@anthonyalayo/zod 0.0.0-stage → 4.7.0

package/src/v4/classic/tests/to-json-schema.test.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,4811 @@
+import { Validator } from "@seriousme/openapi-schema-validator";
+import { describe, expect, test, vi } from "vitest";
+import * as z from "zod";
+// import * as zCore from "zod/v4/core";
+
+const openAPI30Validator = new Validator();
+/** @see https://github.com/colinhacks/zod/issues/5147 */
+const validateOpenAPI30Schema = async (zodJSONSchema: Record<string, unknown>): Promise<true> => {
+  const res = await openAPI30Validator.validate({
+    openapi: "3.0.0",
+    info: {
+      title: "SampleApi",
+      description: "Sample backend service",
+      version: "1.0.0",
+    },
+    components: { schemas: { test: zodJSONSchema } },
+    paths: {},
+  });
+
+  if (!res.valid) {
+    // `console.error` should make `vitest` trow an unhandled error printing the validation messages in consoles
+    console.error(
+      `OpenAPI schema is not valid against ${openAPI30Validator.version}`,
+      JSON.stringify(res.errors, null, 2)
+    );
+  }
+
+  return true;
+};
+
+describe("toJSONSchema", () => {
+  test("primitive types", () => {
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.string())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.boolean())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "type": "boolean",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.null())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "type": "null",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.undefined(), { unrepresentable: "any" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.any())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.unknown())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.never())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "not": {},
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.email())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "email",
+        "pattern": "^(?:[A-Za-z0-9_'+\\-]+\\.)*[A-Za-z0-9_'+\\-]*[A-Za-z0-9_+-]@(?:[A-Za-z0-9][A-Za-z0-9\\-]*\\.)+[A-Za-z]{2,}$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.iso.datetime())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "date-time",
+        "pattern": "^(?:(?:\\d\\d[2468][048]|\\d\\d[13579][26]|\\d\\d0[48]|[02468][048]00|[13579][26]00)-02-29|\\d{4}-(?:(?:0[13578]|1[02])-(?:0[1-9]|[12]\\d|3[01])|(?:0[469]|11)-(?:0[1-9]|[12]\\d|30)|(?:02)-(?:0[1-9]|1\\d|2[0-8])))T(?:(?:[01]\\d|2[0-3]):[0-5]\\d:[0-5]\\d(?:\\.\\d+)?(?:Z))$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.iso.date())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "date",
+        "pattern": "^(?:(?:\\d\\d[2468][048]|\\d\\d[13579][26]|\\d\\d0[48]|[02468][048]00|[13579][26]00)-02-29|\\d{4}-(?:(?:0[13578]|1[02])-(?:0[1-9]|[12]\\d|3[01])|(?:0[469]|11)-(?:0[1-9]|[12]\\d|30)|(?:02)-(?:0[1-9]|1\\d|2[0-8])))$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    // only shapes keeping both an offset and seconds may advertise `date-time`, composed onto a string as well as constructed
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.iso.datetime()).format).toEqual("date-time");
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.iso.datetime({ offset: true })).format).toEqual("date-time");
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.iso.datetime({ precision: 0 })).format).toEqual("date-time");
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.iso.datetime({ local: true })).format).toEqual(undefined);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.iso.datetime({ precision: -1 })).format).toEqual(undefined);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.string().check(z.iso.datetime({ local: true }))).format).toEqual(undefined);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.string().check(z.iso.datetime())).format).toEqual("date-time");
+    // the pattern still describes what the schema accepts
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.iso.datetime({ local: true })).pattern).toBeDefined();
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.iso.time())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "pattern": "^(?:[01]\\d|2[0-3]):[0-5]\\d(?::[0-5]\\d(?:\\.\\d+)?)?$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.iso.time({ precision: -1 }))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "pattern": "^(?:[01]\\d|2[0-3]):[0-5]\\d$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.iso.time({ precision: 0 }))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "pattern": "^(?:[01]\\d|2[0-3]):[0-5]\\d:[0-5]\\d$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.iso.time({ precision: 3 }))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "pattern": "^(?:[01]\\d|2[0-3]):[0-5]\\d:[0-5]\\d\\.\\d{3}$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.iso.duration())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "duration",
+        "pattern": "^P(?:(\\d+W)|(?!.*W)(?=\\d|T\\d)(\\d+Y)?(\\d+M)?(\\d+D)?(T(?=\\d)(\\d+H)?(\\d+M)?(\\d+([.,]\\d+)?S)?)?)$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.ipv4())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "ipv4",
+        "pattern": "^(?:(?:25[0-5]|2[0-4][0-9]|1[0-9][0-9]|[1-9][0-9]|[0-9])\\.){3}(?:25[0-5]|2[0-4][0-9]|1[0-9][0-9]|[1-9][0-9]|[0-9])$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.ipv6())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "ipv6",
+        "pattern": "^(([0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}:){7}[0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}|([0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}:){1,7}:|([0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}:){1,6}:[0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}|([0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}:){1,5}(:[0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}){1,2}|([0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}:){1,4}(:[0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}){1,3}|([0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}:){1,3}(:[0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}){1,4}|([0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}:){1,2}(:[0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}){1,5}|[0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}:((:[0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}){1,6})|:((:[0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}){1,7}|:))$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.mac())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "mac",
+        "pattern": "^(?:[0-9A-F]{2}:){5}[0-9A-F]{2}$|^(?:[0-9a-f]{2}:){5}[0-9a-f]{2}$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.mac({ delimiter: ":" }))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "mac",
+        "pattern": "^(?:[0-9A-F]{2}:){5}[0-9A-F]{2}$|^(?:[0-9a-f]{2}:){5}[0-9a-f]{2}$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.mac({ delimiter: "-" }))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "mac",
+        "pattern": "^(?:[0-9A-F]{2}-){5}[0-9A-F]{2}$|^(?:[0-9a-f]{2}-){5}[0-9a-f]{2}$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.uuid())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "uuid",
+        "pattern": "^([0-9a-fA-F]{8}-[0-9a-fA-F]{4}-[1-8][0-9a-fA-F]{3}-[89abAB][0-9a-fA-F]{3}-[0-9a-fA-F]{12}|00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000|ffffffff-ffff-ffff-ffff-ffffffffffff)$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.guid())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "uuid",
+        "pattern": "^([0-9a-fA-F]{8}-[0-9a-fA-F]{4}-[0-9a-fA-F]{4}-[0-9a-fA-F]{4}-[0-9a-fA-F]{12})$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.url())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "uri",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.base64())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "contentEncoding": "base64",
+        "format": "base64",
+        "pattern": "^$|^(?:[0-9a-zA-Z+/]{4})*(?:(?:[0-9a-zA-Z+/]{2}==)|(?:[0-9a-zA-Z+/]{3}=))?$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.base64url())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "contentEncoding": "base64url",
+        "format": "base64url",
+        "pattern": "^(?:[A-Za-z0-9_-]{4})*(?:[A-Za-z0-9_-]{2,3})?$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.cuid())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "cuid",
+        "pattern": "^[cC][0-9a-z]{6,}$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    // expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.regex(/asdf/))).toMatchInlineSnapshot();
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.emoji())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "emoji",
+        "pattern": "^(?=[\\s\\S]*[\\p{Extended_Pictographic}\\p{Regional_Indicator}\\u20E3])[\\p{Extended_Pictographic}\\p{Emoji_Component}]+$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.nanoid())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "nanoid",
+        "pattern": "^[a-zA-Z0-9_-]{21}$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.nanoid({ length: 64 }))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "nanoid",
+        "pattern": "^[a-zA-Z0-9_-]{64}$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.cuid2())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "cuid2",
+        "pattern": "^[0-9a-z]+$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.ulid())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "ulid",
+        "pattern": "^[0-7][0-9A-HJKMNP-TV-Za-hjkmnp-tv-z]{25}$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    // expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.cidr())).toMatchInlineSnapshot();
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.int())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "maximum": 9007199254740991,
+        "minimum": -9007199254740991,
+        "type": "integer",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.int32())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "maximum": 2147483647,
+        "minimum": -2147483648,
+        "type": "integer",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.float32())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "maximum": 3.4028234663852886e+38,
+        "minimum": -3.4028234663852886e+38,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.float64())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "maximum": 1.7976931348623157e+308,
+        "minimum": -1.7976931348623157e+308,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.jwt())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "jwt",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("unsupported schema types", () => {
+    expect(() => z.toJSONSchema(z.bigint())).toThrow("BigInt cannot be represented in JSON Schema");
+    expect(() => z.toJSONSchema(z.int64())).toThrow("BigInt cannot be represented in JSON Schema");
+    expect(() => z.toJSONSchema(z.symbol())).toThrow("Symbols cannot be represented in JSON Schema");
+    expect(() => z.toJSONSchema(z.void())).toThrow("Void cannot be represented in JSON Schema");
+    expect(() => z.toJSONSchema(z.undefined())).toThrow("Undefined cannot be represented in JSON Schema");
+    expect(() => z.toJSONSchema(z.date())).toThrow("Date cannot be represented in JSON Schema");
+    expect(() => z.toJSONSchema(z.map(z.string(), z.number()))).toThrow("Map cannot be represented in JSON Schema");
+    expect(() => z.toJSONSchema(z.set(z.string()))).toThrow("Set cannot be represented in JSON Schema");
+    expect(() => z.toJSONSchema(z.custom(() => true))).toThrow("Custom types cannot be represented in JSON Schema");
+
+    // Transform
+    const transformSchema = z.string().transform((val) => Number.parseInt(val));
+    expect(() => z.toJSONSchema(transformSchema)).toThrow("Transforms cannot be represented in JSON Schema");
+
+    // Static catch values
+    const staticCatchSchema = z.string().catch(() => "sup");
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(staticCatchSchema)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "default": "sup",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+
+    // Dynamic catch values
+    const dynamicCatchSchema = z.string().catch((ctx) => `${ctx.issues.length}`);
+    expect(() => z.toJSONSchema(dynamicCatchSchema)).toThrow("Dynamic catch values are not supported in JSON Schema");
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(dynamicCatchSchema, { unrepresentable: "any" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("string formats", () => {
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.string().email())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "email",
+        "pattern": "^(?:[A-Za-z0-9_'+\\-]+\\.)*[A-Za-z0-9_'+\\-]*[A-Za-z0-9_+-]@(?:[A-Za-z0-9][A-Za-z0-9\\-]*\\.)+[A-Za-z]{2,}$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.string().uuid())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "uuid",
+        "pattern": "^([0-9a-fA-F]{8}-[0-9a-fA-F]{4}-[1-8][0-9a-fA-F]{3}-[89abAB][0-9a-fA-F]{3}-[0-9a-fA-F]{12}|00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000|ffffffff-ffff-ffff-ffff-ffffffffffff)$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.iso.datetime())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "date-time",
+        "pattern": "^(?:(?:\\d\\d[2468][048]|\\d\\d[13579][26]|\\d\\d0[48]|[02468][048]00|[13579][26]00)-02-29|\\d{4}-(?:(?:0[13578]|1[02])-(?:0[1-9]|[12]\\d|3[01])|(?:0[469]|11)-(?:0[1-9]|[12]\\d|30)|(?:02)-(?:0[1-9]|1\\d|2[0-8])))T(?:(?:[01]\\d|2[0-3]):[0-5]\\d:[0-5]\\d(?:\\.\\d+)?(?:Z))$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.iso.date())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "date",
+        "pattern": "^(?:(?:\\d\\d[2468][048]|\\d\\d[13579][26]|\\d\\d0[48]|[02468][048]00|[13579][26]00)-02-29|\\d{4}-(?:(?:0[13578]|1[02])-(?:0[1-9]|[12]\\d|3[01])|(?:0[469]|11)-(?:0[1-9]|[12]\\d|30)|(?:02)-(?:0[1-9]|1\\d|2[0-8])))$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.iso.time())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "pattern": "^(?:[01]\\d|2[0-3]):[0-5]\\d(?::[0-5]\\d(?:\\.\\d+)?)?$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.iso.duration())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "duration",
+        "pattern": "^P(?:(\\d+W)|(?!.*W)(?=\\d|T\\d)(\\d+Y)?(\\d+M)?(\\d+D)?(T(?=\\d)(\\d+H)?(\\d+M)?(\\d+([.,]\\d+)?S)?)?)$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    // expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.string().ip())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    //   {
+    //     "pattern": /\\(\\^\\(\\?:\\(\\?:25\\[0-5\\]\\|2\\[0-4\\]\\[0-9\\]\\|1\\[0-9\\]\\[0-9\\]\\|\\[1-9\\]\\[0-9\\]\\|\\[0-9\\]\\)\\\\\\.\\)\\{3\\}\\(\\?:25\\[0-5\\]\\|2\\[0-4\\]\\[0-9\\]\\|1\\[0-9\\]\\[0-9\\]\\|\\[1-9\\]\\[0-9\\]\\|\\[0-9\\]\\)\\$\\)\\|\\(\\^\\(\\(\\[a-fA-F0-9\\]\\{1,4\\}:\\)\\{7\\}\\|::\\(\\[a-fA-F0-9\\]\\{1,4\\}:\\)\\{0,6\\}\\|\\(\\[a-fA-F0-9\\]\\{1,4\\}:\\)\\{1\\}:\\(\\[a-fA-F0-9\\]\\{1,4\\}:\\)\\{0,5\\}\\|\\(\\[a-fA-F0-9\\]\\{1,4\\}:\\)\\{2\\}:\\(\\[a-fA-F0-9\\]\\{1,4\\}:\\)\\{0,4\\}\\|\\(\\[a-fA-F0-9\\]\\{1,4\\}:\\)\\{3\\}:\\(\\[a-fA-F0-9\\]\\{1,4\\}:\\)\\{0,3\\}\\|\\(\\[a-fA-F0-9\\]\\{1,4\\}:\\)\\{4\\}:\\(\\[a-fA-F0-9\\]\\{1,4\\}:\\)\\{0,2\\}\\|\\(\\[a-fA-F0-9\\]\\{1,4\\}:\\)\\{5\\}:\\(\\[a-fA-F0-9\\]\\{1,4\\}:\\)\\{0,1\\}\\)\\(\\[a-fA-F0-9\\]\\{1,4\\}\\|\\(\\(\\(25\\[0-5\\]\\)\\|\\(2\\[0-4\\]\\[0-9\\]\\)\\|\\(1\\[0-9\\]\\{2\\}\\)\\|\\(\\[0-9\\]\\{1,2\\}\\)\\)\\\\\\.\\)\\{3\\}\\(\\(25\\[0-5\\]\\)\\|\\(2\\[0-4\\]\\[0-9\\]\\)\\|\\(1\\[0-9\\]\\{2\\}\\)\\|\\(\\[0-9\\]\\{1,2\\}\\)\\)\\)\\$\\)/,
+    //     "type": "string",
+    //   }
+    // `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.ipv4())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "ipv4",
+        "pattern": "^(?:(?:25[0-5]|2[0-4][0-9]|1[0-9][0-9]|[1-9][0-9]|[0-9])\\.){3}(?:25[0-5]|2[0-4][0-9]|1[0-9][0-9]|[1-9][0-9]|[0-9])$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.ipv6())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "ipv6",
+        "pattern": "^(([0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}:){7}[0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}|([0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}:){1,7}:|([0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}:){1,6}:[0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}|([0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}:){1,5}(:[0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}){1,2}|([0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}:){1,4}(:[0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}){1,3}|([0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}:){1,3}(:[0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}){1,4}|([0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}:){1,2}(:[0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}){1,5}|[0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}:((:[0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}){1,6})|:((:[0-9a-fA-F]{1,4}){1,7}|:))$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.mac())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "mac",
+        "pattern": "^(?:[0-9A-F]{2}:){5}[0-9A-F]{2}$|^(?:[0-9a-f]{2}:){5}[0-9a-f]{2}$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.mac({ delimiter: ":" }))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "mac",
+        "pattern": "^(?:[0-9A-F]{2}:){5}[0-9A-F]{2}$|^(?:[0-9a-f]{2}:){5}[0-9a-f]{2}$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.mac({ delimiter: "-" }))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "mac",
+        "pattern": "^(?:[0-9A-F]{2}-){5}[0-9A-F]{2}$|^(?:[0-9a-f]{2}-){5}[0-9a-f]{2}$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.base64())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "contentEncoding": "base64",
+        "format": "base64",
+        "pattern": "^$|^(?:[0-9a-zA-Z+/]{4})*(?:(?:[0-9a-zA-Z+/]{2}==)|(?:[0-9a-zA-Z+/]{3}=))?$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.url())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "uri",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.guid())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "uuid",
+        "pattern": "^([0-9a-fA-F]{8}-[0-9a-fA-F]{4}-[0-9a-fA-F]{4}-[0-9a-fA-F]{4}-[0-9a-fA-F]{12})$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.string().regex(/asdf/))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "pattern": "asdf",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("base64url pattern agrees with parse", () => {
+    const schema = z.base64url();
+    const pattern = new RegExp(z.toJSONSchema(schema).pattern!);
+    // lengths 1 (mod 4) carry no whole byte; the emitted pattern must reject them like parse does
+    for (const s of ["", "A", "AA", "AAA", "AAAA", "AAAAA"]) {
+      expect(pattern.test(s)).toBe(schema.safeParse(s).success);
+    }
+  });
+
+  test("base64 pattern agrees with parse", () => {
+    const schema = z.base64();
+    const pattern = new RegExp(z.toJSONSchema(schema).pattern!);
+    // the runtime def.pattern is lax; the emitted pattern must still carry the block structure parse enforces
+    for (const s of ["", "A", "AA", "AAA", "AAAA", "AAAAA", "AA==", "AAA=", "A===", "=", "AAAA=="]) {
+      expect(pattern.test(s)).toBe(schema.safeParse(s).success);
+    }
+  });
+
+  test("looseRecord with a format key emits the exact pattern", () => {
+    // recordProcessor reads bag.patterns directly; it must apply the same lax-to-exact swap as stringProcessor
+    const json = z.toJSONSchema(z.looseRecord(z.base64url(), z.number()));
+    expect(Object.keys(json.patternProperties!)).toEqual([z.regexes.base64url.source]);
+  });
+
+  test("string patterns", () => {
+    expect(
+      z.toJSONSchema(
+        z
+          .string()
+          .startsWith("hello")
+          .includes("cruel")
+          .includes("dark", { position: 10 })
+          .endsWith("world")
+          .regex(/stuff/)
+      )
+    ).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "allOf": [
+          {
+            "pattern": "^hello.*",
+          },
+          {
+            "pattern": "cruel",
+          },
+          {
+            "pattern": "^.{10,}dark",
+          },
+          {
+            "pattern": ".*world$",
+          },
+          {
+            "pattern": "stuff",
+          },
+        ],
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+
+    expect(
+      z.toJSONSchema(
+        z
+          .string()
+          .startsWith("hello")
+          .includes("cruel")
+          .includes("dark", { position: 10 })
+          .endsWith("world")
+          .regex(/stuff/),
+        {
+          target: "draft-7",
+        }
+      )
+    ).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "http://json-schema.org/draft-07/schema#",
+        "allOf": [
+          {
+            "pattern": "^hello.*",
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+          {
+            "pattern": "cruel",
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+          {
+            "pattern": "^.{10,}dark",
