcode) {
+            case OP.OP_1ADD: bn = bn.add(new BigNumber(1)); break
+            case OP.OP_1SUB: bn = bn.sub(new BigNumber(1)); break
+            case OP.OP_NEGATE: bn = bn.neg(); break
+            case OP.OP_ABS: if (bn.isNeg()) bn = bn.neg(); break
+            case OP.OP_NOT: bn = new BigNumber(bn.cmpn(0) === 0 ? 1 : 0); break
+            case OP.OP_0NOTEQUAL: bn = new BigNumber(bn.cmpn(0) !== 0 ? 1 : 0); break
+          }
+          this.pushStack(bn.toScriptNum())
+          break
+        case OP.OP_ADD: case OP.OP_SUB: case OP.OP_MUL: case OP.OP_DIV: case OP.OP_MOD:
+        case OP.OP_BOOLAND: case OP.OP_BOOLOR:
+        case OP.OP_NUMEQUAL: case OP.OP_NUMEQUALVERIFY: case OP.OP_NUMNOTEQUAL:
+        case OP.OP_LESSTHAN: case OP.OP_GREATERTHAN:
+        case OP.OP_LESSTHANOREQUAL: case OP.OP_GREATERTHANOREQUAL:
+        case OP.OP_MIN: case OP.OP_MAX: {
+          if (this.stack.length < 2) this.scriptEvaluationError(`${OP[currentOpcode] as string} requires at least two items to be on the stack.`)
+          buf2 = this.popStack()
+          buf1 = this.popStack()
+          bn2 = BigNumber.fromScriptNum(buf2, requireMinimalPush)
+          bn1 = BigNumber.fromScriptNum(buf1, requireMinimalPush)
+          let predictedLen = 0
+          switch (currentOpcode) {
+            case OP.OP_MUL:
+              predictedLen = bn1.byteLength() + bn2.byteLength()
+              break
+            case OP.OP_ADD:
+            case OP.OP_SUB:
+              predictedLen = Math.max(bn1.byteLength(), bn2.byteLength()) + 1
+              break
+            default:
+              predictedLen = Math.max(bn1.byteLength(), bn2.byteLength())
+          }
+          this.ensureStackMem(predictedLen)
+          let resultBnArithmetic: BigNumber = new BigNumber(0)
+          switch (currentOpcode) {
+            case OP.OP_ADD: resultBnArithmetic = bn1.add(bn2); break
+            case OP.OP_SUB: resultBnArithmetic = bn1.sub(bn2); break
+            case OP.OP_MUL: resultBnArithmetic = bn1.mul(bn2); break
+            case OP.OP_DIV:
+              if (bn2.cmpn(0) === 0) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_DIV cannot divide by zero!')
+              resultBnArithmetic = bn1.div(bn2); break
+            case OP.OP_MOD:
+              if (bn2.cmpn(0) === 0) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_MOD cannot divide by zero!')
