@aztec/simulator 0.0.0-test.1 → 0.0.1-commit.5476d83

package/src/public/avm/opcodes/memory.ts

@@ -1,3 +1,7 @@
+import { Fr } from '@aztec/foundation/fields';
+
+import { strict as assert } from 'assert';
+
 import type { AvmContext } from '../avm_context.js';
 import { Field, TaggedMemory, TypeTag, Uint32 } from '../avm_memory_types.js';
 import { Opcode, OperandType } from '../serialization/instruction_serialization.js';
@@ -13,42 +17,42 @@ export class Set extends Instruction {
     OperandType.UINT8, // opcode
     OperandType.UINT8, // indirect
     OperandType.UINT8, // dstOffset
-    OperandType.UINT8, // tag
+    OperandType.TAG, // tag
     OperandType.UINT8, // const (value)
   ];
   public static readonly wireFormat16: OperandType[] = [
     OperandType.UINT8, // opcode
     OperandType.UINT8, // indirect
     OperandType.UINT16, // dstOffset
-    OperandType.UINT8, // tag
+    OperandType.TAG, // tag
     OperandType.UINT16, // const (value)
   ];
   public static readonly wireFormat32: OperandType[] = [
     OperandType.UINT8, // opcode
     OperandType.UINT8, // indirect
     OperandType.UINT16, // dstOffset
-    OperandType.UINT8, // tag
+    OperandType.TAG, // tag
     OperandType.UINT32, // const (value)
   ];
   public static readonly wireFormat64: OperandType[] = [
     OperandType.UINT8, // opcode
     OperandType.UINT8, // indirect
     OperandType.UINT16, // dstOffset
-    OperandType.UINT8, // tag
+    OperandType.TAG, // tag
     OperandType.UINT64, // const (value)
   ];
   public static readonly wireFormat128: OperandType[] = [
     OperandType.UINT8, // opcode
     OperandType.UINT8, // indirect
     OperandType.UINT16, // dstOffset
-    OperandType.UINT8, // tag
+    OperandType.TAG, // tag
     OperandType.UINT128, // const (value)
   ];
   public static readonly wireFormatFF: OperandType[] = [
     OperandType.UINT8, // opcode
     OperandType.UINT8, // indirect
     OperandType.UINT16, // dstOffset
-    OperandType.UINT8, // tag
+    OperandType.TAG, // tag
     OperandType.FF, // const (value)
   ];
 
@@ -59,7 +63,8 @@ export class Set extends Instruction {
     private value: bigint | number,
   ) {
     super();
-    TaggedMemory.checkIsValidTag(inTag);
+    assert(this.value >= 0, `Value ${this.value} is negative`);
+    assert(this.value < Fr.MODULUS, `Value ${this.value} is larger than Fr.MODULUS`);
   }
 
   public async execute(context: AvmContext): Promise<void> {
@@ -67,10 +72,13 @@ export class Set extends Instruction {
     const res = TaggedMemory.buildFromTagTruncating(this.value, this.inTag);
 
     const memory = context.machineState.memory;
-    context.machineState.consumeGas(this.gasCost());
+    const addressing = Addressing.fromWire(this.indirect);
+
+    context.machineState.consumeGas(
+      this.baseGasCost(addressing.indirectOperandsCount(), addressing.relativeOperandsCount()),
+    );
 
     const operands = [this.dstOffset];
-    const addressing = Addressing.fromWire(this.indirect, operands.length);
     const [dstOffset] = addressing.resolve(operands, memory);
     memory.set(dstOffset, res);
   }
@@ -85,27 +93,34 @@ export class Cast extends Instruction {
     OperandType.UINT8,
     OperandType.UINT8,
     OperandType.UINT8,
-    OperandType.UINT8,
+    OperandType.TAG,
   ];
   static readonly wireFormat16 = [
     OperandType.UINT8,
     OperandType.UINT8,
     OperandType.UINT16,
     OperandType.UINT16,
-    OperandType.UINT8,
+    OperandType.TAG,
   ];
 