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+          {
+            "pattern": ".*world$",
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+          {
+            "pattern": "stuff",
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+        ],
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("includes, startsWith and endsWith emit only a pattern, not a format", () => {
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.string().includes("x"))).toEqual({
+      $schema: "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      type: "string",
+      pattern: "x",
+    });
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.string().startsWith("x"))).toEqual({
+      $schema: "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      type: "string",
+      pattern: "^x.*",
+    });
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.string().endsWith("x"))).toEqual({
+      $schema: "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      type: "string",
+      pattern: ".*x$",
+    });
+
+    // a real format survives these checks in either chain order, on every target
+    for (const target of ["draft-2020-12", "draft-7", "openapi-3.0"] as const) {
+      for (const [format, base, sub] of [
+        ["uri", z.url(), z.string()],
+        ["email", z.email(), z.string()],
+      ] as const) {
+        for (const check of ["includes", "startsWith", "endsWith"] as const) {
+          expect(z.toJSONSchema(base[check]("x"), { target })).toMatchObject({ format });
+          expect(z.toJSONSchema(sub[check]("x")[format === "uri" ? "url" : "email"](), { target })).toMatchObject({
+            format,
+          });
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    // lowercase and uppercase still emit their own format
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.string().lowercase())).toMatchObject({ format: "lowercase" });
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.string().uppercase())).toMatchObject({ format: "uppercase" });
+  });
+
+  test("includes with position emits a pattern matching runtime semantics", () => {
+    // String.prototype.includes(sub, position) matches `sub` at `position` OR
+    // LATER, so the JSON Schema pattern must allow >= position leading chars.
+    const schema = z.string().includes("foo", { position: 2 });
+    const json = z.toJSONSchema(schema) as { pattern?: string };
+    expect(json.pattern).toBe("^.{2,}foo");
+
+    const re = new RegExp(json.pattern!);
+    for (const input of ["xxfoo", "xxxfoo", "xfoo", "ab"]) {
+      expect(re.test(input)).toBe(schema.safeParse(input).success);
+    }
+  });
+
+  test("number constraints", () => {
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().min(5).max(10))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(
+      `
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "maximum": 10,
+        "minimum": 5,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `
+    );
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().gt(5).gt(10))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "exclusiveMinimum": 10,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().gt(5).gte(10))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "minimum": 10,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().lt(5).lt(3))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "exclusiveMaximum": 3,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().lt(5).lt(3).lte(2))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "maximum": 2,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().lt(5).lte(3))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "maximum": 3,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().gt(5).lt(10))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "exclusiveMaximum": 10,
+        "exclusiveMinimum": 5,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().gte(5).lte(10))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "maximum": 10,
+        "minimum": 5,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().positive())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "exclusiveMinimum": 0,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().negative())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "exclusiveMaximum": 0,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().nonpositive())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "maximum": 0,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().nonnegative())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "minimum": 0,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("number constraints draft-4", () => {
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().gt(5).lt(10), { target: "draft-4" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "http://json-schema.org/draft-04/schema#",
+        "exclusiveMaximum": true,
+        "exclusiveMinimum": true,
+        "maximum": 10,
+        "minimum": 5,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("number constraints intersection draft-04", () => {
+    // When both minimum (from .int()) and exclusiveMinimum (from .positive()) exist, the more restrictive constraint should be used
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().int().positive().lte(65535), { target: "draft-04" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "http://json-schema.org/draft-04/schema#",
+        "exclusiveMinimum": true,
+        "maximum": 65535,
+        "minimum": 0,
+        "type": "integer",
+      }
+    `);
+    // Same for openapi-3.0
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().int().positive().lte(65535), { target: "openapi-3.0" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "exclusiveMinimum": true,
+        "maximum": 65535,
+        "minimum": 0,
+        "type": "integer",
+      }
+    `);
+    // When inclusive minimum is more restrictive than exclusive minimum
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().gt(3).gte(10), { target: "draft-04" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "http://json-schema.org/draft-04/schema#",
+        "minimum": 10,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+    // Same logic for maximum constraints
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().int().negative(), { target: "draft-04" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "http://json-schema.org/draft-04/schema#",
+        "exclusiveMaximum": true,
+        "maximum": 0,
+        "minimum": -9007199254740991,
+        "type": "integer",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("number constraints order independence with int()", () => {
+    // .int() applied last should not overwrite the tighter bounds .min()/.max() already stored
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().int().min(0).max(23))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "maximum": 23,
+        "minimum": 0,
+        "type": "integer",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().min(0).max(23).int())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "maximum": 23,
+        "minimum": 0,
+        "type": "integer",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("chained multipleOf divisors emit the whole conjunction", () => {
+    // runtime rejects 4 (not a multiple of 3), so the emitted schema must too
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().multipleOf(2).multipleOf(3))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "allOf": [
+          {
+            "multipleOf": 3,
+          },
+        ],
+        "multipleOf": 2,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("length() does not overwrite a tighter earlier bound", () => {
+    // min(8) + length(5) matches nothing at runtime; the emitted bounds stay honest about that
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.string().min(8).length(5))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "maxLength": 5,
+        "minLength": 8,
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("an integer format keeps the emitted type integer whatever format lands last", () => {
+    // runtime rejects 1.5 in both orders, so both must emit type integer
+    const after = z.number().int().check(z.float32());
+    expect(after.safeParse(1.5).success).toBe(false);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(after).type).toBe("integer");
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().check(z.float32()).int()).type).toBe("integer");
+  });
+
+  test("disjoint mime checks emit a false schema, not an unconstrained file", () => {
+    const file = z.file().mime("image/png").mime("text/plain");
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(file)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "contentEncoding": "binary",
+        "format": "binary",
+        "not": {},
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("a custom mime narrowing via onattach intersects with built-in mime checks", () => {
+    const check = {
+      _zod: {
+        def: { check: "custom_mime" },
+        onattach: [
+          (inst: any) => {
+            inst._zod.bag.mime = ["text/plain"];
+          },
+        ],
+        check: () => {},
+      },
+    };
+    const file = z
+      .file()
+      .mime(["image/png", "text/plain"])
+      .check(check as any);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(file).contentMediaType).toBe("text/plain");
+  });
+
+  test("a custom check contributing via onattach still lands", () => {
+    // third-party checks have no converter handler; their bag writes are merged in as a fallback
+    const check = {
+      _zod: {
+        def: { check: "custom_range" },
+        onattach: [
+          (inst: any) => {
+            const bag = inst._zod.bag;
+            if (bag.minimum === undefined || 5 > bag.minimum) bag.minimum = 5;
+          },
+        ],
+        check: () => {},
+      },
+    };
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().check(check as any))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "minimum": 5,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("target normalization draft-04 and draft-07", () => {
+    // Test that both old (draft-4, draft-7) and new (draft-04, draft-07) target formats work
+
+    // Test draft-04 / draft-4
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().gt(5), { target: "draft-04" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "http://json-schema.org/draft-04/schema#",
+        "exclusiveMinimum": true,
+        "minimum": 5,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().gt(5), { target: "draft-4" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "http://json-schema.org/draft-04/schema#",
+        "exclusiveMinimum": true,
+        "minimum": 5,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+    // Test draft-07 / draft-7
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().gt(5), { target: "draft-07" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "http://json-schema.org/draft-07/schema#",
+        "exclusiveMinimum": 5,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().gt(5), { target: "draft-7" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "http://json-schema.org/draft-07/schema#",
+        "exclusiveMinimum": 5,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("nullable openapi-3.0", () => {
+    const schema = z.string().nullable();
+    const jsonSchema = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "openapi-3.0" });
+    validateOpenAPI30Schema(jsonSchema);
+    expect(jsonSchema).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "nullable": true,
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("union with null openapi-3.0", () => {
+    const schema = z.union([z.string(), z.null()]);
+    const jsonSchema = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "openapi-3.0" });
+    validateOpenAPI30Schema(jsonSchema);
+    expect(jsonSchema).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "anyOf": [
+          {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+          {
+            "enum": [
+              null,
+            ],
+            "nullable": true,
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+        ],
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("number with exclusive min-max openapi-3.0", () => {
+    const schema = z.number().lt(100).gt(1);
+    const jsonSchema = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "openapi-3.0" });
+    validateOpenAPI30Schema(jsonSchema);
+    expect(jsonSchema).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "exclusiveMaximum": true,
+        "exclusiveMinimum": true,
+        "maximum": 100,
+        "minimum": 1,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("arrays", () => {
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.array(z.string()))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "items": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "type": "array",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("unions", () => {
+    const schema = z.union([z.string(), z.number()]);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "type": [
+          "string",
+          "number",
+        ],
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("nullable compacts to a type array", () => {
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.string().nullable())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "type": [
+          "string",
+          "null",
+        ],
+      }
+    `);
+
+    // a nested union folds into the outer type array rather than leaving a mixed shape
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.union([z.string(), z.number()]).nullable())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "type": [
+          "string",
+          "number",
+          "null",
+        ],
+      }
+    `);
+
+    // the null branch is bare but the object branch is not, so this stays an anyOf
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.object({ a: z.string() }).nullable())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "anyOf": [
+          {
+            "additionalProperties": false,
+            "properties": {
+              "a": {
+                "type": "string",
+              },
+            },
+            "required": [
+              "a",
+            ],
+            "type": "object",
+          },
+          {
+            "type": "null",
+          },
+        ],
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("duplicate branches dedupe, single branch stays a bare type", () => {
+    // a `type` array must have unique members, so two branches that erase to the same bare type collapse
+    const refined = z.union([z.string().refine((s) => s.length > 2), z.string().refine((s) => s.length < 9)]);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(refined)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.union([z.string()]))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("compaction runs after overrides and ref extraction", () => {
+    // an override decorates the string branch, so it is no longer a bare type and must survive in anyOf
+    const decorated = z.toJSONSchema(z.union([z.string(), z.number()]), {
+      override(ctx) {
+        if (ctx.zodSchema._zod.def.type === "string") ctx.jsonSchema.whatever = "sup";
+      },
+    });
+    expect(decorated).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "anyOf": [
+          {
+            "type": "string",
+            "whatever": "sup",
+          },
+          {
+            "type": "number",
+          },
+        ],
+      }
+    `);
+
+    // a branch extracted into $defs is a $ref, not a bare type, so `reused` is not silently bypassed
+    const shared = z.string();
+    expect(
+      z.toJSONSchema(z.object({ a: shared, b: z.union([shared, z.null()]) }), { reused: "ref" })
+    ).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$defs": {
+          "__schema0": {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+        },
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "additionalProperties": false,
+        "properties": {
+          "a": {
+            "$ref": "#/$defs/__schema0",
+          },
+          "b": {
+            "anyOf": [
+              {
+                "$ref": "#/$defs/__schema0",
+              },
+              {
+                "type": "null",
+              },
+            ],
+          },
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "a",
+          "b",
+        ],
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("openapi-3.0 keeps a single-string type", () => {
+    // OpenAPI 3.0 has no type arrays; nullability is spelled with `nullable`
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.string().nullable(), { target: "openapi-3.0" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "nullable": true,
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("union with constrained branch is not compacted", () => {
+    const schema = z.union([z.string().min(1), z.number()]);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "anyOf": [
+          {
+            "minLength": 1,
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+          {
+            "type": "number",
+          },
+        ],
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("union of literals is not compacted", () => {
+    const schema = z.union([z.literal("a"), z.literal("b")]);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "anyOf": [
+          {
+            "const": "a",
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+          {
+            "const": "b",
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+        ],
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("discriminated unions", () => {
+    const schema = z.discriminatedUnion("type", [
+      z.object({ type: z.literal("success"), data: z.string() }),
+      z.object({ type: z.literal("error"), message: z.string() }),
+    ]);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "oneOf": [
+          {
+            "additionalProperties": false,
+            "properties": {
+              "data": {
+                "type": "string",
+              },
+              "type": {
+                "const": "success",
+                "type": "string",
+              },
+            },
+            "required": [
+              "type",
+              "data",
+            ],
+            "type": "object",
+          },
+          {
+            "additionalProperties": false,
+            "properties": {
+              "message": {
+                "type": "string",
+              },
+              "type": {
+                "const": "error",
+                "type": "string",
+              },
+            },
+            "required": [
+              "type",
+              "message",
+            ],
+            "type": "object",
+          },
+        ],
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("intersections", () => {
+    const schema = z.intersection(z.object({ name: z.string() }), z.object({ age: z.number() }));
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "additionalProperties": false,
+        "properties": {
+          "age": {
+            "type": "number",
+          },
+          "name": {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "name",
+          "age",
+        ],
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("record", () => {
+    const schema = z.record(z.string(), z.boolean());
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "additionalProperties": {
+          "type": "boolean",
+        },
+        "propertyNames": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("record openapi-3.0", () => {
+    const schema = z.record(z.string(), z.boolean());
+    const jsonSchema = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "openapi-3.0" });
+    validateOpenAPI30Schema(jsonSchema);
+    expect(jsonSchema).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "additionalProperties": {
+          "type": "boolean",
+        },
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("record with enum keys adds required", () => {
+    const schema = z.record(z.enum(["key1", "key2"]), z.number());
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "additionalProperties": {
+          "type": "number",
+        },
+        "propertyNames": {
+          "enum": [
+            "key1",
+            "key2",
+          ],
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "key1",
+          "key2",
+        ],
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("record with enum keys drops required for an optional-in value under io: input", () => {
+    const schema = z.record(z.enum(["key1", "key2"]), z.number().default(0));
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema, { io: "input" }).required).toBeUndefined();
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema).required).toEqual(["key1", "key2"]);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.record(z.enum(["key1", "key2"]), z.number()), { io: "input" }).required).toEqual([
+      "key1",
+      "key2",
+    ]);
+    // A caught value keeps required, matching the input type and z.object().