+              resultBnArithmetic = bn1.mod(bn2); break
+            case OP.OP_BOOLAND: resultBnArithmetic = new BigNumber((bn1.cmpn(0) !== 0 && bn2.cmpn(0) !== 0) ? 1 : 0); break
+            case OP.OP_BOOLOR: resultBnArithmetic = new BigNumber((bn1.cmpn(0) !== 0 || bn2.cmpn(0) !== 0) ? 1 : 0); break
+            case OP.OP_NUMEQUAL: resultBnArithmetic = new BigNumber(bn1.cmp(bn2) === 0 ? 1 : 0); break
+            case OP.OP_NUMEQUALVERIFY: resultBnArithmetic = new BigNumber(bn1.cmp(bn2) === 0 ? 1 : 0); break
+            case OP.OP_NUMNOTEQUAL: resultBnArithmetic = new BigNumber(bn1.cmp(bn2) !== 0 ? 1 : 0); break
+            case OP.OP_LESSTHAN: resultBnArithmetic = new BigNumber(bn1.cmp(bn2) < 0 ? 1 : 0); break
+            case OP.OP_GREATERTHAN: resultBnArithmetic = new BigNumber(bn1.cmp(bn2) > 0 ? 1 : 0); break
+            case OP.OP_LESSTHANOREQUAL: resultBnArithmetic = new BigNumber(bn1.cmp(bn2) <= 0 ? 1 : 0); break
+            case OP.OP_GREATERTHANOREQUAL: resultBnArithmetic = new BigNumber(bn1.cmp(bn2) >= 0 ? 1 : 0); break
+            case OP.OP_MIN: resultBnArithmetic = bn1.cmp(bn2) < 0 ? bn1 : bn2; break
+            case OP.OP_MAX: resultBnArithmetic = bn1.cmp(bn2) > 0 ? bn1 : bn2; break
+          }
+          this.pushStack(resultBnArithmetic.toScriptNum())
+          if (currentOpcode === OP.OP_NUMEQUALVERIFY) {
+            if (!this.castToBool(this.stackTop())) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_NUMEQUALVERIFY requires the top stack item to be truthy.')
+            this.popStack()
+          }
+          break
+        }
+        case OP.OP_WITHIN:
+          if (this.stack.length < 3) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_WITHIN requires at least three items to be on the stack.')
+          bn3 = BigNumber.fromScriptNum(this.popStack(), requireMinimalPush) // max
+          bn2 = BigNumber.fromScriptNum(this.popStack(), requireMinimalPush) // min
+          bn1 = BigNumber.fromScriptNum(this.popStack(), requireMinimalPush) // x
+          fValue = bn1.cmp(bn2) >= 0 && bn1.cmp(bn3) < 0
+          this.pushStack(fValue ? [1] : [])
+          break
+
+        case OP.OP_RIPEMD160: case OP.OP_SHA1: case OP.OP_SHA256:
+        case OP.OP_HASH160: case OP.OP_HASH256: {
+          if (this.stack.length < 1) this.scriptEvaluationError(`${OP[currentOpcode] as string} requires at least one item to be on the stack.`)
+          buf = this.popStack()
+          let hashResult: number[] = [] // Initialize to empty, to satisfy TS compiler
+          if (currentOpcode === OP.OP_RIPEMD160) hashResult = Hash.ripemd160(buf)
+          else if (currentOpcode === OP.OP_SHA1) hashResult = Hash.sha1(buf)
+          else if (currentOpcode === OP.OP_SHA256) hashResult = Hash.sha256(buf)
+          else if (currentOpcode === OP.OP_HASH160) hashResult = Hash.hash160(buf)
+          else if (currentOpcode === OP.OP_HASH256) hashResult = Hash.hash256(buf)
+          this.pushStack(hashResult)
+          break
+        }
+        case OP.OP_CODESEPARATOR:
+          this.lastCodeSeparator = this.programCounter
+          break
+        case OP.OP_CHECKSIG:
+        case OP.OP_CHECKSIGVERIFY: {
+          if (this.stack.length < 2) this.scriptEvaluationError(`${OP[currentOpcode] as string} requires at least two items to be on the stack.`)
+          bufPubkey = this.popStack()
+          bufSig = this.popStack()
+
+          if (!this.checkSignatureEncoding(bufSig) || !this.checkPublicKeyEncoding(bufPubkey)) {
+            // Error already thrown by helpers
+            this.scriptEvaluationError(`${OP[currentOpcode] as string} requires correct encoding for the public key and signature.`) // Fallback, should be unreachable
+          }
+
+          const scriptForChecksig = this.context === 'UnlockingScript' ? this.unlockingScript : this.lockingScript
+          const scriptCodeChunks = scriptForChecksig.chunks.slice(this.lastCodeSeparator === null ? 0 : this.lastCodeSeparator + 1)
+          subscript = new Script(scriptCodeChunks)
+          subscript.findAndDelete(new Script().writeBin(bufSig))
+
+          fSuccess = false
+          if (bufSig.length > 0) {
+            try {
+              sig = TransactionSignature.fromChecksigFormat(bufSig)
+              pubkey = PublicKey.fromDER(bufPubkey)
+              fSuccess = this.verifySignature(sig, pubkey, subscript)
+            } catch (e) {
+              fSuccess = false
+            }
+          }
+
+          this.pushStack(fSuccess ? [1] : [])
+          if (currentOpcode === OP.OP_CHECKSIGVERIFY) {
+            if (!fSuccess) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_CHECKSIGVERIFY requires that a valid signature is provided.')
