y_nelson 2.1.0 → 2.3.0

data/{Ruby_for_YNelson_Users_in_20_minutes.lyx → Introduction_to_Ruby_for_YNelson_Users.lyx}

@@ -65,7 +65,7 @@
 \begin_body
 
 \begin_layout Title
-Ruby for YNelson Users in 20 minutes
+Introduction to Ruby for YNelson Users
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout Standard
@@ -74,29 +74,67 @@ For
 YNelson
 \family default
  users, basic Ruby syntax is necessary.
- This document provides the Ruby syntax primer for 
+ This document is a primer to Ruby for 
 \family typewriter
 YNelson
 \family default
  users.
- 
-\series bold
-This document is better done in one session, as the provided code samples
- rely on each other.
+ This documents should be used in the same way as 
+\family typewriter
+YNelson
+\family default
+ tutorial (Introduction to 
+\family typewriter
+YNelson
+\family default
+) – that is, get an 
+\emph on
+irb
+\emph default
+ session running, and type all the examples in by yourself.
+ You might also wish to install 
+\family typewriter
+YNelson
+\family default
+ by by typing "
+\family typewriter
+gem install y_nelson
+\family default
+" from your command line.
+ Since many of the code samples here rely heavily on each other, you may
+ consider to do this document in one session.
+ On the other hand, if you happen to be a Ruby hacker, you do not need to
+ continue reading this document at all.
+ This document is not a replacement for a Ruby textbook.
+ For those, who want more thorough introduction to the language, I recommend
+ the document 
+\begin_inset CommandInset href
+LatexCommand href
+target "http://www.rubyist.net/~slagell/ruby/index.html"
 
-\series default
- If you are familiar with Ruby, you do not need to read this document at
- all.
- Those who want more thorough introduction to the language, I recommend
- http://www.rubyist.net/~slagell/ruby/index.html, or any of the many Ruby textbooks.
+\end_inset
+
+, or one of the many Ruby textbooks.
 \end_layout
 
-\begin_layout Subsection*
-Variables and Constants
+\begin_layout Part*
+Variables and constants
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout Standard
-In Ruby, everything is an 
+In Ruby, everything
+\begin_inset Foot
+status collapsed
+
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+Almost everything.
+ Non-object include eg.
+ variables or argument fields.
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
+
+ is an 
 \emph on
 \color red
 object
@@ -199,7 +237,85 @@ defined? Gamma
 #=> "constant"
 \end_layout
 
-\begin_layout Subsection*
+\begin_layout Part*
+Code lines and comments
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+Ruby lines can be written with or without semicolons:
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+a = "with";
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+b = "without"
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+puts [ a, b ].join " or "
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+Semicolon is compulsory only when two or more logical lines are crammed
+ together like this:
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+a = 
+\begin_inset Quotes eld
+\end_inset
+
+Hello 
+\begin_inset Quotes eld
+\end_inset
+
+; b = 
+\begin_inset Quotes eld
+\end_inset
+
+world!
+\begin_inset Quotes erd
+\end_inset
+
+; puts a + b
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+Comments are denoted by 
+\family typewriter
+#
+\family default
+ sign.
+ Anything on the line following the 
+\family typewriter
+#
+\family default
+ sign is ignored:
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+puts 
+\begin_inset Quotes eld
+\end_inset
+
+Hello world!
+\begin_inset Quotes erd
+\end_inset
+
+ # this line prints the words 
+\begin_inset Quotes eld
+\end_inset
+
+Hello world!
+\begin_inset Quotes erd
+\end_inset
+
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Part*
 Methods
 \end_layout
 
@@ -312,7 +428,7 @@ to_f
  which is not important.
 \end_layout
 
-\begin_layout Subsection*
+\begin_layout Part*
 Classes
 \end_layout
 
@@ -404,7 +520,7 @@ end
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
-Pochi = Dog.
+Spot = Dog.
 \color red
 new
 \end_layout
@@ -414,7 +530,7 @@ new
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
-Pochi.speak!
+Spot.speak!
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
@@ -446,7 +562,7 @@ end
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
-Tama = Cat.new
+Lisa = Cat.new
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
@@ -454,7 +570,7 @@ Tama = Cat.new
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
-Tama.speak!
+Lisa.speak!
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
@@ -474,7 +590,7 @@ puts
 ' method, used to simply print characters on the screen.
 \end_layout
 
-\begin_layout Subsection*
+\begin_layout Part*
 Strings, Symbols, Arrays and Hashes
 \end_layout
 