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.record(z.enum(["key1", "key2"]), z.number().catch(0)), { io: "input" }).required).toEqual([
+      "key1",
+      "key2",
+    ]);
+  });
+
+  test("record stringifies numeric enum keys for propertyNames and required", () => {
+    enum NumberEnum {
+      Zero = 0,
+      One = 1,
+    }
+    const schema = z.record(z.enum(NumberEnum), z.string());
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "additionalProperties": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "propertyNames": {
+          "enum": [
+            "0",
+            "1",
+          ],
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "0",
+          "1",
+        ],
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("record with a numeric key emits propertyNames over the numeric-string form", () => {
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.record(z.number(), z.boolean())).propertyNames).toEqual({
+      type: "string",
+      pattern: "^-?\\d+(?:\\.\\d+)?$",
+    });
+    // range checks can't apply to a key, so only the integer shape survives
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.record(z.int32(), z.boolean())).propertyNames).toEqual({
+      type: "string",
+      pattern: "^-?\\d+$",
+    });
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.record(z.literal([1, 2]), z.boolean()))).toMatchObject({
+      propertyNames: { type: "string", enum: ["1", "2"] },
+      required: ["1", "2"],
+    });
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.record(z.literal(1), z.boolean())).propertyNames).toEqual({
+      type: "string",
+      const: "1",
+    });
+  });
+
+  test("record key rewrite reaches through wrappers and union branches", () => {
+    const numericString = { type: "string", pattern: "^-?\\d+(?:\\.\\d+)?$" };
+    // a wrapper only carries its inner type once the refs are flattened, so this is decided after the record itself is emitted
+    expect(
+      z.toJSONSchema(
+        z.record(
+          z.lazy(() => z.number()),
+          z.boolean()
+        )
+      ).propertyNames
+    ).toEqual(numericString);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.record(z.number().pipe(z.number()), z.boolean())).propertyNames).toEqual(numericString);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.record(z.number().readonly(), z.boolean())).propertyNames).toMatchObject(numericString);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.record(z.union([z.literal("Tuna"), z.literal(21)]), z.string()))).toMatchObject({
+      propertyNames: {
+        anyOf: [
+          { type: "string", const: "Tuna" },
+          { type: "string", const: "21" },
+        ],
+      },
+      required: ["Tuna", "21"],
+    });
+  });
+
+  test("record with a numeric key inlines an extracted key, and leaves a string one referenced", () => {
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.record(z.number().meta({ id: "Num" }), z.boolean())).propertyNames).toEqual({
+      type: "string",
+      pattern: "^-?\\d+(?:\\.\\d+)?$",
+    });
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.record(z.string().meta({ id: "Str" }), z.boolean())).propertyNames).toEqual({
+      $ref: "#/$defs/Str",
+    });
+    // the value position still wants the number form, so the two cannot share one def
+    const key = z.number().meta({ id: "Shared" });
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.object({ a: key, b: z.record(key, z.string()) }))).toMatchObject({
+      properties: { a: { $ref: "#/$defs/Shared" }, b: { propertyNames: { type: "string" } } },
+      $defs: { Shared: { type: "number" } },
+    });
+  });
+
+  test("record key rewrite reaches a wrapped record", () => {
+    // the flatten copies a record's properties onto its wrapper by reference, so the rewrite has to find every copy
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.record(z.number(), z.boolean()).optional()).propertyNames).toEqual({
+      type: "string",
+      pattern: "^-?\\d+(?:\\.\\d+)?$",
+    });
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.object({ a: z.record(z.literal([1, 2]), z.boolean()).optional() }))).toMatchObject({
+      properties: { a: { propertyNames: { type: "string", enum: ["1", "2"] }, required: ["1", "2"] } },
+    });
+  });
+
+  test("record with a recursive key converts without looping", () => {
+    const numeric: any = z.lazy(() => z.union([z.number(), numeric]));
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.record(numeric, z.boolean())).propertyNames).toMatchObject({
+      anyOf: [{ type: "string", pattern: "^-?\\d+(?:\\.\\d+)?$" }, { $ref: "#/$defs/__schema0" }],
+    });
+    // a key with nothing to re-express keeps the reference it had
+    const stringy: any = z.lazy(() => z.union([z.string(), stringy]));
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.record(stringy, z.boolean())).propertyNames).toEqual({ $ref: "#/$defs/__schema0" });
+    expect(
+      z.toJSONSchema(z.record(z.union([z.literal("a"), z.literal("b")]).meta({ id: "Keys" }), z.boolean()))
+        .propertyNames
+    ).toEqual({ $ref: "#/$defs/Keys" });
+  });
+
+  test("record with a heterogeneous key stringifies only its numeric members", () => {
+    // a mixed key carries no `type`, so the numeric members are caught by value rather than by type
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.record(z.literal(["a", 1]), z.boolean()))).toMatchObject({
+      propertyNames: { enum: ["a", "1"] },
+      required: ["a", "1"],
+    });
+    // a member no key can spell is left as it was, since the parser only ever retries a key as a number
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.record(z.literal(["a", true]) as any, z.boolean())).propertyNames).toEqual({
+      enum: ["a", true],
+    });
+  });
+
+  test("record stringifies required for every target", () => {
+    const schema = z.record(z.literal([1, 2]), z.boolean());
+    for (const target of ["draft-2020-12", "draft-7", "draft-4", "openapi-3.0"] as const) {
+      expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target }).required).toEqual(["1", "2"]);
+    }
+  });
+
+  test("strict record with regex key uses propertyNames", () => {
+    const schema = z.record(z.string().regex(/^label:[a-z]{2}$/), z.string());
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "additionalProperties": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "propertyNames": {
+          "pattern": "^label:[a-z]{2}$",
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("looseRecord with regex key uses patternProperties", () => {
+    const schema = z.looseRecord(z.string().regex(/^label:[a-z]{2}$/), z.string());
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "patternProperties": {
+          "^label:[a-z]{2}$": {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+        },
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("looseRecord with multiple regex patterns uses patternProperties", () => {
+    const schema = z.looseRecord(
+      z
+        .string()
+        .regex(/^prefix_/)
+        .regex(/_suffix$/),
+      z.number()
+    );
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "patternProperties": {
+          "^prefix_": {
+            "type": "number",
+          },
+          "_suffix$": {
+            "type": "number",
+          },
+        },
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("looseRecord without regex key uses propertyNames", () => {
+    // looseRecord with plain string key should still use propertyNames
+    const schema = z.looseRecord(z.string(), z.boolean());
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "additionalProperties": {
+          "type": "boolean",
+        },
+        "propertyNames": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("intersection of object with looseRecord uses patternProperties", () => {
+    const zLabeled = z.object({ label: z.string() });
+    const zLocalizedLabeled = z.looseRecord(z.string().regex(/^label:[a-z]{2}$/), z.string());
+    const schema = zLabeled.and(zLocalizedLabeled);
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "allOf": [
+          {
+            "additionalProperties": false,
+            "properties": {
+              "label": {
+                "type": "string",
+              },
+            },
+            "required": [
+              "label",
+            ],
+            "type": "object",
+          },
+          {
+            "patternProperties": {
+              "^label:[a-z]{2}$": {
+                "type": "string",
+              },
+            },
+            "type": "object",
+          },
+        ],
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("tuple", () => {
+    const schema = z.tuple([z.string(), z.number()]);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "items": false,
+        "maxItems": 2,
+        "minItems": 2,
+        "prefixItems": [
+          {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+          {
+            "type": "number",
+          },
+        ],
+        "type": "array",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("tuple with rest", () => {
+    const schema = z.tuple([z.string(), z.number()]).rest(z.boolean());
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "items": {
+          "type": "boolean",
+        },
+        "minItems": 2,
+        "prefixItems": [
+          {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+          {
+            "type": "number",
+          },
+        ],
+        "type": "array",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("tuple openapi-3.0", () => {
+    const schema = z.tuple([z.string(), z.number()]);
+    const jsonSchema = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "openapi-3.0" });
+    validateOpenAPI30Schema(jsonSchema);
+    expect(jsonSchema).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "items": {
+          "anyOf": [
+            {
+              "type": "string",
+            },
+            {
+              "type": "number",
+            },
+          ],
+        },
+        "maxItems": 2,
+        "minItems": 2,
+        "type": "array",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("tuple with rest openapi-3.0", () => {
+    const schema = z.tuple([z.string(), z.number()]).rest(z.boolean());
+    const jsonSchema = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "openapi-3.0" });
+    validateOpenAPI30Schema(jsonSchema);
+    expect(jsonSchema).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "items": {
+          "anyOf": [
+            {
+              "type": "string",
+            },
+            {
+              "type": "number",
+            },
+            {
+              "type": "boolean",
+            },
+          ],
+        },
+        "minItems": 2,
+        "type": "array",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("tuple with null openapi-3.0", () => {
+    const schema = z.tuple([z.string(), z.number(), z.null()]);
+    const jsonSchema = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "openapi-3.0" });
+    validateOpenAPI30Schema(jsonSchema);
+    expect(jsonSchema).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "items": {
+          "anyOf": [
+            {
+              "type": "string",
+            },
+            {
+              "type": "number",
+            },
+            {
+              "enum": [
+                null,
+              ],
+              "nullable": true,
+              "type": "string",
+            },
+          ],
+        },
+        "maxItems": 3,
+        "minItems": 3,
+        "type": "array",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("tuple draft-7", () => {
+    const schema = z.tuple([z.string(), z.number()]);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "draft-7", io: "input" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "http://json-schema.org/draft-07/schema#",
+        "additionalItems": false,
+        "items": [
+          {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+          {
+            "type": "number",
+          },
+        ],
+        "maxItems": 2,
+        "minItems": 2,
+        "type": "array",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("tuple with rest draft-7", () => {
+    const schema = z.tuple([z.string(), z.number()]).rest(z.boolean());
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "draft-7", io: "input" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "http://json-schema.org/draft-07/schema#",
+        "additionalItems": {
+          "type": "boolean",
+        },
+        "items": [
+          {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+          {
+            "type": "number",
+          },
+        ],
+        "minItems": 2,
+        "type": "array",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("tuple with rest draft-7 - issue #5151 regression test", () => {
+    // This test addresses issue #5151: tuple with rest elements and ids in draft-7 had incorrect internal path handling affecting complex scenarios
+    const primarySchema = z.string().meta({ id: "primary" });
+    const restSchema = z.number().meta({ id: "rest" });
+    const testSchema = z.tuple([primarySchema], restSchema);
+
+    // Test both final output structure AND internal path handling
+    const capturedPaths: string[] = [];
+    const result = z.toJSONSchema(testSchema, {
+      target: "draft-7",
+      override: (ctx) => capturedPaths.push(ctx.path.join("/")),
+    });
+
+    // Verify correct draft-7 structure with metadata extraction
+    expect(result).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "http://json-schema.org/draft-07/schema#",
+        "additionalItems": {
+          "$ref": "#/definitions/rest",
+        },
+        "definitions": {
+          "primary": {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+          "rest": {
+            "type": "number",
+          },
+        },
+        "items": [
+          {
+            "$ref": "#/definitions/primary",
+          },
+        ],
+        "minItems": 1,
+        "type": "array",
+      }
+    `);
+
+    // Verify internal paths are correct (this was the actual bug)
+    expect(capturedPaths).toContain("items/0"); // prefix items should use "items" path
+    expect(capturedPaths).toContain("additionalItems"); // rest should use "additionalItems" path
+    expect(capturedPaths).not.toContain("prefixItems/0"); // should not use draft-2020-12 paths
+
+    // Structural validations
+    expect(Array.isArray(result.items)).toBe(true);
+    expect(result.additionalItems).toBeDefined();
+  });
+
+  test("closed tuple length constraints - issue #6193", () => {
+    const schema = z.tuple([z.string(), z.string(), z.object({ lang: z.string() })]);
+
+    expect(schema.safeParse(["a", "b", { lang: "en" }, "extra"]).success).toBe(false);
+
+    const draft2020 = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "draft-2020-12" });
+    expect(draft2020.items).toBe(false);
+    expect(draft2020.minItems).toBe(3);
+    expect(draft2020.maxItems).toBe(3);
+
+    const draft7 = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "draft-7", io: "input" });
+    expect(draft7.additionalItems).toBe(false);
+    expect(draft7.minItems).toBe(3);
+    expect(draft7.maxItems).toBe(3);
+
+    const openapi = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "openapi-3.0" });
+    validateOpenAPI30Schema(openapi);
+    expect(openapi.minItems).toBe(3);
+    expect(openapi.maxItems).toBe(3);
+  });
+
+  test("closed tuple with optional trailing items", () => {
+    const schema = z.tuple([z.string(), z.number().optional()]);
+
+    const draft2020 = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "draft-2020-12" });
+    expect(draft2020.items).toBe(false);
+    expect(draft2020.minItems).toBe(1);
+    expect(draft2020.maxItems).toBe(2);
+
+    const draft7 = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "draft-7", io: "input" });
+    expect(draft7.additionalItems).toBe(false);
+    expect(draft7.minItems).toBe(1);
+    expect(draft7.maxItems).toBe(2);
+  });
+
+  test("empty closed tuple rejects extra elements", () => {
+    const schema = z.tuple([]);
+
+    const draft2020 = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "draft-2020-12" });
+    expect(draft2020).not.toHaveProperty("prefixItems");
+    expect(draft2020.items).toBe(false);
+    expect(draft2020.maxItems).toBe(0);
+
+    const draft7 = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "draft-7", io: "input" });
+    expect(draft7).not.toHaveProperty("items");
+    expect(draft7).not.toHaveProperty("additionalItems");
+    expect(draft7.maxItems).toBe(0);
+
+    const draft4 = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "draft-4" });
+    expect(draft4).not.toHaveProperty("items");
+    expect(draft4).not.toHaveProperty("additionalItems");
+    expect(draft4.maxItems).toBe(0);
+
+    const openapi = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "openapi-3.0" });
+    validateOpenAPI30Schema(openapi);
+    expect(openapi.items).toEqual({});
+    expect(openapi.maxItems).toBe(0);
+  });
+
+  test("empty tuple with rest applies its schema to every item", () => {
+    const schema = z.tuple([]).rest(z.boolean());
+
+    const draft2020 = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "draft-2020-12" });
+    expect(draft2020).not.toHaveProperty("prefixItems");
+    expect(draft2020.items).toEqual({ type: "boolean" });
+
+    for (const target of ["draft-7", "draft-4"] as const) {
+      const result = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target });
+      expect(result.items).toEqual({ type: "boolean" });
+      expect(result).not.toHaveProperty("additionalItems");
+    }
+
+    const openapi = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "openapi-3.0" });
+    validateOpenAPI30Schema(openapi);
+    expect(openapi.items).toEqual({ type: "boolean" });
+  });
+
+  test("empty tuple with rest uses the emitted items path", () => {
+    const schema = z.tuple([]).rest(z.string());
+
+    for (const target of ["draft-2020-12", "draft-7", "draft-4", "openapi-3.0"] as const) {
+      const paths: string[] = [];
+      z.toJSONSchema(schema, {
+        target,
+        override: (ctx) => paths.push(ctx.path.join("/")),
+      });
+      expect(paths).toContain("items");
+      expect(paths).not.toContain("additionalItems");
+      expect(paths).not.toContain("items/0");
+    }
+  });
+
+  test("closed tuple length respects io direction with defaults", () => {
+    const schema = z.tuple([z.string(), z.string().default("x")]);
+
+    const input = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "draft-2020-12", io: "input" });
+    expect(input.items).toBe(false);
+    expect(input.minItems).toBe(1);
+    expect(input.maxItems).toBe(2);
+
+    const output = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "draft-2020-12", io: "output" });
+    expect(output.items).toBe(false);
+    expect(output.minItems).toBe(2);
+    expect(output.maxItems).toBe(2);
+  });
+
+  test("closed tuple length resolves input optionality past transform and catch", () => {
+    const minItems = (schema: z.core.$ZodType, io: "input" | "output") =>
+      z.toJSONSchema(schema, { target: "draft-2020-12", io }).minItems;
+
+    // Both let the parser observe an absent slot, but declare a required input.