+            this.popStack()
+          }
+          break
+        }
+        case OP.OP_CHECKMULTISIG:
+        case OP.OP_CHECKMULTISIGVERIFY: {
+          i = 1
+          if (this.stack.length < i) {
+            this.scriptEvaluationError(`${OP[currentOpcode] as string} requires at least 1 item for nKeys.`)
+          }
+
+          const nKeysCountBN = BigNumber.fromScriptNum(this.stackTop(-i), requireMinimalPush)
+          const nKeysCountBigInt = nKeysCountBN.toBigInt()
+          if (nKeysCountBigInt < 0n || nKeysCountBigInt > maxMultisigKeyCountBigInt) {
+            this.scriptEvaluationError(`${OP[currentOpcode] as string} requires a key count between 0 and ${maxMultisigKeyCount}.`)
+          }
+          nKeysCount = Number(nKeysCountBigInt)
+          const declaredKeyCount = nKeysCount
+          ikey = ++i
+          i += nKeysCount
+
+          if (this.stack.length < i) {
+            this.scriptEvaluationError(`${OP[currentOpcode] as string} stack too small for nKeys and keys. Need ${i}, have ${this.stack.length}.`)
+          }
+
+          const nSigsCountBN = BigNumber.fromScriptNum(this.stackTop(-i), requireMinimalPush)
+          const nSigsCountBigInt = nSigsCountBN.toBigInt()
+          if (nSigsCountBigInt < 0n || nSigsCountBigInt > BigInt(nKeysCount)) {
+            this.scriptEvaluationError(`${OP[currentOpcode] as string} requires the number of signatures to be no greater than the number of keys.`)
+          }
+          nSigsCount = Number(nSigsCountBigInt)
+          const declaredSigCount = nSigsCount
+          isig = ++i
+          i += nSigsCount
+          if (this.stack.length < i) {
+            this.scriptEvaluationError(`${OP[currentOpcode] as string} stack too small for N, keys, M, sigs, and dummy. Need ${i}, have ${this.stack.length}.`)
+          }
+
+          const baseScriptCMS = this.context === 'UnlockingScript' ? this.unlockingScript : this.lockingScript
+          const subscriptChunksCMS = baseScriptCMS.chunks.slice(this.lastCodeSeparator === null ? 0 : this.lastCodeSeparator + 1)
+          subscript = new Script(subscriptChunksCMS)
+
+          for (let k = 0; k < nSigsCount; k++) {
+            bufSig = this.stackTop(-isig - k) // Sigs are closer to top than keys
+            subscript.findAndDelete(new Script().writeBin(bufSig))
+          }
+
+          fSuccess = true
+          while (fSuccess && nSigsCount > 0) {
+            if (nKeysCount === 0) { // No more keys to check against but still sigs left
+              fSuccess = false
+              break
+            }
+            bufSig = this.stackTop(-isig)
+            bufPubkey = this.stackTop(-ikey)
+
+            if (!this.checkSignatureEncoding(bufSig) || !this.checkPublicKeyEncoding(bufPubkey)) {
+              this.scriptEvaluationError(`${OP[currentOpcode] as string} requires correct encoding for the public key and signature.`)
+            }
+
+            fOk = false
+            if (bufSig.length > 0) {
+              try {
+                sig = TransactionSignature.fromChecksigFormat(bufSig)
+                pubkey = PublicKey.fromDER(bufPubkey)
+                fOk = this.verifySignature(sig, pubkey, subscript)
+              } catch (e) {
+                fOk = false
+              }
+            }
+
+            if (fOk) {
+              isig++; nSigsCount--
+            }
+            ikey++; nKeysCount--
+
+            if (nSigsCount > nKeysCount) {
+              fSuccess = false
+            }
+          }
+
+          // Correct total items consumed by op (N_val, keys, M_val, sigs, dummy)