@@ -534,7 +650,7 @@ Understanding argument passing and closure writing is essential in using
  YPetri DSL.
 \end_layout
 
-\begin_layout Subsubsection*
+\begin_layout Section*
 Strings
 \end_layout
 
@@ -670,11 +786,11 @@ my_string
 \color red
 <<
 \color inherit
- "Pochi!"
+ "Spot!"
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
-#=> "Hello Pochi!"
+#=> "Hello Spot!"
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
@@ -693,7 +809,7 @@ Again,
  operator changed the contents, but the object id remained the same.
 \end_layout
 
-\begin_layout Subsubsection*
+\begin_layout Section*
 Symbols
 \end_layout
 
@@ -709,7 +825,7 @@ Unlike strings, symbols are immutable – they never change.
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
-:Pochi.class
+:Spot.class
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
@@ -718,7 +834,7 @@ Unlike strings, symbols are immutable – they never change.
 Symbol
 \end_layout
 
-\begin_layout Subsubsection*
+\begin_layout Section*
 Arrays
 \end_layout
 
@@ -733,7 +849,7 @@ As seen earlier, they can be defined with square brackets
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
-my_array = [ Pochi, Tama ]
+my_array = [ Spot, Lisa ]
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
@@ -769,7 +885,7 @@ my_array[-2]
 #=> #<Dog:0x9c214ac>
 \end_layout
 
-\begin_layout Subsubsection*
+\begin_layout Section*
 Hashes
 \end_layout
 
@@ -791,7 +907,7 @@ Ruby rocket
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
-h1 = { Pochi => "dog", Tama => "cat" }
+h1 = { Spot => "dog", Lisa => "cat" }
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
@@ -799,7 +915,7 @@ h1 = { Pochi => "dog", Tama => "cat" }
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
-h1[ Tama ]
+h1[ Lisa ]
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
@@ -807,7 +923,7 @@ h1[ Tama ]
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
-h1[ Pochi ]
+h1[ Spot ]
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
@@ -820,7 +936,7 @@ The second way is possible only when the keys are symbols.
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
-h2 = { dog: Pochi, cat: Tama }
+h2 = { dog: Spot, cat: Lisa }
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
@@ -835,7 +951,7 @@ h2[:dog]
 #=> #<Dog:0x9c214ac>
 \end_layout
 
-\begin_layout Subsection*
+\begin_layout Part*
 Code blocks and Closures
 \end_layout
 
@@ -946,7 +1062,7 @@ lambda calculus
 .
 \end_layout
 
-\begin_layout Subsubsection*
+\begin_layout Section*
 Return values
 \end_layout
 
@@ -975,7 +1091,7 @@ Code blocks (and actually, all Ruby statements) have return value.
 #=> [0, 1, 2, 3]
 \end_layout
 
-\begin_layout Subsubsection*
+\begin_layout Section*
 Closures
 \end_layout
 
@@ -1083,7 +1199,7 @@ my_proc.
 \color red
 call
 \color inherit
-( Pochi )
+( Spot )
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
@@ -1091,7 +1207,7 @@ call
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
-my_lambda.call( Tama )
+my_lambda.call( Lisa )
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
@@ -1111,7 +1227,7 @@ my_proc
 \color red
 .
 \color inherit
-( Tama )
+( Lisa )
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
@@ -1119,7 +1235,7 @@ my_proc
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
-my_lambda.( Pochi )
+my_lambda.( Spot )
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
@@ -1152,7 +1268,7 @@ lambda
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
-my_proc.( Tama, "garbage" )
+my_proc.( Lisa, "garbage" )
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
@@ -1160,14 +1276,42 @@ my_proc.( Tama, "garbage" )
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
-my_lambda.( Tama, "garbage" )
+my_lambda.( Lisa, "garbage" )
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
 #=> ArgumentError: wrong number of arguments (2 for 1)
 \end_layout
 
-\begin_layout Subsection*
+\begin_layout Standard
+Finally, let us notice the alternative syntax for defining lambdas:
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+my_lambda = lambda do |organism| organism.speak! end
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+my_lambda = lambda { |organism| oranism.speak! }
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+my_lambda = 
+\color red
+->
+\color inherit
+ organism do organism.speak! end
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+my_lambda = -> orgnism { organism.speak! }
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+All of the four above statements define exactly the same thing.
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Section*
 Passing arguments
 \end_layout
 
@@ -1256,7 +1400,7 @@ YNelson
 , this is the language of Ruby closures.
 \end_layout
 
-\begin_layout Subsubsection*
+\begin_layout Section*
 Optional arguments
 \end_layout
 