+    const pre = z.tuple([z.string(), z.preprocess((v) => v, z.string())]);
+    expect(minItems(pre, "input")).toBe(2);
+    expect(minItems(pre, "output")).toBe(2);
+
+    const caught = z.tuple([z.string(), z.string().catch("x")]);
+    expect(minItems(caught, "input")).toBe(2);
+    expect(minItems(caught, "output")).toBe(2);
+
+    // Resolution passes through the wrapper rather than stopping at it.
+    expect(minItems(z.tuple([z.string(), z.string().optional().catch("x")]), "input")).toBe(1);
+  });
+
+  test("promise", () => {
+    const schema = z.promise(z.string());
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("lazy", () => {
+    const schema = z.lazy(() => z.string());
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  // enum
+  test("enum", () => {
+    const a = z.enum(["a", "b", "c"]);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(a)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "enum": [
+          "a",
+          "b",
+          "c",
+        ],
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+
+    enum B {
+      A = 0,
+      B = 1,
+      C = 2,
+    }
+
+    const b = z.enum(B);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(b)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "enum": [
+          0,
+          1,
+          2,
+        ],
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  // literal
+  test("literal", () => {
+    const a = z.literal("hello");
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(a)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "const": "hello",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+
+    const b = z.literal(7);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(b)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "const": 7,
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+
+    const c = z.literal(["hello", undefined, null, 5, BigInt(1324)]);
+    expect(() => z.toJSONSchema(c)).toThrow();
+
+    const d = z.literal(["hello", null, 5]);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(d)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "enum": [
+          "hello",
+          null,
+          5,
+        ],
+      }
+    `);
+
+    const e = z.literal(["hello", "zod", "v4"]);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(e)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "enum": [
+          "hello",
+          "zod",
+          "v4",
+        ],
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("literal draft-4", () => {
+    const a = z.literal("hello");
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(a, { target: "draft-4" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "http://json-schema.org/draft-04/schema#",
+        "enum": [
+          "hello",
+        ],
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  // pipe
+  test("pipe", () => {
+    const schema = z
+      .string()
+      .transform((val) => Number.parseInt(val))
+      .pipe(z.number());
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "type": "number",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("simple objects", () => {
+    const schema = z.object({
+      name: z.string(),
+      age: z.number(),
+    });
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(
+      `
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "additionalProperties": false,
+        "properties": {
+          "age": {
+            "type": "number",
+          },
+          "name": {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "name",
+          "age",
+        ],
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `
+    );
+  });
+
+  test("additionalproperties in z.object", () => {
+    const a = z.object({
+      name: z.string(),
+    });
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(a)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "additionalProperties": false,
+        "properties": {
+          "name": {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "name",
+        ],
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(a, { io: "input" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "properties": {
+          "name": {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "name",
+        ],
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(
+      z.toJSONSchema(a, {
+        io: "input",
+        override(ctx) {
+          const def = ctx.zodSchema._zod.def;
+          if (def.type === "object" && !def.catchall) {
+            (ctx.jsonSchema as z.core.JSONSchema.ObjectSchema).additionalProperties = false;
+          }
+        },
+      })
+    ).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "additionalProperties": false,
+        "properties": {
+          "name": {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "name",
+        ],
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("catchall objects", () => {
+    const a = z.strictObject({
+      name: z.string(),
+      age: z.number(),
+    });
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(a)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "additionalProperties": false,
+        "properties": {
+          "age": {
+            "type": "number",
+          },
+          "name": {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "name",
+          "age",
+        ],
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+
+    const b = z
+      .object({
+        name: z.string(),
+      })
+      .catchall(z.string());
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(b)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "additionalProperties": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "properties": {
+          "name": {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "name",
+        ],
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+
+    const c = z.looseObject({
+      name: z.string(),
+    });
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(c)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "additionalProperties": {},
+        "properties": {
+          "name": {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "name",
+        ],
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("optional fields - object", () => {
+    const schema = z.object({
+      required: z.string(),
+      optional: z.string().optional(),
+      nonoptional: z.string().optional().nonoptional(),
+    });
+
+    const result = z.toJSONSchema(schema);
+
+    expect(result).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "additionalProperties": false,
+        "properties": {
+          "nonoptional": {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+          "optional": {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+          "required": {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "required",
+          "nonoptional",
+        ],
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("recursive object", () => {
+    interface Category {
+      name: string;
+      subcategories: Category[];
+    }
+
+    const categorySchema: z.ZodType<Category> = z.object({
+      name: z.string(),
+      subcategories: z.array(z.lazy(() => categorySchema)),
+    });
+
+    const result = z.toJSONSchema(categorySchema);
+    expect(result).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "additionalProperties": false,
+        "properties": {
+          "name": {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+          "subcategories": {
+            "items": {
+              "$ref": "#",
+            },
+            "type": "array",
+          },
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "name",
+          "subcategories",
+        ],
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("simple interface", () => {
+    const userSchema = z.object({
+      name: z.string(),
+      age: z.number().optional(),
+    });
+
+    const result = z.toJSONSchema(userSchema);
+    expect(result).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "additionalProperties": false,
+        "properties": {
+          "age": {
+            "type": "number",
+          },
+          "name": {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "name",
+        ],
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("catchall interface", () => {
+    const a = z.strictObject({
+      name: z.string(),
+      age: z.number(),
+    });
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(a)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "additionalProperties": false,
+        "properties": {
+          "age": {
+            "type": "number",
+          },
+          "name": {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "name",
+          "age",
+        ],
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+
+    const b = z
+      .object({
+        name: z.string(),
+      })
+      .catchall(z.string());
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(b)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "additionalProperties": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "properties": {
+          "name": {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "name",
+        ],
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+
+    const c = z.looseObject({
+      name: z.string(),
+    });
+
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(c)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "additionalProperties": {},
+        "properties": {
+          "name": {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "name",
+        ],
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("recursive interface schemas", () => {
+    const TreeNodeSchema = z.object({
+      id: z.string(),
+      get children() {
+        return TreeNodeSchema;
+      },
+    });
+
+    const result = z.toJSONSchema(TreeNodeSchema);
+
+    // Should have definitions for recursive schema
+    expect(JSON.stringify(result, null, 2)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(
+      `
+      "{
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "type": "object",
+        "properties": {
+          "id": {
+            "type": "string"
+          },
+          "children": {
+            "$ref": "#"
+          }
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "id",
+          "children"
+        ],
+        "additionalProperties": false
+      }"
+    `
+    );
+  });
+
+  test("mutually recursive interface schemas", () => {
+    const FolderSchema = z.object({
+      name: z.string(),
+      get files() {
+        return z.array(FileSchema);
+      },
+    });
+
+    const FileSchema = z.object({
+      name: z.string(),
+      get parent() {
+        return FolderSchema;
+      },
+    });
+
+    const result = z.toJSONSchema(FolderSchema);
+
+    // Should have definitions for both schemas
+    expect(JSON.stringify(result, null, 2)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(
+      `
+      "{
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "type": "object",
+        "properties": {
+          "name": {
+            "type": "string"
+          },
+          "files": {
+            "type": "array",
+            "items": {
+              "type": "object",
+              "properties": {
+                "name": {
+                  "type": "string"
+                },
+                "parent": {
+                  "$ref": "#"
+                }
+              },
+              "required": [
+                "name",
+                "parent"
+              ],
+              "additionalProperties": false
+            }
+          }
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "name",
+          "files"
+        ],
+        "additionalProperties": false
+      }"
+    `
+    );
+  });
+});
+
+test("override", () => {
+  const schema = z.toJSONSchema(z.string(), {
+    override: (ctx) => {
+      ctx.zodSchema;
+      ctx.jsonSchema;
+      ctx.jsonSchema.whatever = "sup";
+    },
+  });
+  expect(schema).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "type": "string",
+      "whatever": "sup",
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+test("override: do not run on references", () => {
+  let overrideCount = 0;
+  const schema = z
+    .union([z.string().date(), z.string().datetime(), z.string().datetime({ local: true })])
+    .meta({ a: true })
+    .transform((str) => new Date(str))
+    .meta({ b: true })
+    .pipe(z.date())
+    .meta({ c: true })
+    .brand("dateIn");
+  z.toJSONSchema(schema, {
+    unrepresentable: "any",
+    io: "input",
+    override(_) {
+      overrideCount++;
+    },
+  });
+
+  expect(overrideCount).toBe(12);
+});
+
+test("override with refs", () => {
+  const a = z.string().optional();
+  const result = z.toJSONSchema(a, {
+    override(ctx) {
+      if (ctx.zodSchema._zod.def.type === "string") {
+        ctx.jsonSchema.type = "STRING" as "string";
+      }
+    },
+  });
+
+  expect(result).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "type": "STRING",
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+test("override execution order", () => {
+  const schema = z.union([z.string(), z.number()]);
+  let unionSchema!: any;
+  z.toJSONSchema(schema, {
+    override(ctx) {
+      if (ctx.zodSchema._zod.def.type === "union") {
+        unionSchema = ctx.jsonSchema;
+      }
+    },
+  });
+
+  expect(unionSchema).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "type": [
+        "string",
+        "number",
+      ],
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+test("override with path", () => {
+  const userSchema = z.object({
+    name: z.string(),
+    age: z.number(),
+  });
+
+  const capturedPaths: (string | number)[][] = [];
+
+  z.toJSONSchema(userSchema, {
+    override(ctx) {
+      capturedPaths.push(ctx.path);
+    },
+  });
+
+  expect(capturedPaths).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    [
+      [
+        "properties",
+        "age",
+      ],
+      [
+        "properties",
+        "name",
+      ],
+      [],
+    ]
+  `);
+});
+
+test("pipe", () => {
+  const mySchema = z
+    .string()
+    .transform((val) => val.length)
+    .pipe(z.number());
+  // ZodPipe
+
+  const a = z.toJSONSchema(mySchema);
+  expect(a).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "type": "number",
+    }
+  `);
+  // => { type: "number" }
+
+  const b = z.toJSONSchema(mySchema, { io: "input" });
+  expect(b).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "type": "string",
+    }
+  `);
+  // => { type: "string" }
+});
+
+test("passthrough schemas", () => {
+  const Internal = z.object({
+    num: z.number(),
+    str: z.string(),
+  });
+  //.meta({ id: "Internal" });
+
+  const External = z.object({
+    a: Internal,
+    b: Internal.optional(),
+    c: z.lazy(() => Internal),
+    d: z.promise(Internal),
+    e: z.pipe(Internal, Internal),
+  });
+
+  const result = z.toJSONSchema(External, {
+    reused: "ref",
+  });
+  expect(result).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$defs": {
+        "__schema0": {
+          "additionalProperties": false,
+          "properties": {
+            "num": {
+              "type": "number",
+            },
+            "str": {
+              "type": "string",
+            },
+          },
+          "required": [
+            "num",
+            "str",
+          ],
+          "type": "object",
+        },
+      },
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "additionalProperties": false,
+      "properties": {
+        "a": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/__schema0",
+        },
+        "b": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/__schema0",
+        },
+        "c": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/__schema0",
+        },
+        "d": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/__schema0",
+        },
+        "e": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/__schema0",
+        },
+      },
+      "required": [
+        "a",
+        "c",
+        "d",
+        "e",
+      ],
+      "type": "object",
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+test("extract schemas with id", () => {
+  const name = z.string().meta({ id: "name" });
+  const result = z.toJSONSchema(
+    z.object({
+      first_name: name,
+      last_name: name.nullable(),
+      middle_name: name.optional(),
+      age: z.number().meta({ id: "age" }),
+    })
+  );
+  expect(result).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$defs": {
+        "age": {
+          "type": "number",
+        },
+        "name": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+      },
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "additionalProperties": false,
+      "properties": {
+        "age": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/age",
+        },
+        "first_name": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/name",
+        },
+        "last_name": {
+          "anyOf": [
+            {
+              "$ref": "#/$defs/name",
+            },
+            {
+              "type": "null",
+            },
+          ],
+        },
+        "middle_name": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/name",
+        },
+      },
+      "required": [
+        "first_name",
+        "last_name",
+        "age",
+      ],
+      "type": "object",
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+test("escapes JSON Pointer reserved characters in $ref but not in $defs key", () => {
+  const User = z.object({ name: z.string() }).meta({ id: "Shared/User~" });
+  const result = z.toJSONSchema(z.object({ User }));
+  // the $ref pointer escapes `/` -> `~1` and `~` -> `~0` (RFC 6901),