-  constructor(private indirect: number, private srcOffset: number, private dstOffset: number, private dstTag: number) {
+  constructor(
+    private indirect: number,
+    private srcOffset: number,
+    private dstOffset: number,
+    private dstTag: number,
+  ) {
     super();
-    TaggedMemory.checkIsValidTag(dstTag);
   }
 
   public async execute(context: AvmContext): Promise<void> {
     const memory = context.machineState.memory;
-    context.machineState.consumeGas(this.gasCost());
+    const addressing = Addressing.fromWire(this.indirect);
+
+    context.machineState.consumeGas(
+      this.baseGasCost(addressing.indirectOperandsCount(), addressing.relativeOperandsCount()),
+    );
 
     const operands = [this.srcOffset, this.dstOffset];
-    const addressing = Addressing.fromWire(this.indirect, operands.length);
     const [srcOffset, dstOffset] = addressing.resolve(operands, memory);
 
     const a = memory.get(srcOffset);
@@ -134,16 +149,23 @@ export class Mov extends Instruction {
     OperandType.UINT16,
   ];
 
-  constructor(private indirect: number, private srcOffset: number, private dstOffset: number) {
+  constructor(
+    private indirect: number,
+    private srcOffset: number,
+    private dstOffset: number,
+  ) {
     super();
   }
 
   public async execute(context: AvmContext): Promise<void> {
     const memory = context.machineState.memory;
-    context.machineState.consumeGas(this.gasCost());
+    const addressing = Addressing.fromWire(this.indirect);
+
+    context.machineState.consumeGas(
+      this.baseGasCost(addressing.indirectOperandsCount(), addressing.relativeOperandsCount()),
+    );
 
     const operands = [this.srcOffset, this.dstOffset];
-    const addressing = Addressing.fromWire(this.indirect, operands.length);
     const [srcOffset, dstOffset] = addressing.resolve(operands, memory);
     const a = memory.get(srcOffset);
     memory.set(dstOffset, a);
@@ -164,8 +186,8 @@ export class CalldataCopy extends Instruction {
 
   constructor(
     private indirect: number,
-    private cdStartOffset: number,
     private copySizeOffset: number,
+    private cdStartOffset: number,
     private dstOffset: number,
   ) {
     super();
@@ -173,14 +195,19 @@ export class CalldataCopy extends Instruction {
 
   public async execute(context: AvmContext): Promise<void> {
     const memory = context.machineState.memory;
-    const operands = [this.cdStartOffset, this.copySizeOffset, this.dstOffset];
-    const addressing = Addressing.fromWire(this.indirect, operands.length);
-    const [cdStartOffset, copySizeOffset, dstOffset] = addressing.resolve(operands, memory);
+    const addressing = Addressing.fromWire(this.indirect);
+
+    context.machineState.consumeGas(
+      this.baseGasCost(addressing.indirectOperandsCount(), addressing.relativeOperandsCount()),
+    );
+
+    const operands = [this.copySizeOffset, this.cdStartOffset, this.dstOffset];
+    const [copySizeOffset, cdStartOffset, dstOffset] = addressing.resolve(operands, memory);
 
     memory.checkTags(TypeTag.UINT32, cdStartOffset, copySizeOffset);
     const cdStart = memory.get(cdStartOffset).toNumber();
     const copySize = memory.get(copySizeOffset).toNumber();
-    context.machineState.consumeGas(this.gasCost(copySize));
+    context.machineState.consumeGas(this.dynamicGasCost(copySize));
 
     // Values which are out-of-range of the calldata array will be set with Field(0);
     const slice = context.environment.calldata.slice(cdStart, cdStart + copySize).map(f => new Field(f));
@@ -197,16 +224,23 @@ export class ReturndataSize extends Instruction {
   // Informs (de)serialization. See Instruction.deserialize.
   static readonly wireFormat: OperandType[] = [OperandType.UINT8, OperandType.UINT8, OperandType.UINT16];
 