+          const itemsConsumedByOp = 1 + // N_val
+                                  declaredKeyCount + // keys
+                                  1 + // M_val
+                                  declaredSigCount + // sigs
+                                  1 // dummy
+
+          let popCount = itemsConsumedByOp - 1 // Pop all except dummy
+          while (popCount > 0) {
+            this.popStack()
+            popCount--
+          }
+
+          // Check and pop dummy
+          if (this.stack.length < 1) {
+            this.scriptEvaluationError(`${OP[currentOpcode] as string} requires an extra item (dummy) to be on the stack.`)
+          }
+          const dummyBuf = this.popStack()
+          if (dummyBuf.length > 0) { // SCRIPT_VERIFY_NULLDUMMY
+            this.scriptEvaluationError(`${OP[currentOpcode] as string} requires the extra stack item (dummy) to be empty.`)
+          }
+
+          this.pushStack(fSuccess ? [1] : [])
+          if (currentOpcode === OP.OP_CHECKMULTISIGVERIFY) {
+            if (!fSuccess) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_CHECKMULTISIGVERIFY requires that a sufficient number of valid signatures are provided.')
+            this.popStack()
+          }
+          break
+        }
+
+        case OP.OP_CAT: {
+          if (this.stack.length < 2) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_CAT requires at least two items to be on the stack.')
+          buf2 = this.popStack()
+          buf1 = this.popStack()
+          const catResult = (buf1).concat(buf2)
+          if (catResult.length > maxScriptElementSize) this.scriptEvaluationError(`It's not currently possible to push data larger than ${maxScriptElementSize} bytes.`)
+          this.pushStack(catResult)
+          break
+        }
+        case OP.OP_SPLIT: {
+          if (this.stack.length < 2) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_SPLIT requires at least two items to be on the stack.')
+          const posBuf = this.popStack()
+          const dataToSplit = this.popStack()
+
+          const splitIndexBigInt = BigNumber.fromScriptNum(posBuf, requireMinimalPush).toBigInt()
+          if (splitIndexBigInt < 0n || splitIndexBigInt > BigInt(dataToSplit.length)) {
+            this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_SPLIT requires the first stack item to be a non-negative number less than or equal to the size of the second-from-top stack item.')
+          }
+          const splitIndex = Number(splitIndexBigInt)
+
+          this.pushStack(dataToSplit.slice(0, splitIndex))
+          this.pushStack(dataToSplit.slice(splitIndex))
+          break
+        }
+        case OP.OP_NUM2BIN: {
+          if (this.stack.length < 2) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_NUM2BIN requires at least two items to be on the stack.')
+
+          const sizeBigInt = BigNumber.fromScriptNum(this.popStack(), requireMinimalPush).toBigInt()
+          if (sizeBigInt > BigInt(maxScriptElementSize) || sizeBigInt < 0n) { // size can be 0
+            this.scriptEvaluationError(`It's not currently possible to push data larger than ${maxScriptElementSize} bytes or negative size.`)
+          }
+          size = Number(sizeBigInt)
+
+          let rawnum = this.popStack() // This is the number to convert
+          rawnum = minimallyEncode(rawnum) // Get its minimal scriptnum form
+
+          if (rawnum.length > size) {
+            this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_NUM2BIN requires that the size expressed in the top stack item is large enough to hold the value expressed in the second-from-top stack item.')