+  // while the $defs key keeps the original id
+  expect((result.properties!.User as any).$ref).toBe("#/$defs/Shared~1User~0");
+  expect(Object.keys(result.$defs!)).toEqual(["Shared/User~"]);
+});
+
+test("escapes JSON Pointer reserved characters in the root $ref", () => {
+  const User = z.object({ name: z.string() }).meta({ id: "Shared/User~" });
+  const result = z.toJSONSchema(User);
+  expect(result.$ref).toBe("#/$defs/Shared~1User~0");
+  expect(Object.keys(result.$defs!)).toEqual(["Shared/User~"]);
+});
+
+test("a multipleOf divisor JSON Schema cannot express goes through `unrepresentable`", () => {
+  // the keyword must be strictly greater than zero, and NaN/Infinity do not survive JSON at all
+  for (const divisor of [0, Number.NaN, Number.POSITIVE_INFINITY, Number.NEGATIVE_INFINITY]) {
+    expect(() => z.toJSONSchema(z.number().multipleOf(divisor))).toThrow(/cannot be represented in JSON Schema/);
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().multipleOf(divisor), { unrepresentable: "any" })).toMatchObject({
+      type: "number",
+    });
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().multipleOf(divisor), { unrepresentable: "any" })).not.toHaveProperty("multipleOf");
+  }
+
+  // a negative divisor accepts exactly what its absolute value accepts, so it still maps
+  expect(z.number().multipleOf(-5).safeParse(10).success).toEqual(true);
+  expect(z.number().multipleOf(-5).safeParse(13).success).toEqual(false);
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().multipleOf(-5))).toMatchObject({ multipleOf: 5 });
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().multipleOf(0.1))).toMatchObject({ multipleOf: 0.1 });
+});
+
+test("unrepresentable default values go through `unrepresentable`", () => {
+  // a bigint default has no reliable JSON encoding, so it is dropped rather than approximated
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.bigint().default(0n), { unrepresentable: "any" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+    }
+  `);
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.bigint().prefault(2n), { io: "input", unrepresentable: "any" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+    }
+  `);
+  // including when nested inside an otherwise representable default
+  expect(
+    z.toJSONSchema(z.object({ a: z.bigint() }).default({ a: 1n }), { unrepresentable: "any" })
+  ).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "additionalProperties": false,
+      "properties": {
+        "a": {},
+      },
+      "required": [
+        "a",
+      ],
+      "type": "object",
+    }
+  `);
+
+  // under the default strict mode the inner type throws first; a representable inner type surfaces the default's own error rather than a raw `JSON.stringify` TypeError
+  expect(() => z.toJSONSchema(z.bigint().default(0n))).toThrow("BigInt cannot be represented in JSON Schema");
+  expect(() => z.toJSONSchema(z.unknown().default(1n))).toThrow("BigInt defaults cannot be represented in JSON Schema");
+
+  // representable defaults are untouched
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.object({ a: z.number() }).default({ a: 2 }))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "additionalProperties": false,
+      "default": {
+        "a": 2,
+      },
+      "properties": {
+        "a": {
+          "type": "number",
+        },
+      },
+      "required": [
+        "a",
+      ],
+      "type": "object",
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+test("an `unrepresentable` handler can represent a bigint default", () => {
+  // one handler covers both the type and its default, so no `unrepresentable: "any"` is needed and every other unrepresentable type still throws
+  expect(
+    z.toJSONSchema(z.object({ startAt: z.coerce.bigint().optional().default(0n) }), {
+      io: "input",
+      unrepresentable: ({ zodSchema }) => {
+        const def = zodSchema._zod.def;
+        if (def.type === "bigint") return { type: "integer", format: "int64" };
+        if (def.type === "default") return { default: String(def.defaultValue) };
+        return "throw";
+      },
+    })
+  ).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "properties": {
+        "startAt": {
+          "default": "0",
+          "format": "int64",
+          "type": "integer",
+        },
+      },
+      "type": "object",
+    }
+  `);
+
+  // a handler may also drop just the default while still representing the type
+  expect(
+    z.toJSONSchema(z.bigint().default(0n), {
+      unrepresentable: ({ zodSchema }) =>
+        zodSchema._zod.def.type === "bigint" ? { type: "integer", format: "int64" } : "any",
+    })
+  ).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "format": "int64",
+      "type": "integer",
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+test("unrepresentable literal values are ignored", () => {
+  const a = z.toJSONSchema(z.literal(["hello", null, 5, BigInt(1324), undefined]), { unrepresentable: "any" });
+  expect(a).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "enum": [
+        "hello",
+        null,
+        5,
+        1324,
+      ],
+    }
+  `);
+
+  const b = z.toJSONSchema(z.literal([undefined, null, 5, BigInt(1324)]), {
+    unrepresentable: "any",
+  });
+  expect(b).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "enum": [
+        null,
+        5,
+        1324,
+      ],
+    }
+  `);
+
+  const c = z.toJSONSchema(z.literal([undefined]), {
+    unrepresentable: "any",
+  });
+  expect(c).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+test("describe with id", () => {
+  const jobId = z.string().meta({ id: "jobId" });
+
+  const a = z.toJSONSchema(
+    z.object({
+      current: jobId.describe("Current job"),
+      previous: jobId.describe("Previous job"),
+    })
+  );
+  expect(a).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$defs": {
+        "jobId": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+      },
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "additionalProperties": false,
+      "properties": {
+        "current": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/jobId",
+          "description": "Current job",
+        },
+        "previous": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/jobId",
+          "description": "Previous job",
+        },
+      },
+      "required": [
+        "current",
+        "previous",
+      ],
+      "type": "object",
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+test("id is stripped from $defs entries (draft-2020-12)", () => {
+  // The `id` in `.meta()` is a registration tag — it determines the $defs key but should not leak into the definition body, where it is redundant.
+  const inner = z.string().meta({ id: "Inner" });
+  const result = z.toJSONSchema(z.object({ a: inner, b: inner }));
+  expect(result.$defs?.Inner).toEqual({ type: "string" });
+  expect((result.$defs?.Inner as any).id).toBeUndefined();
+});
+
+test("id is stripped from definitions entries (draft-04)", () => {
+  // In draft-04, `id` is a reserved keyword that sets a base URI for the subschema. Leaking Zod's registration tag here is semantically wrong, so ensure it is stripped.
+  const inner = z.string().meta({ id: "Inner" });
+  const result = z.toJSONSchema(z.object({ a: inner, b: inner }), { target: "draft-04" }) as any;
+  expect(result.definitions?.Inner).toEqual({ type: "string" });
+  expect(result.definitions?.Inner?.id).toBeUndefined();
+});
+
+test("id is stripped from root schema", () => {
+  // The registration tag should not appear on the root either.
+  const A = z.object({ name: z.string() }).meta({ id: "A" });
+  const result = z.toJSONSchema(A);
+  expect((result as any).id).toBeUndefined();
+});
+
+test("root schema with id is hoisted into $defs", () => {
+  const A = z.object({ name: z.string() }).meta({ id: "A" });
+  const result = z.toJSONSchema(A);
+
+  expect(result).toEqual({
+    $schema: "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+    $ref: "#/$defs/A",
+    $defs: {
+      A: {
+        type: "object",
+        properties: {
+          name: {
+            type: "string",
+          },
+        },
+        required: ["name"],
+        additionalProperties: false,
+      },
+    },
+  });
+});
+
+test("root schema with id uses definitions on legacy targets", () => {
+  const A = z.object({ name: z.string() }).meta({ id: "A" });
+  const result = z.toJSONSchema(A, { target: "draft-07" });
+
+  expect(result).toEqual({
+    $schema: "http://json-schema.org/draft-07/schema#",
+    $ref: "#/definitions/A",
+    definitions: {
+      A: {
+        type: "object",
+        properties: {
+          name: {
+            type: "string",
+          },
+        },
+        required: ["name"],
+        additionalProperties: false,
+      },
+    },
+  });
+});
+
+test("id is observable in override callback", () => {
+  // The strip happens after override callbacks run, so userland override code can still read `jsonSchema.id` if it wants to.
+  const inner = z.string().meta({ id: "Inner" });
+  const seenIds: Array<string | undefined> = [];
+  z.toJSONSchema(z.object({ a: inner }), {
+    override: ({ jsonSchema }) => {
+      if (jsonSchema.id !== undefined) seenIds.push(jsonSchema.id as string);
+    },
+  });
+  expect(seenIds).toContain("Inner");
+});
+
+test("describe with id on wrapper", () => {
+  // Test that $ref propagation works when processor sets a different ref (readonly -> innerType) but parent was extracted due to having an id
+  const roJobId = z.string().readonly().meta({ id: "roJobId" });
+
+  const a = z.toJSONSchema(
+    z.object({
+      current: roJobId.describe("Current readonly job"),
+      previous: roJobId.describe("Previous readonly job"),
+    })
+  );
+  expect(a).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$defs": {
+        "roJobId": {
+          "readOnly": true,
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+      },
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "additionalProperties": false,
+      "properties": {
+        "current": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/roJobId",
+          "description": "Current readonly job",
+        },
+        "previous": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/roJobId",
+          "description": "Previous readonly job",
+        },
+      },
+      "required": [
+        "current",
+        "previous",
+      ],
+      "type": "object",
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+test("overwrite id", () => {
+  const jobId = z.string().meta({ id: "aaa" });
+
+  const a = z.toJSONSchema(
+    z.object({
+      current: jobId,
+      previous: jobId.meta({ id: "bbb" }),
+    })
+  );
+  expect(a).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$defs": {
+        "aaa": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "bbb": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/aaa",
+        },
+      },
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "additionalProperties": false,
+      "properties": {
+        "current": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/aaa",
+        },
+        "previous": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/bbb",
+        },
+      },
+      "required": [
+        "current",
+        "previous",
+      ],
+      "type": "object",
+    }
+  `);
+
+  const b = z.toJSONSchema(
+    z.object({
+      current: jobId,
+      previous: jobId.meta({ id: "ccc" }),
+    }),
+    {
+      reused: "ref",
+    }
+  );
+  expect(b).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$defs": {
+        "aaa": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "ccc": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/aaa",
+        },
+      },
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "additionalProperties": false,
+      "properties": {
+        "current": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/aaa",
+        },
+        "previous": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/ccc",
+        },
+      },
+      "required": [
+        "current",
+        "previous",
+      ],
+      "type": "object",
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+test("overwrite descriptions", () => {
+  const field = z.string().describe("a").describe("b").describe("c");
+
+  const a = z.toJSONSchema(
+    z.object({
+      d: field.describe("d"),
+      e: field.describe("e"),
+    })
+  );
+  expect(a).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "additionalProperties": false,
+      "properties": {
+        "d": {
+          "description": "d",
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "e": {
+          "description": "e",
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+      },
+      "required": [
+        "d",
+        "e",
+      ],
+      "type": "object",
+    }
+  `);
+
+  const b = z.toJSONSchema(
+    z.object({
+      d: field.describe("d"),
+      e: field.describe("e"),
+    }),
+    {
+      reused: "ref",
+    }
+  );
+  expect(b).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$defs": {
+        "__schema0": {
+          "description": "c",
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+      },
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "additionalProperties": false,
+      "properties": {
+        "d": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/__schema0",
+          "description": "d",
+        },
+        "e": {
+          "$ref": "#/$defs/__schema0",
+          "description": "e",
+        },
+      },
+      "required": [
+        "d",
+        "e",
+      ],
+      "type": "object",
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+test("top-level readonly", () => {
+  const A = z
+    .object({
+      name: z.string(),
+      get b() {
+        return B;
+      },
+    })
+    .readonly()
+    .meta({ id: "A" });
+  // z.globalRegistry.add(A, { id: "A" });
+  // .meta({ id: "A" });
+
+  const B = z
+    .object({
+      name: z.string(),
+      get a() {
+        return A;
+      },
+    })
+    .readonly()
+    .meta({ id: "B" });
+  // z.globalRegistry.add(B, { id: "B" });
+  // .meta({ id: "B" });
+
+  const result = z.toJSONSchema(A);
+  expect(result).toEqual({
+    $schema: "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+    $ref: "#/$defs/A",
+    $defs: {
+      A: {
+        additionalProperties: false,
+        properties: {
+          b: {
+            $ref: "#/$defs/B",
+          },
+          name: {
+            type: "string",
+          },
+        },
+        readOnly: true,
+        required: ["name", "b"],
+        type: "object",
+      },
+      B: {
+        additionalProperties: false,
+        properties: {
+          a: {
+            $ref: "#/$defs/A",
+          },
+          name: {
+            type: "string",
+          },
+        },
+        readOnly: true,
+        required: ["name", "a"],
+        type: "object",
+      },
+    },
+  });
+});
+
+test("basic registry", () => {
+  const myRegistry = z.registry<{ id: string }>();
+  const User = z.object({
+    name: z.string(),
+    get posts() {
+      return z.array(Post);
+    },
+  });
+
+  const Post = z.object({
+    title: z.string(),
+    content: z.string(),
+    get author() {
+      return User;
+    },
+  });
+
+  myRegistry.add(User, { id: "User" });
+  myRegistry.add(Post, { id: "Post" });
+
+  const result = z.toJSONSchema(myRegistry, {
+    uri: (id) => `https://example.com/${id}.json`,
+  });
+  expect(result).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "schemas": {
+        "Post": {
+          "$id": "https://example.com/Post.json",
+          "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+          "additionalProperties": false,
+          "properties": {
+            "author": {
+              "$ref": "https://example.com/User.json",
+            },
+            "content": {
+              "type": "string",
+            },
+            "title": {
+              "type": "string",
+            },
+          },
+          "required": [
+            "title",
+            "content",
+            "author",
+          ],
+          "type": "object",
+        },
+        "User": {
+          "$id": "https://example.com/User.json",
+          "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+          "additionalProperties": false,
+          "properties": {
+            "name": {
+              "type": "string",
+            },
+            "posts": {
+              "items": {
+                "$ref": "https://example.com/Post.json",
+              },
+              "type": "array",
+            },
+          },
+          "required": [
+            "name",
+            "posts",
+          ],
+          "type": "object",
+        },
+      },
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+function countMapScanWork<T>(convert: () => T): { result: T; work: number } {
+  const entries = Map.prototype.entries;
+  const values = Map.prototype.values;
+  let work = 0;
+  const entriesSpy = vi.spyOn(Map.prototype, "entries").mockImplementation(function (this: Map<unknown, unknown>) {
+    work += this.size;
+    return entries.call(this);
+  } as typeof Map.prototype.entries);
+  const valuesSpy = vi.spyOn(Map.prototype, "values").mockImplementation(function (this: Map<unknown, unknown>) {
+    work += this.size;
+    return values.call(this);
+  } as typeof Map.prototype.values);
+  try {
+    return { result: convert(), work };
+  } finally {
+    entriesSpy.mockRestore();
+    valuesSpy.mockRestore();
+  }
+}
+
+test("large registry conversion performs linear map-scan work", () => {
+  const count = 64;