-  constructor(private indirect: number, private dstOffset: number) {
+  constructor(
+    private indirect: number,
+    private dstOffset: number,
+  ) {
     super();
   }
 
   public async execute(context: AvmContext): Promise<void> {
     const memory = context.machineState.memory;
+    const addressing = Addressing.fromWire(this.indirect);
+
+    context.machineState.consumeGas(
+      this.baseGasCost(addressing.indirectOperandsCount(), addressing.relativeOperandsCount()),
+    );
+
     const operands = [this.dstOffset];
-    const addressing = Addressing.fromWire(this.indirect, operands.length);
     const [dstOffset] = addressing.resolve(operands, memory);
-    context.machineState.consumeGas(this.gasCost());
 
     memory.set(dstOffset, new Uint32(context.machineState.nestedReturndata.length));
   }
@@ -226,8 +260,8 @@ export class ReturndataCopy extends Instruction {
 
   constructor(
     private indirect: number,
-    private rdStartOffset: number,
     private copySizeOffset: number,
+    private rdStartOffset: number,
     private dstOffset: number,
   ) {
     super();
@@ -235,14 +269,19 @@ export class ReturndataCopy extends Instruction {
 
   public async execute(context: AvmContext): Promise<void> {
     const memory = context.machineState.memory;
-    const operands = [this.rdStartOffset, this.copySizeOffset, this.dstOffset];
-    const addressing = Addressing.fromWire(this.indirect, operands.length);
-    const [rdStartOffset, copySizeOffset, dstOffset] = addressing.resolve(operands, memory);
+    const addressing = Addressing.fromWire(this.indirect);
+
+    context.machineState.consumeGas(
+      this.baseGasCost(addressing.indirectOperandsCount(), addressing.relativeOperandsCount()),
+    );
+
+    const operands = [this.copySizeOffset, this.rdStartOffset, this.dstOffset];
+    const [copySizeOffset, rdStartOffset, dstOffset] = addressing.resolve(operands, memory);
 
     memory.checkTags(TypeTag.UINT32, rdStartOffset, copySizeOffset);
-    const rdStart = memory.get(rdStartOffset).toNumber();
     const copySize = memory.get(copySizeOffset).toNumber();
-    context.machineState.consumeGas(this.gasCost(copySize));
+    const rdStart = memory.get(rdStartOffset).toNumber();
+    context.machineState.consumeGas(this.dynamicGasCost(copySize));
 
     // Values which are out-of-range of the returndata array will be set with Field(0);
     const slice = context.machineState.nestedReturndata.slice(rdStart, rdStart + copySize).map(f => new Field(f));

package/src/public/avm/opcodes/misc.ts

@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import { applyStringFormatting, createLogger } from '@aztec/foundation/log';
+import { LogLevels, applyStringFormatting, createLogger } from '@aztec/foundation/log';
 
 import type { AvmContext } from '../avm_context.js';
 import { TypeTag } from '../avm_memory_types.js';
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@ export class DebugLog extends Instruction {
   static readonly wireFormat: OperandType[] = [
     OperandType.UINT8, // Opcode
     OperandType.UINT8, // Indirect
+    OperandType.UINT16, // level memory address
     OperandType.UINT16, // message memory address
     OperandType.UINT16, // fields memory address
     OperandType.UINT16, // fields size address
@@ -23,6 +24,7 @@ export class DebugLog extends Instruction {
 
   constructor(
     private indirect: number,
+    private levelOffset: number,
     private messageOffset: number,
     private fieldsOffset: number,
     private fieldsSizeOffset: number,
@@ -33,28 +35,68 @@ export class DebugLog extends Instruction {
 
   public async execute(context: AvmContext): Promise<void> {
     const memory = context.machineState.memory;
-    const operands = [this.messageOffset, this.fieldsOffset, this.fieldsSizeOffset];
-    const addressing = Addressing.fromWire(this.indirect, operands.length);
-    const [messageOffset, fieldsOffset, fieldsSizeOffset] = addressing.resolve(operands, memory);
+    const addressing = Addressing.fromWire(this.indirect);
 