+          }
+
+          if (rawnum.length === size) {
+            this.pushStack(rawnum)
+            break
+          }
+
+          const resultN2B = new Array(size).fill(0x00)
+          let signbit = 0x00
+
+          if (rawnum.length > 0) {
+            signbit = rawnum[rawnum.length - 1] & 0x80 // Store sign bit
+            rawnum[rawnum.length - 1] &= 0x7f // Remove sign bit for padding
+          }
+
+          // Copy rawnum (now positive magnitude) into the result
+          for (let k = 0; k < rawnum.length; k++) {
+            resultN2B[k] = rawnum[k]
+          }
+
+          // If the original number was negative, the sign bit must be set on the new MSB
+          if (signbit !== 0) {
+            resultN2B[size - 1] |= 0x80
+          }
+          this.pushStack(resultN2B)
+          break
+        }
+        case OP.OP_BIN2NUM: {
+          if (this.stack.length < 1) this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_BIN2NUM requires at least one item to be on the stack.')
+          buf1 = this.popStack()
+          const b2nResult = minimallyEncode(buf1)
+          if (!isMinimallyEncodedHelper(b2nResult)) {
+            this.scriptEvaluationError('OP_BIN2NUM requires that the resulting number is valid.')
+          }
+          this.pushStack(b2nResult)
+          break
+        }
+
+        default:
+          this.scriptEvaluationError(`Invalid opcode ${currentOpcode} (pc=${this.programCounter}).`)
+      }
+    }
+
+    this.programCounter++
+    return true
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @method validate
+   * Validates the spend action by interpreting the locking and unlocking scripts.
+   * @returns {boolean} Returns true if the scripts are valid and the spend is legitimate, otherwise false.
+   * @example
+   * if (spend.validate()) {
+   *   console.log("Spend is valid!");
+   * } else {
+   *   console.log("Invalid spend!");
+   * }
+   */
+  validate (): boolean {
+    if (requirePushOnlyUnlockingScripts && !this.unlockingScript.isPushOnly()) {
+      this.scriptEvaluationError(
+        'Unlocking scripts can only contain push operations, and no other opcodes.'
+      )
+    }
+
+    while (this.step()) {
+      if (
+        this.context === 'LockingScript' &&
+        this.programCounter >= this.lockingScript.chunks.length
+      ) {
+        break
+      }
+    }
+
+    if (this.ifStack.length > 0) {
+      this.scriptEvaluationError(
+        'Every OP_IF, OP_NOTIF, or OP_ELSE must be terminated with OP_ENDIF prior to the end of the script.'
+      )
+    }
+
+    if (requireCleanStack) {
+      if (this.stack.length !== 1) {
+        this.scriptEvaluationError(
+          `The clean stack rule requires exactly one item to be on the stack after script execution, found ${this.stack.length}.`
+        )
+      }
+    }
+
+    if (this.stack.length === 0) {
+      this.scriptEvaluationError(
+        'The top stack element must be truthy after script evaluation (stack is empty).'
+      )
+    } else if (!this.castToBool(this.stackTop())) {
+      this.scriptEvaluationError(
+        'The top stack element must be truthy after script evaluation.'
+      )
+    }
+
+    return true
+  }
+
+  private castToBool (val: Readonly<number[]>): boolean {
+    if (val.length === 0) return false
+    for (let i = 0; i < val.length; i++) {
+      if (val[i] !== 0) {
+        return !(i === val.length - 1 && val[i] === 0x80)
+      }
+    }
+    return false
+  }
+
+  private scriptEvaluationError (str: string): void {
+    throw new ScriptEvaluationError({
+      message: str,
+      txid: this.sourceTXID,
+      outputIndex: this.sourceOutputIndex,
+      context: this.context,
+      programCounter: this.programCounter,
+      stackState: this.stack,
+      altStackState: this.altStack,
+      ifStackState: this.ifStack,
+      stackMem: this.stackMem,
+      altStackMem: this.altStackMem
+    })
+  }
+}