+  const convert = (size: number, withIntersection: boolean) => {
+    const registry = z.registry<{ id: string }>();
+    for (let i = 0; i < size; i++) {
+      registry.add(
+        z.object({ id: z.string(), name: z.string(), count: z.number(), nested: z.object({ a: z.boolean() }) }),
+        { id: `Type${i}` }
+      );
+    }
+    if (withIntersection) registry.add(z.object({ a: z.string() }).and(z.object({ b: z.string() })), { id: "Inter" });
+
+    return countMapScanWork(() => z.toJSONSchema(registry, { uri: (id) => `https://example.com/${id}.json` }));
+  };
+
+  const plain = convert(count, false);
+  const plainDouble = convert(count * 2, false);
+  expect(Object.keys(plain.result.schemas)).toHaveLength(count);
+  expect(plain.result.schemas.Type0).toMatchObject({
+    $id: "https://example.com/Type0.json",
+    type: "object",
+    properties: { nested: { type: "object" } },
+  });
+  expect(plain.result.schemas[`Type${count - 1}`]!.$id).toBe(`https://example.com/Type${count - 1}.json`);
+  expect(plain.work).toBeGreaterThan(0);
+  expect(plainDouble.work).toBeLessThanOrEqual(plain.work * 2);
+
+  const folded = convert(count, true);
+  const foldedDouble = convert(count * 2, true);
+  expect(folded.result.schemas.Inter).toMatchObject({ type: "object", properties: { a: {}, b: {} } });
+  expect(folded.work).toBeGreaterThan(0);
+  expect(foldedDouble.work).toBeLessThanOrEqual(folded.work * 2);
+});
+
+test("a registry of records with numeric keys performs linear map-scan work", () => {
+  const count = 64;
+  const convert = (size: number, key: (i: number) => z.core.$ZodType) => {
+    const registry = z.registry<{ id: string }>();
+    for (let i = 0; i < size; i++) {
+      registry.add(z.object({ m: z.record(key(i) as z.core.$ZodRecordKey, z.boolean()) }), { id: `Type${i}` });
+    }
+    return countMapScanWork(() => z.toJSONSchema(registry, { uri: (id) => `https://example.com/${id}.json` }));
+  };
+
+  const numeric = convert(count, () => z.number());
+  const numericDouble = convert(count * 2, () => z.number());
+  expect(numeric.result.schemas.Type0).toMatchObject({
+    properties: { m: { propertyNames: { type: "string", pattern: "^-?\\d+(?:\\.\\d+)?$" } } },
+  });
+  expect(numeric.work).toBeGreaterThan(0);
+  expect(numericDouble.work).toBeLessThanOrEqual(numeric.work * 2);
+
+  const extracted = convert(count, (i) => z.number().meta({ id: `Key${i}` }));
+  const extractedDouble = convert(count * 2, (i) => z.number().meta({ id: `Key${i}` }));
+  expect(extracted.result.schemas.Type0).toMatchObject({
+    properties: { m: { propertyNames: { type: "string", pattern: "^-?\\d+(?:\\.\\d+)?$" } } },
+  });
+  expect(extracted.work).toBeGreaterThan(0);
+  expect(extractedDouble.work).toBeLessThanOrEqual(extracted.work * 2);
+});
+
+test("registry extracts unregistered subschemas into __shared", () => {
+  const registry = z.registry<{ id: string }>();
+  const address = z.object({ street: z.string() }).meta({ id: "Address" });
+  registry.add(z.object({ home: address, work: address }), { id: "Person" });
+  registry.add(z.object({ hq: address }), { id: "Company" });
+
+  const { schemas } = z.toJSONSchema(registry, { uri: (id) => `https://example.com/${id}.json` });
+
+  expect(schemas.__shared).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$defs": {
+        "Address": {
+          "additionalProperties": false,
+          "properties": {
+            "street": {
+              "type": "string",
+            },
+          },
+          "required": [
+            "street",
+          ],
+          "type": "object",
+        },
+      },
+    }
+  `);
+  expect(schemas.Person).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$id": "https://example.com/Person.json",
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "additionalProperties": false,
+      "properties": {
+        "home": {
+          "$ref": "https://example.com/__shared.json#/$defs/Address",
+        },
+        "work": {
+          "$ref": "https://example.com/__shared.json#/$defs/Address",
+        },
+      },
+      "required": [
+        "home",
+        "work",
+      ],
+      "type": "object",
+    }
+  `);
+  // Company is emitted after Person, so it only resolves if the shared $defs built on the first finalize are still reachable — the pass that writes them no longer runs per schema.
+  expect(schemas.Company!.properties!.hq).toEqual({
+    $ref: "https://example.com/__shared.json#/$defs/Address",
+  });
+});
+
+test("registry extracts reused subschemas into __shared without an id", () => {
+  const registry = z.registry<{ id: string }>();
+  const shared = z.object({ q: z.string() });
+  registry.add(z.object({ a: shared, b: shared }), { id: "First" });
+  registry.add(z.object({ c: shared }), { id: "Second" });
+
+  const { schemas } = z.toJSONSchema(registry, { uri: (id) => `${id}.json`, reused: "ref" });
+
+  // The id is counter-generated, so this pins that ctx.counter is consumed exactly once.
+  expect(Object.keys(schemas.__shared!.$defs!)).toEqual(["schema0"]);
+  expect(schemas.First!.properties!.a).toEqual({ $ref: "__shared.json#/$defs/schema0" });
+  expect(schemas.Second!.properties!.c).toEqual({ $ref: "__shared.json#/$defs/schema0" });
+});
+
+test("JSONSchemaGenerator re-runs shared passes when emit params change", () => {
+  const shared = z.object({ s: z.string() });
+  const a = z.object({ x: shared, y: shared });
+  const registry = z.registry<{ id: string }>();
+  registry.add(a, { id: "A" });
+
+  const gen = new z.core.JSONSchemaGenerator({ target: "draft-2020-12" });
+  gen.process(a);
+  const defs: Record<string, any> = {};
+  const external = { registry, uri: (id: string) => `${id}.json`, defs };
+
+  gen.emit(a, { external, reused: "inline" });
+  // Same `external`, different `reused` — the second emit must still extract `shared`.
+  const second: any = gen.emit(a, { external, reused: "ref" });
+
+  expect(Object.keys(defs)).toEqual(["schema0"]);
+  expect(second.properties.x).toEqual({ $ref: "__shared.json#/$defs/schema0" });
+  expect(second.properties.y).toEqual({ $ref: "__shared.json#/$defs/schema0" });
+});
+
+test("JSONSchemaGenerator still throws on cycles when a later emit asks for it", () => {
+  const Node: any = z.object({
+    v: z.string(),
+    get next() {
+      return Node;
+    },
+  });
+  const registry = z.registry<{ id: string }>();
+  registry.add(Node, { id: "Node" });
+
+  const gen = new z.core.JSONSchemaGenerator({ target: "draft-2020-12" });
+  gen.process(Node);
+  const external = { registry, uri: (id: string) => `${id}.json`, defs: {} };
+
+  gen.emit(Node, { external, cycles: "ref" });
+  expect(() => gen.emit(Node, { external, cycles: "throw" })).toThrow(/Cycle detected/);
+});
+
+test("JSONSchemaGenerator re-runs shared passes on a no-params emit", () => {
+  const shared = z.object({ s: z.string() });
+  const a = z.object({ x: shared });
+  const registry = z.registry<{ id: string }>();
+  registry.add(a, { id: "A" });
+
+  const gen = new z.core.JSONSchemaGenerator({ target: "draft-2020-12" });
+  gen.process(a);
+  const defs: Record<string, any> = {};
+  gen.emit(a, { external: { registry, uri: (id: string) => `${id}.json`, defs }, reused: "ref" });
+
+  // Re-processing an already-seen schema bumps `seen.count`, which `extractDefs` branches on under `reused: "ref"` — and it returns early, so it cannot clear the guards itself.
+  gen.process(shared);
+  const second: any = gen.emit(a);
+
+  expect(Object.keys(defs)).toEqual(["schema0"]);
+  expect(second.properties.x).toEqual({ $ref: "__shared.json#/$defs/schema0" });
+});
+
+test("_ref", () => {
+  // const a = z.promise(z.string().describe("a"));
+  const a = z.toJSONSchema(z.promise(z.string().describe("a")));
+  expect(a).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "description": "a",
+      "type": "string",
+    }
+  `);
+
+  const b = z.toJSONSchema(z.lazy(() => z.string().describe("a")));
+  expect(b).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "description": "a",
+      "type": "string",
+    }
+  `);
+
+  const c = z.toJSONSchema(z.optional(z.string().describe("a")));
+  expect(c).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "description": "a",
+      "type": "string",
+    }
+  `);
+
+  const d = z.toJSONSchema(z.string().meta({ id: "foo" }).describe("bar").optional());
+  expect(d).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$defs": {
+        "foo": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+      },
+      "$ref": "#/$defs/foo",
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "description": "bar",
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+test("defaults/prefaults", () => {
+  const a = z
+    .string()
+    .transform((val) => val.length)
+    .pipe(z.number());
+  const b = a.prefault("hello");
+  const c = a.default(1234);
+
+  // a
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(a)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "type": "number",
+    }
+  `);
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(a, { io: "input" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "type": "string",
+    }
+  `);
+
+  // b
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(b)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "type": "number",
+    }
+  `);
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(b, { io: "input" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "default": "hello",
+      "type": "string",
+    }
+  `);
+  // c
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(c)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "default": 1234,
+      "type": "number",
+    }
+  `);
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(c, { io: "input" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "type": "string",
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+test("catch on a transforming schema", () => {
+  const a = z
+    .string()
+    .transform((val) => val.length)
+    .pipe(z.number())
+    .catch(0);
+
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(a)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "default": 0,
+      "type": "number",
+    }
+  `);
+  // catch values are output-typed, so they are not valid input
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(a, { io: "input" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "type": "string",
+    }
+  `);
+
+  // the catch no longer hides the inner transform from ancestors, so their output-typed metadata is stripped too — matching a bare nested transform
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.object({ a }).meta({ examples: [{ a: 1 }] }), { io: "input" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "properties": {
+        "a": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+      },
+      "required": [
+        "a",
+      ],
+      "type": "object",
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+test("falsy prefaults (false, 0, empty string)", () => {
+  // boolean prefault false
+  const a = z.boolean().prefault(false);
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(a, { io: "input" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "default": false,
+      "type": "boolean",
+    }
+  `);
+
+  // number prefault 0
+  const b = z.number().prefault(0);
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(b, { io: "input" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "default": 0,
+      "type": "number",
+    }
+  `);
+
+  // string prefault empty string
+  const c = z.string().prefault("");
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(c, { io: "input" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "default": "",
+      "type": "string",
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+test("input type", () => {
+  const schema = z.object({
+    a: z.string(),
+    b: z.string().optional(),
+    c: z.string().default("hello"),
+    d: z.string().nullable(),
+    e: z.string().prefault("hello"),
+    f: z.string().catch("hello"),
+    g: z.never(),
+    h: z.union([z.string(), z.number().default(2)]),
+    i: z.union([z.string(), z.string().optional()]),
+  });
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema, { io: "input" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "properties": {
+        "a": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "b": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "c": {
+          "default": "hello",
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "d": {
+          "type": [
+            "string",
+            "null",
+          ],
+        },
+        "e": {
+          "default": "hello",
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "f": {
+          "default": "hello",
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "g": {
+          "not": {},
+        },
+        "h": {
+          "anyOf": [
+            {
+              "type": "string",
+            },
+            {
+              "default": 2,
+              "type": "number",
+            },
+          ],
+        },
+        "i": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+      },
+      "required": [
+        "a",
+        "d",
+        "f",
+        "g",
+      ],
+      "type": "object",
+    }
+  `);
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema, { io: "output" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "additionalProperties": false,
+      "properties": {
+        "a": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "b": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "c": {
+          "default": "hello",
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "d": {
+          "type": [
+            "string",
+            "null",
+          ],
+        },
+        "e": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "f": {
+          "default": "hello",
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "g": {
+          "not": {},
+        },
+        "h": {
+          "anyOf": [
+            {
+              "type": "string",
+            },
+            {
+              "default": 2,
+              "type": "number",
+            },
+          ],
+        },
+        "i": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+      },
+      "required": [
+        "a",
+        "c",
+        "d",
+        "e",
+        "f",
+        "g",
+        "h",
+      ],
+      "type": "object",
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+test("examples on pipe", () => {
+  const schema = z
+    .string()
+    .meta({ examples: ["test"] })
+    .transform(Number)
+    // .pipe(z.transform(Number).meta({ examples: [4] }))
+    .meta({ examples: [4] });
+
+  const i = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { io: "input", unrepresentable: "any" });
+  expect(i).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "examples": [
+        "test",
+      ],
+      "type": "string",
+    }
+  `);
+  const o = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { io: "output", unrepresentable: "any" });
+  expect(o).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "examples": [
+        4,
+      ],
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+// test("number checks", () => {
+//   expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.number().int())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+//     {
+//       "maximum": 9007199254740991,
+//       "minimum": -9007199254740991,
+//       "type": "integer",
+//     }
+//   `);
+//   expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.int())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+//     {
+//       "maximum": 9007199254740991,
+//       "minimum": -9007199254740991,
+//       "type": "integer",
+//     }
+//   `);
+//   expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.int().positive())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+//     {
+//       "exclusiveMinimum": 0,
+//       "maximum": 9007199254740991,
+//       "minimum": -9007199254740991,
+//       "type": "integer",
+//     }
+//   `);
+//   expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.int().nonnegative())).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+//     {
+//       "maximum": 9007199254740991,
+//       "minimum": 0,
+//       "type": "integer",
+//     }
+//   `);
+//   expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.int().gt(0))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+//     {
+//       "exclusiveMinimum": 0,
+//       "maximum": 9007199254740991,
+//       "minimum": -9007199254740991,
+//       "type": "integer",
+//     }
+//   `);
+//   expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.int().gte(0))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+//     {
+//       "maximum": 9007199254740991,
+//       "minimum": 0,
+//       "type": "integer",
+//     }
+//   `);
+
+// });
+
+test("use output type for preprocess", () => {
+  const a = z.preprocess((val) => String(val), z.string());
+
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(a, { io: "input" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "type": "string",
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+test("object property with preprocess stays required in input JSON schema", () => {
+  const schema = z.object({
+    noPreprocess: z.string(),
+    withPreprocess: z.preprocess((v) => v, z.string()),
+    optionalPreprocess: z.preprocess((v) => v, z.string().optional()),
+  });
+
+  // A preprocessed property is only optional when its inner schema is — the
+  // transform wrapper must not make a required property optional in the input
+  // JSON schema (matches runtime: `schema.parse({})` rejects `withPreprocess`).