@@ -1274,7 +1418,7 @@ def average( a, b, c
 \color red
 =
 \color inherit
-:pochi )
+:spot )
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
@@ -1282,7 +1426,7 @@ def average( a, b, c
 \color red
 #
 \color inherit
- If c argument was not given, :pochi symbol will be assigned
+ If c argument was not given, :spot symbol will be assigned
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
@@ -1298,7 +1442,7 @@ if
 \color red
 ==
 \color inherit
- :pochi 
+ :spot 
 \color red
 then
 \color inherit
@@ -1431,7 +1575,7 @@ c
  All code lines, exception the obvious ones, should have comments.
 \end_layout
 
-\begin_layout Subsubsection*
+\begin_layout Section*
 Variable-length argument lists
 \end_layout
 
@@ -1535,7 +1679,7 @@ examine_arguments( 1 )
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
-examine_arguments( :hello, :pochi, 3, 5, "garbage" )
+examine_arguments( :hello, :spot, 3, 5, "garbage" )
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout LyX-Code
@@ -1616,7 +1760,7 @@ avg.( 11, 7, 5, 3 )
 #=> 6.5
 \end_layout
 
-\begin_layout Subsubsection*
+\begin_layout Section*
 Named arguments
 \end_layout
 
@@ -1717,7 +1861,7 @@ lambda do |arg| ...
  ) array constructor syntax.
 \end_layout
 
-\begin_layout Subsubsection*
+\begin_layout Section*
 Hash-collecting behavior of square brackets
 \end_layout
 
@@ -1822,7 +1966,7 @@ enzyme
  constructor method.
 \end_layout
 
-\begin_layout Subsection*
+\begin_layout Section*
 Arity
 \end_layout
 
@@ -2002,7 +2146,7 @@ array_scale.arity
 #=> -2
 \end_layout
 
-\begin_layout Subsection*
+\begin_layout Section*
 Return value
 \end_layout
 
@@ -2120,12 +2264,28 @@ experimental_lambda.call
 #=> 3
 \end_layout
 
-\begin_layout Subsection*
+\begin_layout Section*
 Return value arity
 \end_layout
 
 \begin_layout Standard
-It is possible to return more than one value.
+It is possible to return more than one value
+\begin_inset Foot
+status open
+
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+Technically, methods and closures always return exactly 1 object – multiple
+ values are returned via a single array object.
+ But pragmatically, and especially with respect to 
+\family typewriter
+YPetri
+\family default
+, the notion of return value arity is useful.
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
+
+.
  For example:
 \end_layout
 