-    memory.checkTag(TypeTag.UINT32, fieldsSizeOffset);
-    const fieldsSize = memory.get(fieldsSizeOffset).toNumber();
+    context.machineState.consumeGas(
+      this.baseGasCost(addressing.indirectOperandsCount(), addressing.relativeOperandsCount()),
+    );
 
-    const rawMessage = memory.getSlice(messageOffset, this.messageSize);
-    const fields = memory.getSlice(fieldsOffset, fieldsSize);
+    const operands = [this.levelOffset, this.messageOffset, this.fieldsOffset, this.fieldsSizeOffset];
+    const [levelOffset, messageOffset, fieldsOffset, fieldsSizeOffset] = addressing.resolve(operands, memory);
 
-    memory.checkTagsRange(TypeTag.UINT8, messageOffset, this.messageSize);
-    memory.checkTagsRange(TypeTag.FIELD, fieldsOffset, fieldsSize);
+    // DebugLog is a no-op except unless the config is set to collect debug logs.
+    // Note that we still do address resolution and basic tag-checking (above)
+    // To avoid a special-case in the witness generator and circuit.
+    if (context.environment.config.collectDebugLogs) {
+      memory.checkTag(TypeTag.UINT8, levelOffset);
+      const levelNumber = memory.get(levelOffset).toNumber();
+      memory.checkTag(TypeTag.UINT32, fieldsSizeOffset);
+      const fieldsSize = memory.get(fieldsSizeOffset).toNumber();
 
-    context.machineState.consumeGas(this.gasCost(this.messageSize + fieldsSize));
+      const memoryReads = 1 /* level */ + 1 /* fieldsSize */ + this.messageSize /* message */ + fieldsSize; /* fields */
+      if (
+        context.persistableState.getDebugLogMemoryReads() + memoryReads >
+        context.environment.config.maxDebugLogMemoryReads
+      ) {
+        // Regular error on purpose: this is not a recoverable error.
+        throw new Error(
+          `Max debug log memory reads exceeded: ${context.persistableState.getDebugLogMemoryReads() + memoryReads} > ${context.environment.config.maxDebugLogMemoryReads}`,
+        );
+      }
+      context.persistableState.writeDebugLogMemoryReads(memoryReads);
 
-    // Interpret str<N> = [u8; N] to string.
-    const messageAsStr = rawMessage.map(field => String.fromCharCode(field.toNumber())).join('');
-    const formattedStr = applyStringFormatting(
-      messageAsStr,
-      fields.map(field => field.toFr()),
-    );
+      const rawMessage = memory.getSlice(messageOffset, this.messageSize);
+      const fields = memory.getSlice(fieldsOffset, fieldsSize);
+
+      memory.checkTagsRange(TypeTag.UINT8, messageOffset, this.messageSize);
+      memory.checkTagsRange(TypeTag.FIELD, fieldsOffset, fieldsSize);
+
+      // Interpret str<N> = [u8; N] to string.
+      const messageAsStr = rawMessage.map(field => String.fromCharCode(field.toNumber())).join('');
+
+      if (!LogLevels[levelNumber]) {
+        // Regular error on purpose: this is not a recoverable error.
+        throw new Error(`Invalid debug log level: ${levelNumber}`);
+      }
+
+      const level = LogLevels[levelNumber];
+
+      context.persistableState.writeDebugLog(
+        context.environment.address,
+        level,
+        messageAsStr,
+        fields.map(field => field.toFr()),
+      );
+
+      // Skips string formatting if the level is disabled.
+      if (DebugLog.logger.isLevelEnabled(level)) {
+        const formattedStr = applyStringFormatting(
+          messageAsStr,
+          fields.map(field => field.toFr()),
+        );
 