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema, { io: "input" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "properties": {
+        "noPreprocess": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "optionalPreprocess": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+        "withPreprocess": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+      },
+      "required": [
+        "noPreprocess",
+        "withPreprocess",
+      ],
+      "type": "object",
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+test("input JSON schema resolves requiredness past transform and catch wrappers", () => {
+  const required = (schema: z.ZodObject) =>
+    (z.toJSONSchema(schema, { io: "input" }) as z.core.JSONSchema.ObjectSchema).required;
+  const id = (v: unknown) => v;
+
+  // catch observes an absent key at runtime, but its declared input type stays required (#5003)
+  expect(required(z.object({ a: z.string().catch("x") }))).toEqual(["a"]);
+  expect(required(z.object({ a: z.string().optional().catch("x") }))).toBeUndefined();
+  // nested preprocess and the legacy transform-pipe form both resolve through to the inner schema
+  expect(required(z.object({ a: z.preprocess(id, z.preprocess(id, z.string())) }))).toEqual(["a"]);
+  expect(required(z.object({ a: z.transform((v: unknown) => String(v)).pipe(z.string()) }))).toEqual(["a"]);
+});
+
+test("object required keys preserve shape order and direction", () => {
+  const symbol = Symbol("symbol");
+  const shape: z.ZodRawShape = {
+    10: z.string(),
+    2: z.string().optional(),
+    plain: z.string(),
+    optional: z.string().optional(),
+    defaulted: z.string().default("x"),
+    caught: z.string().catch("x"),
+    [symbol]: z.string(),
+  };
+  Object.defineProperty(shape, "__proto__", { value: z.string(), enumerable: true });
+  Object.defineProperty(shape, "hidden", { value: z.string(), enumerable: false });
+
+  const input = z.toJSONSchema(z.object(shape), { io: "input", unrepresentable: "any" });
+  const output = z.toJSONSchema(z.object(shape), { io: "output", unrepresentable: "any" });
+
+  expect(Object.keys(input.properties!)).toEqual(["2", "10", "plain", "optional", "defaulted", "caught", "__proto__"]);
+  expect(input.required).toEqual(["10", "plain", "caught", "__proto__"]);
+  expect(output.required).toEqual(["10", "plain", "defaulted", "caught", "__proto__"]);
+  expect(Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(input.properties!, "__proto__")).toBe(true);
+  expect(input.properties).not.toHaveProperty("hidden");
+  expect(Object.getOwnPropertySymbols(input.properties!)).toEqual([]);
+});
+
+test("strip output-side examples from input JSON schema for codec", () => {
+  const codec = z
+    .codec(z.string(), z.number(), { decode: (s) => Number(s), encode: (n) => String(n) })
+    .meta({ examples: [42] });
+
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(codec, { io: "input" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "type": "string",
+    }
+  `);
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(codec, { io: "output" })).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "examples": [
+        42,
+      ],
+      "type": "number",
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+// test("isTransforming", () => {
+//   const tx = z.core.isTransforming;
+//   expect(tx(z.string())).toEqual(false);
+//   expect(tx(z.string().transform((val) => val))).toEqual(true);
+//   expect(tx(z.string().pipe(z.string()))).toEqual(false);
+//   expect(
+//     tx(
+//       z
+//         .string()
+//         .transform((val) => val)
+//         .pipe(z.string())
+//     )
+//   ).toEqual(true);
+
+//   const a = z.transform((val) => val);
+//   expect(tx(z.transform((val) => val))).toEqual(true);
+//   expect(tx(a.optional())).toEqual(true);
+
+//   const b = z.string().optional();
+//   expect(tx(b)).toEqual(false);
+
+//   const c = z.string().prefault("hello");
+//   expect(tx(c)).toEqual(false);
+
+//   const d = z.string().default("hello");
+//   expect(tx(d)).toEqual(false);
+// });
+
+test("flatten simple intersections", () => {
+  const FirstSchema = z.object({
+    testNum: z.number(),
+  });
+
+  const SecondSchema = z.object({
+    testStr: z.string(),
+  });
+
+  const ThirdSchema = z.object({
+    testBool: z.boolean(),
+  });
+
+  const HelloSchema = FirstSchema.and(SecondSchema).and(ThirdSchema).describe("123");
+
+  // Zod 3
+  // console.log(JSON.stringify(zodToJsonSchema(HelloSchema), null, 2));
+
+  // Zod 4
+  const result = z.toJSONSchema(HelloSchema, { target: "draft-7" });
+  expect(result).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "http://json-schema.org/draft-07/schema#",
+      "additionalProperties": false,
+      "description": "123",
+      "properties": {
+        "testBool": {
+          "type": "boolean",
+        },
+        "testNum": {
+          "type": "number",
+        },
+        "testStr": {
+          "type": "string",
+        },
+      },
+      "required": [
+        "testNum",
+        "testStr",
+        "testBool",
+      ],
+      "type": "object",
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+test("z.file()", () => {
+  const a = z.file();
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(a)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "contentEncoding": "binary",
+      "format": "binary",
+      "type": "string",
+    }
+  `);
+
+  const b = z.file().mime("image/png").min(1000).max(10000);
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(b)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "contentEncoding": "binary",
+      "contentMediaType": "image/png",
+      "format": "binary",
+      "maxLength": 10000,
+      "minLength": 1000,
+      "type": "string",
+    }
+  `);
+
+  const c = z.file().mime(["image/png", "image/jpg"]).min(1000).max(10000);
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(c)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "anyOf": [
+        {
+          "contentMediaType": "image/png",
+        },
+        {
+          "contentMediaType": "image/jpg",
+        },
+      ],
+      "contentEncoding": "binary",
+      "format": "binary",
+      "maxLength": 10000,
+      "minLength": 1000,
+      "type": "string",
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+test("custom toJSONSchema", () => {
+  const schema = z.instanceof(Date);
+  schema._zod.toJSONSchema = () => ({
+    type: "string",
+    format: "date-time",
+  });
+
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(schema)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+    {
+      "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+      "format": "date-time",
+      "type": "string",
+    }
+  `);
+});
+
+test("cycle detection - root", () => {
+  const schema = z.object({
+    name: z.string(),
+    get subcategories() {
+      return z.array(schema);
+    },
+  });
+
+  expect(() => z.toJSONSchema(schema, { cycles: "throw" })).toThrowErrorMatchingInlineSnapshot(`
+    [Error: Cycle detected: #/properties/subcategories/items/<root>
+
+    Set the \`cycles\` parameter to \`"ref"\` to resolve cyclical schemas with defs.]
+  `);
+});
+
+test("cycle detection - mutual recursion", () => {
+  const A = z.object({
+    name: z.string(),
+    get subcategories() {
+      return z.array(B);
+    },
+  });
+
+  const B = z.object({
+    name: z.string(),
+    get subcategories() {
+      return z.array(A);
+    },
+  });
+
+  expect(() => z.toJSONSchema(A, { cycles: "throw" })).toThrowErrorMatchingInlineSnapshot(`
+    [Error: Cycle detected: #/properties/subcategories/items/properties/subcategories/items/<root>
+
+    Set the \`cycles\` parameter to \`"ref"\` to resolve cyclical schemas with defs.]
+  `);
+});
+
+test("recursive lazy with describe does not stack overflow", () => {
+  const NodeSchema: z.ZodType = z.lazy(() =>
+    z
+      .object({
+        value: z.string().describe("node value"),
+        children: z.array(NodeSchema.describe("child node")).optional().describe("child list"),
+      })
+      .describe("tree node")
+  );
+
+  const result = z.toJSONSchema(NodeSchema, { cycles: "ref", reused: "ref" });
+  expect(result).toBeDefined();
+  expect(result.$defs).toBeDefined();
+});
+
+test("__proto__ shape key is emitted as an own property", () => {
+  const schema = z.object({ ["__proto__"]: z.literal("admin"), role: z.string() });
+  const result = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { io: "input" });
+
+  expect(result.required).toEqual(["__proto__", "role"]);
+  // every required key needs a matching entry in properties
+  for (const key of result.required!) {
+    expect(Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(result.properties, key)).toBe(true);
+  }
+  expect(JSON.parse(JSON.stringify(result)).properties.__proto__).toEqual({ type: "string", const: "admin" });
+});
+
+test("__proto__ registry id is emitted as an own entry", () => {
+  const myRegistry = z.registry<{ id: string }>();
+  myRegistry.add(z.object({ a: z.string() }), { id: "__proto__" });
+  myRegistry.add(z.object({ b: z.string() }), { id: "normal" });
+
+  expect(Object.keys(z.toJSONSchema(myRegistry).schemas)).toEqual(["__proto__", "normal"]);
+});
+
+test("__proto__ def id emits a resolvable $ref", () => {
+  const myRegistry = z.registry<{ id: string }>();
+  const Inner = z.object({ x: z.string() });
+  myRegistry.add(Inner, { id: "__proto__" });
+
+  const json = JSON.parse(JSON.stringify(z.toJSONSchema(z.object({ a: Inner, b: Inner }), { metadata: myRegistry })));
+  expect(json.properties.a.$ref).toBe("#/$defs/__proto__");
+  expect(json.$defs.__proto__).toBeDefined();
+});
+
+test("__proto__ patternProperties key is emitted as an own property", () => {
+  const result = z.toJSONSchema(z.looseRecord(z.string().regex(/__proto__/), z.string()));
+
+  expect(Object.getPrototypeOf(result.patternProperties)).toBe(Object.prototype);
+  expect(Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(result.patternProperties, "__proto__")).toBe(true);
+  expect(result.patternProperties?.__proto__).toEqual({ type: "string" });
+});
+
+test("__proto__ metadata survives direct and wrapper metadata merges", () => {
+  for (const schema of [z.string(), z.readonly(z.string())]) {
+    const registry = z.registry<Record<string, unknown>>();
+    registry.add(schema, Object.fromEntries([["__proto__", { marker: true }]]));
+
+    const result: any = z.toJSONSchema(schema, { metadata: registry });
+    expect(Object.getPrototypeOf(result)).toBe(Object.prototype);
+    expect(Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(result, "__proto__")).toBe(true);
+    expect(result.__proto__).toEqual({ marker: true });
+    expect(JSON.parse(JSON.stringify(result)).__proto__).toEqual({ marker: true });
+  }
+});
+
+test("partialRecord does not require finite keys", () => {
+  const result = z.toJSONSchema(z.partialRecord(z.enum(["__proto__", "b"]), z.string()));
+
+  expect(result.required).toBeUndefined();
+  expect(result.propertyNames).toEqual({ type: "string", enum: ["__proto__", "b"] });
+  expect(result.additionalProperties).toEqual({ type: "string" });
+});
+
+describe("unrepresentable callback", () => {
+  test("is consulted for every unrepresentable type", () => {
+    const seen: string[] = [];
+    const collect: z.core.UnrepresentableHandler<z.core.$ZodTypes> = ({ zodSchema }) => {
+      seen.push(zodSchema._zod.def.type);
+      return "any";
+    };
+
+    const schemas = [
+      z.bigint(),
+      z.symbol(),
+      z.undefined(),
+      z.void(),
+      z.date(),
+      z.nan(),
+      z.custom<string>(),
+      z.map(z.string(), z.string()),
+      z.set(z.string()),
+      z.transform((x: unknown) => x),
+      z.literal([undefined]),
+      z.literal([1n]),
+      z.string().catch(() => {
+        throw new Error("dynamic");
+      }),
+      // z.function() is not a ZodType, but its processor is reachable through the same path
+      z.function() as unknown as z.ZodType,
+    ];
+    for (const schema of schemas) z.toJSONSchema(schema, { unrepresentable: collect });
+
+    expect(seen).toEqual([
+      "bigint",
+      "symbol",
+      "undefined",
+      "void",
+      "date",
+      "nan",
+      "custom",
+      "map",
+      "set",
+      "transform",
+      "literal",
+      "literal",
+      "catch",
+      "function",
+    ]);
+  });
+
+  test("returned JSON Schema replaces the unrepresentable node", () => {
+    // the motivating case: represent dates, keep throwing for everything else
+    const params: z.core.ToJSONSchemaParams = {
+      unrepresentable: ({ zodSchema }) =>
+        zodSchema._zod.def.type === "date" ? { type: "string", format: "date-time" } : "throw",
+    };
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.object({ when: z.date() }), params)).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "additionalProperties": false,
+        "properties": {
+          "when": {
+            "format": "date-time",
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "when",
+        ],
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(() => z.toJSONSchema(z.object({ id: z.bigint() }), params)).toThrow(
+      "BigInt cannot be represented in JSON Schema"
+    );
+  });
+
+  test("`throw` and `undefined` returns produce the default error", () => {
+    expect(() => z.toJSONSchema(z.date(), { unrepresentable: () => "throw" })).toThrow(
+      "Date cannot be represented in JSON Schema"
+    );
+    expect(() => z.toJSONSchema(z.date(), { unrepresentable: () => undefined })).toThrow(
+      "Date cannot be represented in JSON Schema"
+    );
+  });
+
+  test("`any` return matches the string option", () => {
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.date(), { unrepresentable: () => "any" })).toEqual(
+      z.toJSONSchema(z.date(), { unrepresentable: "any" })
+    );
+  });
+
+  test("`message` distinguishes sites that share a schema", () => {
+    const seen: string[] = [];
+    expect(
+      z.toJSONSchema(z.literal([undefined, 1n, "a"]), {
+        unrepresentable: ({ zodSchema, message }) => {
+          seen.push(`${zodSchema._zod.def.type}: ${message}`);
+          return "any";
+        },
+      })
+    ).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "enum": [
+          1,
+          "a",
+        ],
+      }
+    `);
+    // same `zodSchema`, different message -- the only way to tell the two literal sites apart
+    expect(seen).toEqual([
+      "literal: Literal `undefined` cannot be represented in JSON Schema",
+      "literal: BigInt literals cannot be represented in JSON Schema",
+    ]);
+  });
+
+  test("errors thrown by the callback propagate", () => {
+    expect(() =>
+      z.toJSONSchema(z.object({ when: z.date() }), {
+        unrepresentable: ({ zodSchema, path }) => {
+          throw new Error(`${zodSchema._zod.def.type} at /${path.join("/")}`);
+        },
+      })
+    ).toThrow("date at /properties/when");
+  });
+
+  test("runs before `override`", () => {
+    const order: string[] = [];
+    expect(
+      z.toJSONSchema(z.date(), {
+        unrepresentable: () => {
+          order.push("unrepresentable");
+          return { type: "string" };
+        },
+        override: (ctx) => {
+          order.push("override");
+          if (ctx.jsonSchema.type === "string") ctx.jsonSchema.format = "date-time";
+        },
+      })
+    ).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "format": "date-time",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+    expect(order).toEqual(["unrepresentable", "override"]);
+  });
+
+  test("a returned schema replaces the whole literal", () => {
+    expect(
+      z.toJSONSchema(z.literal(["a", 1n]), {
+        unrepresentable: () => ({ type: "string", pattern: "^\\d+$" }),
+      })
+    ).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "pattern": "^\\d+$",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+
+    // "any" keeps the existing per-value behavior: undefined dropped, bigint coerced
+    expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.literal(["a", 1n, undefined]), { unrepresentable: () => "any" })).toEqual(
+      z.toJSONSchema(z.literal(["a", 1n, undefined]), { unrepresentable: "any" })
+    );
+  });
+
+  const dateToString: z.core.ToJSONSchemaParams["unrepresentable"] = ({ zodSchema }) =>
+    zodSchema._zod.def.type === "date" ? { type: "string", format: "date-time" } : "throw";
+
+  test("emits a valid OpenAPI 3.0 schema", async () => {
+    const jsonSchema = z.toJSONSchema(z.object({ start: z.date() }), {
+      target: "openapi-3.0",
+      unrepresentable: dateToString,
+    });
+    expect(jsonSchema).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "additionalProperties": false,
+        "properties": {
+          "start": {
+            "format": "date-time",
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "start",
+        ],
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+    await expect(validateOpenAPI30Schema(jsonSchema)).resolves.toBe(true);
+  });
+
+  test("the returned schema survives extraction into $defs", () => {
+    const When = z.date().meta({ id: "When" });
+    expect(
+      z.toJSONSchema(z.object({ start: When, end: When }), { unrepresentable: dateToString })
+    ).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$defs": {
+          "When": {
+            "format": "date-time",
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+        },
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "additionalProperties": false,
+        "properties": {
+          "end": {
+            "$ref": "#/$defs/When",
+          },
+          "start": {
+            "$ref": "#/$defs/When",
+          },
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "start",
+          "end",
+        ],
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("applies to dynamic catch values", () => {
+    const schema = z.string().catch(() => {
+      throw new Error("dynamic");
+    });
+    expect(
+      z.toJSONSchema(schema, {
+        unrepresentable: () => ({ default: "fallback" }),
+      })
+    ).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "$schema": "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+        "default": "fallback",
+        "type": "string",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+});
+
+describe("intersection folding", () => {
+  const TARGETS = ["draft-2020-12", "draft-07", "draft-04", "openapi-3.0"] as const;
+  const body = (schema: z.ZodType, params?: Parameters<typeof z.toJSONSchema>[1]) => {
+    const { $schema, ...rest } = z.toJSONSchema(schema, params) as Record<string, unknown>;
+    return rest;
+  };
+
+  test("two objects become one object", () => {
+    expect(body(z.object({ name: z.string() }).and(z.object({ age: z.number() })))).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "additionalProperties": false,
+        "properties": {
+          "age": {
+            "type": "number",
+          },
+          "name": {
+            "type": "string",
+          },
+        },
+        "required": [
+          "name",
+          "age",
+        ],
+        "type": "object",
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("the folded shape is identical on every target", () => {
+    const schema = z.object({ name: z.string() }).and(z.object({ age: z.number() }));
+    const bodies = TARGETS.map((target) => body(schema, { target }));
+    for (const emitted of bodies) expect(emitted).toEqual(bodies[0]);
+  });
+
+  test("closed only when every member is closed", () => {
+    expect(body(z.strictObject({ a: z.string() }).and(z.strictObject({ b: z.number() })))).toMatchObject({
+      additionalProperties: false,
+    });
+    // A loose member keeps the intersection open, which is what the parser does: it merges both results, so the loose side's extra keys survive.