-    DebugLog.logger.verbose(formattedStr);
+        DebugLog.logger[level](formattedStr);
+      }
+    }
   }
 }

package/src/public/avm/opcodes/storage.ts

@@ -14,7 +14,11 @@ abstract class BaseStorageInstruction extends Instruction {
     OperandType.UINT16,
   ];
 
-  constructor(protected indirect: number, protected aOffset: number, protected bOffset: number) {
+  constructor(
+    protected indirect: number,
+    protected aOffset: number,
+    protected bOffset: number,
+  ) {
     super();
   }
 }
@@ -33,15 +37,24 @@ export class SStore extends BaseStorageInstruction {
     }
 
     const memory = context.machineState.memory;
-    context.machineState.consumeGas(this.gasCost());
+    const addressing = Addressing.fromWire(this.indirect);
+
+    context.machineState.consumeGas(
+      this.baseGasCost(addressing.indirectOperandsCount(), addressing.relativeOperandsCount()),
+    );
 
     const operands = [this.aOffset, this.bOffset];
-    const addressing = Addressing.fromWire(this.indirect, operands.length);
     const [srcOffset, slotOffset] = addressing.resolve(operands, memory);
+    // We read before tag checking since it's needed for gas cost calculation
+    const slot = memory.get(slotOffset).toFr();
+
+    context.machineState.consumeGas(
+      this.dynamicGasCost(Number(context.persistableState.isStorageCold(context.environment.address, slot))),
+    );
+
     memory.checkTag(TypeTag.FIELD, slotOffset);
     memory.checkTag(TypeTag.FIELD, srcOffset);
 
-    const slot = memory.get(slotOffset).toFr();
     const value = memory.get(srcOffset).toFr();
     await context.persistableState.writeStorage(context.environment.address, slot, value);
   }
@@ -57,10 +70,13 @@ export class SLoad extends BaseStorageInstruction {
 
   public async execute(context: AvmContext): Promise<void> {
     const memory = context.machineState.memory;
-    context.machineState.consumeGas(this.gasCost());
+    const addressing = Addressing.fromWire(this.indirect);
+
+    context.machineState.consumeGas(
+      this.baseGasCost(addressing.indirectOperandsCount(), addressing.relativeOperandsCount()),
+    );
 
     const operands = [this.aOffset, this.bOffset];
-    const addressing = Addressing.fromWire(this.indirect, operands.length);
     const [slotOffset, dstOffset] = addressing.resolve(operands, memory);
     memory.checkTag(TypeTag.FIELD, slotOffset);
 

package/src/public/avm/revert_reason.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+import type { Fr } from '@aztec/foundation/fields';
+
+import type { AvmContext } from './avm_context.js';
+import { type AvmExecutionError, AvmRevertReason } from './errors.js';
+
+async function createRevertReason(message: string, revertData: Fr[], context: AvmContext): Promise<AvmRevertReason> {
+  // We drop the returnPc information.
+  const internalCallStack = context.machineState.internalCallStack.map(entry => entry.callPc);
+
+  // If we are reverting due to the same error that we have been tracking, we use the nested error as the cause.
+  let nestedError = undefined;
+  const revertDataEquals = (a: Fr[], b: Fr[]) => a.length === b.length && a.every((v, i) => v.equals(b[i]));
+  if (
+    context.machineState.collectedRevertInfo &&
+    revertDataEquals(context.machineState.collectedRevertInfo.revertDataRepresentative, revertData)
+  ) {
+    nestedError = context.machineState.collectedRevertInfo.recursiveRevertReason;
+    message = context.machineState.collectedRevertInfo.recursiveRevertReason.message;
+  }
+
+  const fnName = await context.persistableState.getPublicFunctionDebugName(context.environment);
+
+  return new AvmRevertReason(
+    message,
+    /*failingFunction=*/ {
+      contractAddress: context.environment.address,
+      functionName: fnName,
+    },
+    /*noirCallStack=*/ [...internalCallStack, context.machineState.pc].map(pc => `0.${pc}`),
+    /*options=*/ { cause: nestedError },
+  );
+}
+
+/**
+ * Create a "revert reason" error for an exceptional halt.
+ *
+ * @param haltingError - the lower-level error causing the exceptional halt
+ * @param context - the context of the AVM execution used to extract the failingFunction and noirCallStack
+ */
+export async function revertReasonFromExceptionalHalt(
+  haltingError: AvmExecutionError,
+  context: AvmContext,
+): Promise<AvmRevertReason> {
+  return await createRevertReason(haltingError.message, [], context);
+}
+
+/**
+ * Create a "revert reason" error for an explicit revert (a root cause).
+ *
+ * @param revertData - output data of the explicit REVERT instruction
+ * @param context - the context of the AVM execution used to extract the failingFunction and noirCallStack
+ */
+export async function revertReasonFromExplicitRevert(revertData: Fr[], context: AvmContext): Promise<AvmRevertReason> {
+  return await createRevertReason('Assertion failed: ', revertData, context);
+}

package/src/public/avm/serialization/buffer_cursor.ts

@@ -2,7 +2,10 @@
  * A Buffer-like class that automatically advances the position.
  */
 export class BufferCursor {
-  constructor(private _buffer: Buffer, private _position: number = 0) {}
+  constructor(
+    private _buffer: Buffer,
+    private _position: number = 0,
+  ) {}
 
   public position(): number {
     return this._position;

package/src/public/avm/serialization/bytecode_serialization.ts

@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+import { type Bufferable, serializeToBuffer } from '@aztec/foundation/serialize';
+
 import { AvmExecutionError, AvmParsingError, InvalidOpcodeError, InvalidProgramCounterError } from '../errors.js';
 import {
   Add,
@@ -53,106 +55,102 @@ import { MAX_OPCODE_VALUE, Opcode } from './instruction_serialization.js';
 
 export type InstructionDeserializer = (buf: BufferCursor | Buffer) => Instruction;
 
-export interface Serializable {
-  serialize(): Buffer;
-}
-
 export interface Deserializable {
   deserialize: InstructionDeserializer;
 }
 
 export type InstructionSet = Map<Opcode, InstructionDeserializer>;
 export const INSTRUCTION_SET = new Map<Opcode, InstructionDeserializer>([
-  [Opcode.ADD_8, Add.as(Add.wireFormat8).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.ADD_16, Add.as(Add.wireFormat16).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.SUB_8, Sub.as(Sub.wireFormat8).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.SUB_16, Sub.as(Sub.wireFormat16).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.MUL_8, Mul.as(Mul.wireFormat8).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.MUL_16, Mul.as(Mul.wireFormat16).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.DIV_8, Div.as(Div.wireFormat8).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.DIV_16, Div.as(Div.wireFormat16).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.FDIV_8, FieldDiv.as(FieldDiv.wireFormat8).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.FDIV_16, FieldDiv.as(FieldDiv.wireFormat16).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.EQ_8, Eq.as(Eq.wireFormat8).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.EQ_16, Eq.as(Eq.wireFormat16).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.LT_8, Lt.as(Lt.wireFormat8).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.LT_16, Lt.as(Lt.wireFormat16).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.LTE_8, Lte.as(Lte.wireFormat8).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.LTE_16, Lte.as(Lte.wireFormat16).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.AND_8, And.as(And.wireFormat8).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.AND_16, And.as(And.wireFormat16).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.OR_8, Or.as(Or.wireFormat8).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.OR_16, Or.as(Or.wireFormat16).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.XOR_8, Xor.as(Xor.wireFormat8).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.XOR_16, Xor.as(Xor.wireFormat16).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.NOT_8, Not.as(Not.wireFormat8).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.NOT_16, Not.as(Not.wireFormat16).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.SHL_8, Shl.as(Shl.wireFormat8).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.SHL_16, Shl.as(Shl.wireFormat16).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.SHR_8, Shr.as(Shr.wireFormat8).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.SHR_16, Shr.as(Shr.wireFormat16).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.CAST_8, Cast.as(Cast.wireFormat8).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.CAST_16, Cast.as(Cast.wireFormat16).deserialize],
+  [Opcode.ADD_8, Add.as(Add.wireFormat8).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.ADD_16, Add.as(Add.wireFormat16).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.SUB_8, Sub.as(Sub.wireFormat8).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.SUB_16, Sub.as(Sub.wireFormat16).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.MUL_8, Mul.as(Mul.wireFormat8).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.MUL_16, Mul.as(Mul.wireFormat16).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.DIV_8, Div.as(Div.wireFormat8).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.DIV_16, Div.as(Div.wireFormat16).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.FDIV_8, FieldDiv.as(FieldDiv.wireFormat8).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.FDIV_16, FieldDiv.as(FieldDiv.wireFormat16).