+    expect(body(z.looseObject({ a: z.string() }).and(z.object({ b: z.number() })))).not.toHaveProperty(
+      "additionalProperties"
+    );
+  });
+
+  test("chained and nested intersections fold flat", () => {
+    const chained = z
+      .object({ a: z.string() })
+      .and(z.object({ b: z.string() }))
+      .and(z.object({ c: z.string() }));
+    expect(body(chained)).toMatchObject({ properties: { a: {}, b: {}, c: {} }, required: ["a", "b", "c"] });
+    const nested = z.object({ a: z.string() }).and(z.object({ b: z.string() }).and(z.object({ c: z.string() })));
+    expect(body(nested)).toEqual(body(chained));
+  });
+
+  test("required is the union, and an optional key stays optional", () => {
+    expect(body(z.object({ a: z.string().optional() }).and(z.object({ b: z.string() })))).toMatchObject({
+      properties: { a: { type: "string" }, b: { type: "string" } },
+      required: ["b"],
+    });
+  });
+
+  test("a key both members declare has to satisfy both", () => {
+    // identical declarations collapse
+    expect(body(z.object({ k: z.string() }).and(z.object({ k: z.string() })))).toMatchObject({
+      properties: { k: { type: "string" } },
+    });
+    // object declarations fold, matching the parser's deep merge
+    expect(
+      body(z.object({ k: z.object({ a: z.string() }) }).and(z.object({ k: z.object({ b: z.string() }) })))
+    ).toMatchObject({
+      properties: { k: { type: "object", properties: { a: {}, b: {} }, required: ["a", "b"] } },
+    });
+    // anything else stays an intersection one level down
+    expect(body(z.object({ k: z.string() }).and(z.object({ k: z.number() })))).toMatchObject({
+      properties: { k: { allOf: [{ type: "string" }, { type: "number" }] } },
+    });
+  });
+
+  test("an intersection distributes over a union", () => {
+    const schema = z
+      .object({ name: z.string() })
+      .and(
+        z.discriminatedUnion("type", [
+          z.object({ type: z.literal("a"), value: z.string() }),
+          z.object({ type: z.literal("b"), count: z.number() }),
+        ])
+      );
+    expect(body(schema)).toMatchObject({
+      oneOf: [
+        { type: "object", properties: { name: {}, type: {}, value: {} }, additionalProperties: false },
+        { type: "object", properties: { name: {}, type: {}, count: {} }, additionalProperties: false },
+      ],
+    });
+    const inclusive = z
+      .object({ name: z.string() })
+      .and(z.union([z.object({ v: z.string() }), z.object({ c: z.number() })]));
+    expect(body(inclusive)).toMatchObject({
+      anyOf: [{ properties: { name: {}, v: {} } }, { properties: { name: {}, c: {} } }],
+    });
+  });
+
+  test("input conversion has nothing to close", () => {
+    expect(body(z.object({ a: z.string() }).and(z.object({ b: z.string() })), { io: "input" })).toEqual({
+      type: "object",
+      properties: { a: { type: "string" }, b: { type: "string" } },
+      required: ["a", "b"],
+    });
+  });
+
+  test("folds through a property and through z.lazy", () => {
+    expect(body(z.object({ inner: z.object({ a: z.string() }).and(z.object({ b: z.string() })) }))).toMatchObject({
+      properties: { inner: { type: "object", properties: { a: {}, b: {} } } },
+    });
+    const self: z.ZodType = z.lazy(() => z.object({ a: z.string() }).and(z.object({ next: z.optional(self) })));
+    expect(body(self)).toMatchObject({ type: "object", properties: { a: {}, next: { $ref: "#" } } });
+  });
+
+  test("metadata on the intersection itself survives", () => {
+    expect(
+      body(
+        z
+          .object({ a: z.string() })
+          .and(z.object({ b: z.string() }))
+          .meta({ title: "T" })
+      )
+    ).toMatchObject({
+      title: "T",
+      type: "object",
+      properties: { a: {}, b: {} },
+    });
+  });
+
+  test("a catchall constrains the sibling's keys too", () => {
+    // The catchall member does not declare `b`, so its `additionalProperties` is what it demands of `b`. Folding `b` into `properties` has to carry that demand across, or the key would escape it.
+    const schema = z
+      .object({ a: z.string() })
+      .catchall(z.number())
+      .and(z.object({ b: z.string() }));
+    expect(body(schema)).toEqual({
+      type: "object",
+      properties: { a: { type: "string" }, b: { allOf: [{ type: "number" }, { type: "string" }] } },
+      required: ["a", "b"],
+      additionalProperties: { type: "number" },
+    });
+  });
+
+  test("two catchalls both constrain the keys neither declares", () => {
+    const schema = z
+      .object({})
+      .catchall(z.number())
+      .and(z.object({}).catchall(z.number().min(0)));
+    expect(body(schema)).toEqual({
+      type: "object",
+      properties: {},
+      additionalProperties: { allOf: [{ type: "number" }, { type: "number", minimum: 0 }] },
+    });
+    expect(schema.safeParse({ zz: 5 }).success).toBe(true);
+    expect(schema.safeParse({ zz: -1 }).success).toBe(false);
+  });
+
+  test("the emitted openness agrees with the parser for every pair of object modes", () => {
+    const modes = {
+      strip: (shape: z.ZodRawShape) => z.object(shape),
+      strict: (shape: z.ZodRawShape) => z.strictObject(shape),
+      loose: (shape: z.ZodRawShape) => z.looseObject(shape),
+      catchall: (shape: z.ZodRawShape) => z.object(shape).catchall(z.number()),
+    };
+    const grid: Record<string, unknown> = {};
+    for (const [leftName, left] of Object.entries(modes)) {
+      for (const [rightName, right] of Object.entries(modes)) {
+        const schema = left({ a: z.string() }).and(right({ b: z.number() }));
+        const emitted = body(schema) as { additionalProperties?: unknown };
+        grid[`${leftName} & ${rightName}`] = emitted.additionalProperties ?? "open";
+
+        // Whatever the emitted keyword says, it has to agree with what the parser does with a key neither member declares.
+        const parsed = schema.safeParse({ a: "s", b: 1, zz: 7 });
+        const keepsUnknown = parsed.success && Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(parsed.data, "zz");
+        if (keepsUnknown) expect(emitted.additionalProperties).not.toBe(false);
+      }
+    }
+    expect(grid).toMatchInlineSnapshot(`
+      {
+        "catchall & catchall": {
+          "type": "number",
+        },
+        "catchall & loose": {
+          "type": "number",
+        },
+        "catchall & strict": {
+          "type": "number",
+        },
+        "catchall & strip": {
+          "type": "number",
+        },
+        "loose & catchall": {
+          "type": "number",
+        },
+        "loose & loose": "open",
+        "loose & strict": "open",
+        "loose & strip": "open",
+        "strict & catchall": {
+          "type": "number",
+        },
+        "strict & loose": "open",
+        "strict & strict": false,
+        "strict & strip": false,
+        "strip & catchall": {
+          "type": "number",
+        },
+        "strip & loose": "open",
+        "strip & strict": false,
+        "strip & strip": false,
+      }
+    `);
+  });
+
+  test("a __proto__ key stays an own property", () => {
+    const folded = body(z.object({ ["__proto__"]: z.string() }).and(z.object({ b: z.number() }))) as any;
+    expect(Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(folded.properties, "__proto__")).toBe(true);
+    expect(folded.required).toEqual(["__proto__", "b"]);
+  });
+});
+
+describe("intersection folding declines", () => {
+  // Every case here keeps the `allOf` it produces today. The fold only understands the four object keywords, so a member carrying anything else is left alone rather than having a constraint dropped or an annotation re-scoped.
+  const allOf = (schema: z.ZodType, params?: Parameters<typeof z.toJSONSchema>[1]) =>
+    (z.toJSONSchema(schema, params) as any).allOf;
+
+  test("a member that is a reference keeps its reference", () => {
+    const named = z.object({ a: z.string() }).meta({ id: "Named" });
+    expect(allOf(named.and(z.object({ b: z.string() })))[0]).toEqual({ $ref: "#/$defs/Named" });
+
+    const shared = z.object({ c: z.string() });
+    const reused = z.toJSONSchema(z.object({ x: shared.and(z.object({ d: z.string() })), y: shared }), {
+      reused: "ref",
+    }) as any;
+    expect(reused.properties.x.allOf[0]).toEqual({ $ref: "#/$defs/__schema0" });
+
+    const cyclic: any = z.object({
+      get next() {
+        return z.optional(cyclic);
+      },
+      n: z.string(),
+    });
+    expect(allOf(cyclic.and(z.object({ m: z.string() })))[0].$ref).toBe("#/$defs/__schema0");
+  });
+
+  test("an annotated member keeps its place", () => {
+    expect(
+      allOf(
+        z
+          .object({ a: z.string() })
+          .describe("A")
+          .and(z.object({ b: z.string() }))
+      )[0]
+    ).toMatchObject({
+      description: "A",
+    });
+  });
+
+  test("members that are not plain objects are left alone", () => {
+    expect(allOf(z.intersection(z.string().min(2), z.string().max(5)))).toHaveLength(2);
+    expect(allOf(z.object({ a: z.string() }).and(z.nullable(z.object({ b: z.string() }))))).toHaveLength(2);
+    expect(
+      allOf(z.object({ label: z.string() }).and(z.looseRecord(z.string().regex(/^label:[a-z]{2}$/), z.string())))
+    ).toHaveLength(2);
+  });
+
+  test("a shared member is never rewritten for its other uses", () => {
+    const shared = z.object({ c: z.string() });
+    const result = z.toJSONSchema(z.object({ x: shared.and(z.object({ d: z.string() })), y: shared })) as any;
+    expect(result.properties.x).toMatchObject({ properties: { c: {}, d: {} }, additionalProperties: false });
+    // `y` is the same Zod schema, emitted separately, and keeps the closedness it had on its own.
+    expect(result.properties.y).toEqual({
+      type: "object",
+      properties: { c: { type: "string" } },
+      required: ["c"],
+      additionalProperties: false,
+    });
+  });
+
+  test("registry conversion keeps its cross-references", () => {
+    const registry = z.registry<{ id: string }>();
+    const left = z.object({ p: z.string() });
+    const right = z.object({ q: z.string() });
+    registry.add(left, { id: "P" });
+    registry.add(right, { id: "Q" });
+    registry.add(left.and(right), { id: "PQ" });
+    expect((z.toJSONSchema(registry) as any).schemas.PQ.allOf).toEqual([{ $ref: "P" }, { $ref: "Q" }]);
+  });
+
+  test("override still runs, and sees the intersection before it folds", () => {
+    const schema = z.object({ a: z.string() }).and(z.object({ b: z.string() }));
+    const result = z.toJSONSchema(schema, {
+      override(ctx) {
+        if ((ctx.jsonSchema as any).allOf) (ctx.jsonSchema as any).title = "intersection";
+      },
+    }) as any;
+    expect(result).toMatchObject({ title: "intersection", type: "object", properties: { a: {}, b: {} } });
+  });
+
+  test("an override that writes object keywords wins over the fold", () => {
+    // The override runs first, so anything it puts on the intersection is deliberate. Folding would overwrite it silently, so the fold stands down instead.
+    const result = z.toJSONSchema(z.object({ a: z.string() }).and(z.object({ b: z.string() })), {
+      override(ctx) {
+        if ((ctx.jsonSchema as any).allOf) (ctx.jsonSchema as any).additionalProperties = true;
+      },
+    }) as any;
+    expect(result.additionalProperties).toBe(true);
+    expect(result.allOf).toHaveLength(2);
+  });
+
+  test("more than one union member is left alone rather than multiplied out", () => {
+    // The second union lands among the members the first is distributed across, and a union is not an object, so every branch fails to fold and the whole intersection stands down.
+    const schema = z
+      .object({ a: z.string() })
+      .and(z.union([z.object({ v: z.string() }), z.object({ w: z.string() })]))
+      .and(z.union([z.object({ x: z.string() }), z.object({ y: z.string() })]));
+    expect(allOf(schema)).toHaveLength(3);
+  });
+});
+
+test("currency code", () => {
+  expect(z.toJSONSchema(z.currencyCode())).toEqual({
+    $schema: "https://json-schema.org/draft/2020-12/schema",
+    type: "string",
+    format: "currency_code",
+    pattern: z.regexes.currencyCode.source,
+  });
+});