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.EQ_8, Eq.as(Eq.wireFormat8).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.EQ_16, Eq.as(Eq.wireFormat16).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.LT_8, Lt.as(Lt.wireFormat8).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.LT_16, Lt.as(Lt.wireFormat16).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.LTE_8, Lte.as(Lte.wireFormat8).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.LTE_16, Lte.as(Lte.wireFormat16).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.AND_8, And.as(And.wireFormat8).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.AND_16, And.as(And.wireFormat16).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.OR_8, Or.as(Or.wireFormat8).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.OR_16, Or.as(Or.wireFormat16).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.XOR_8, Xor.as(Xor.wireFormat8).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.XOR_16, Xor.as(Xor.wireFormat16).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.NOT_8, Not.as(Not.wireFormat8).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.NOT_16, Not.as(Not.wireFormat16).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.SHL_8, Shl.as(Shl.wireFormat8).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.SHL_16, Shl.as(Shl.wireFormat16).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.SHR_8, Shr.as(Shr.wireFormat8).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.SHR_16, Shr.as(Shr.wireFormat16).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.CAST_8, Cast.as(Cast.wireFormat8).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.CAST_16, Cast.as(Cast.wireFormat16).fromBuffer],
   // Execution Environment
-  [Opcode.GETENVVAR_16, GetEnvVar.as(GetEnvVar.wireFormat16).deserialize],
-  [CalldataCopy.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(CalldataCopy)],
-  [SuccessCopy.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(SuccessCopy)],
-  [Opcode.RETURNDATASIZE, Instruction.deserialize.bind(ReturndataSize)],
-  [Opcode.RETURNDATACOPY, Instruction.deserialize.bind(ReturndataCopy)],
+  [Opcode.GETENVVAR_16, GetEnvVar.as(GetEnvVar.wireFormat16).fromBuffer],
+  [CalldataCopy.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(CalldataCopy)],
+  [SuccessCopy.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(SuccessCopy)],
+  [Opcode.RETURNDATASIZE, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(ReturndataSize)],
+  [Opcode.RETURNDATACOPY, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(ReturndataCopy)],
 
   // Machine State - Internal Control Flow
-  [Jump.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(Jump)],
-  [JumpI.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(JumpI)],
-  [InternalCall.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(InternalCall)],
-  [InternalReturn.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(InternalReturn)],
-  [Opcode.SET_8, Set.as(Set.wireFormat8).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.SET_16, Set.as(Set.wireFormat16).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.SET_32, Set.as(Set.wireFormat32).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.SET_64, Set.as(Set.wireFormat64).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.SET_128, Set.as(Set.wireFormat128).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.SET_FF, Set.as(Set.wireFormatFF).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.MOV_8, Mov.as(Mov.wireFormat8).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.MOV_16, Mov.as(Mov.wireFormat16).deserialize],
+  [Jump.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(Jump)],
+  [JumpI.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(JumpI)],
+  [InternalCall.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(InternalCall)],
+  [InternalReturn.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(InternalReturn)],
+  [Opcode.SET_8, Set.as(Set.wireFormat8).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.SET_16, Set.as(Set.wireFormat16).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.SET_32, Set.as(Set.wireFormat32).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.SET_64, Set.as(Set.wireFormat64).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.SET_128, Set.as(Set.wireFormat128).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.SET_FF, Set.as(Set.wireFormatFF).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.MOV_8, Mov.as(Mov.wireFormat8).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.MOV_16, Mov.as(Mov.wireFormat16).fromBuffer],
 
   // World State
-  [SLoad.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(SLoad)], // Public Storage
-  [SStore.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(SStore)], // Public Storage
-  [NoteHashExists.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(NoteHashExists)], // Notes & Nullifiers
-  [EmitNoteHash.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(EmitNoteHash)], // Notes & Nullifiers
-  [NullifierExists.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(NullifierExists)], // Notes & Nullifiers
-  [EmitNullifier.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(EmitNullifier)], // Notes & Nullifiers
-  [L1ToL2MessageExists.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(L1ToL2MessageExists)], // Messages
+  [SLoad.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(SLoad)], // Public Storage
+  [SStore.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(SStore)], // Public Storage
+  [NoteHashExists.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(NoteHashExists)], // Notes & Nullifiers
+  [EmitNoteHash.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(EmitNoteHash)], // Notes & Nullifiers
+  [NullifierExists.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(NullifierExists)], // Notes & Nullifiers
+  [EmitNullifier.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(EmitNullifier)], // Notes & Nullifiers
+  [L1ToL2MessageExists.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(L1ToL2MessageExists)], // Messages
 
   // Accrued Substate
-  [EmitUnencryptedLog.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(EmitUnencryptedLog)],
-  [SendL2ToL1Message.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(SendL2ToL1Message)],
-  [GetContractInstance.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(GetContractInstance)],
+  [EmitUnencryptedLog.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(EmitUnencryptedLog)],
+  [SendL2ToL1Message.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(SendL2ToL1Message)],
+  [GetContractInstance.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(GetContractInstance)],
 
   // Control Flow - Contract Calls
-  [Call.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(Call)],
-  [StaticCall.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(StaticCall)],
-  [Return.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(Return)],
-  [Opcode.REVERT_8, Revert.as(Revert.wireFormat8).deserialize],
-  [Opcode.REVERT_16, Revert.as(Revert.wireFormat16).deserialize],
+  [Call.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(Call)],
+  [StaticCall.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(StaticCall)],
+  [Return.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(Return)],
+  [Opcode.REVERT_8, Revert.as(Revert.wireFormat8).fromBuffer],
+  [Opcode.REVERT_16, Revert.as(Revert.wireFormat16).fromBuffer],
 
   // Misc
-  [DebugLog.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(DebugLog)],
+  [DebugLog.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(DebugLog)],
 
   // Gadgets
-  [EcAdd.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(EcAdd)],
-  [Poseidon2.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(Poseidon2)],
-  [Sha256Compression.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(Sha256Compression)],
-  [KeccakF1600.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(KeccakF1600)],
+  [EcAdd.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(EcAdd)],
+  [Poseidon2.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(Poseidon2)],
+  [Sha256Compression.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(Sha256Compression)],
+  [KeccakF1600.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(KeccakF1600)],
 
   // Conversions
-  [ToRadixBE.opcode, Instruction.deserialize.bind(ToRadixBE)],
+  [ToRadixBE.opcode, Instruction.fromBuffer.bind(ToRadixBE)],
 ]);
 
 /**
  * Serializes an array of instructions to bytecode.
  */
-export function encodeToBytecode(instructions: Serializable[]): Buffer {
-  return Buffer.concat(instructions.map(i => i.serialize()));
+export function encodeToBytecode(instructions: Bufferable[]): Buffer {
+  return serializeToBuffer(instructions);
 }
 
 // For testing only