@@ -2250,5 +2410,832 @@ z
 #=> 3
 \end_layout
 
+\begin_layout Part*
+
+\family typewriter
+YSupport
+\family default
+ library
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+Finally, having introduced the basic Ruby syntax, let us mention 
+\family typewriter
+YSupport
+\family default
+ gem (gem = published Ruby library), that collects the assets (modules,
+ classes, methods...) of general concern in use by 
+\family typewriter
+YPetri
+\family default
+/
+\family typewriter
+YNelson
+\family default
+.
+ Of these, a particular mention goes to 
+\family typewriter
+NameMagic
+\family default
+, widely used in 
+\family typewriter
+YPetri
+\family default
+, 
+\family typewriter
+YNelson
+\family default
+ and 
+\family typewriter
+SY
+\family default
+ (physical units) libraries.
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Section*
+
+\family typewriter
+NameMagic
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+In software engineering, 
+\emph on
+magic
+\emph default
+ is a technical term for irregular side effects of language expressions.
+ The problem that 
+\family typewriter
+NameMagic
+\family default
+ solves is, that objects (such as chemical species encoded in 
+\family typewriter
+YNelson
+\family default
+) are frequently named, and naming them is an annoying chore.
+ Consider a simple case:
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+class Student
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+  attr_accessor :name
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+  def initialize name: nil
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+    @name = name
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+  end
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+end
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+Now, to create named 
+\family typewriter
+Student
+\family default
+ instances, one has to mention 
+\family typewriter
+:name
+\family default
+ named argument in the constructor, and frequently, the same name has to
+ be mentioned twice, such as when assigning to constants or variables:
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+richard = Student.new( name: "Richard" )
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+richard.name
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+#=> "Richard"
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+In Ruby, we can notice that some objects have built-in capability to be
+ named simply by constant assignment:
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+foo = Class.new
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+foo.name
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+#=> nil
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+Car = foo
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+foo.name
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+#=> "Car"
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+Magically, upon assigning 
+\family typewriter
+Car = foo
+\family default
+, the object referred to by the 
+\family typewriter
+foo
+\family default
+ variable received an attribute 
+\family typewriter
+name
+\family default
+, with value set to "
+\family typewriter
+Car
+\family default
+".
+ This standard behavior is termed constant magic.
+ 
+\family typewriter
+NameMagic
+\family default
+ mixin (part of 
+\family typewriter
+YSupport
+\family default
+) extends this standard behavior to any chosen object, and also takes care
+ of keeping the instance registry and doing general naming related chores
+ for its includers:
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+require 'y_support/name_magic'
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+class Chemical
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+  include NameMagic
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+end
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+NaCl = Chemical.new
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+NaCl.name
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+#=> "NaCl"
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+It might seem like a small thing, but in a big file of complicated equation,
+ it really starts to matter whether one writes on each line "
+\family typewriter
+NaCl = Chemical.new( name: NaCl )
+\family default
+", or just "
+\family typewriter
+NaCl = Chemical.new
+\family default
+".
+ 
+\family typewriter
+NameMagic
+\family default
+ is a part of 
+\family typewriter
+YSupport
+\family default
+ library accompanying 
+\family typewriter
+YPetri
+\family default
+ and 
+\family typewriter
+YNelson
+\family default
+.
+ You can install 
+\family typewriter
+YSupport
+\family default
+ from the command line by "
+\family typewriter
+gem install y_support
+\family default
+".
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Part*
+Other essential concepts
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+There are a few more essential concepts of Ruby that 
+\family typewriter
+YNelson
+\family default
+ users should be familiar with, such as namespaces and parametrized subclassing.
+ Code examples in this section are slightly more complicated, and also,
+ they make use of 
+\family typewriter
+YSupport
+\family default
+ gem.
+ Install 
+\family typewriter
+YSupport
+\family default
+ by typing 
+\family typewriter
+gem install y_support
+\family default
+ in your command line before studying code examples in this section.
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Section*
+Namespaces
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+In Ruby, namespaces are known as modules (objects of 
+\family typewriter
+Module
+\family default
+ class).
+ These objects are containers for constants and method definitions.
+ For example, let us imagine that we want to define constants, classes and
+ methods related to the game of chess.
+ We could simply define them in the command line, without any considerations,
+ We could do it directly, but that way, all of them would be defined in
+ the root of Ruby namespace – on 
+\family typewriter
+Object
+\family default
+ class.
+ The reason why this is not a good idea is the same as the reason why it
+ is not a good idea to put all your files in the root of your filesystem.
+ Chess-related terms such as 
+\family typewriter
+Field
+\family default
+ or 
+\family typewriter
+Piece
+\family default
+ could collide with concepts from other domains not related to chess.
+ For that reason, we will collect all the chess-related assets into a single
+ namespace:
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+module Chess    
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+  class Board < Array
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+    SIZE = 8         # standard chessboard
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+    
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+    class Field      # chessboard field
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+      attr_accessor :contents
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+    end
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+    def self.new     # constructs 8 × 8 array of arrays
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+      super( SIZE, Array.new( SIZE ) { Field.new } )
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+    end
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+    # chessboard is defined here
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+  end
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+  
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+  Piece = Class.new         # chess piece
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+  Pawn = Class.new Piece    # chess pawn
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+  Knight = Class.new Piece  # chess knight
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+  Rook = Class.new Piece    # chess rook
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+  # etc.
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+end
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+We then access the contents of the namespace in the way similar to the way
+ we address the files in the filesystem:
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+Chess::Board        # namespace Chess, constant Board
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+Chess::Piece        # namespace Chess, constant Piece
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+Chess::Pawn         # namespace Chess, constant Pawn
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+Chess::Board::SIZE  # namespace Chess::Board, constant SIZE
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+Chess::Board::Field # namespace Chess::Board, constant Field
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+# etc.
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+Let us note that in the above example, 
+\family typewriter
+Board
+\family default
+, 
+\family typewriter
+Piece
+\family default
+, 
+\family typewriter
+Pawn
+\family default
+ are merely constants of the namespace 
+\family typewriter
+Chess
+\family default
+.
+ Similarly, in 
+\family typewriter
+YPetri
+\family default
+, when talking about 
+\family typewriter
+YPetri::Place
+\family default
+, 
+\family typewriter
+YPetri::Transition
+\family default
+ or 
+\family typewriter
+YPetri::Net
+\family default
+, it means constants 
+\family typewriter
+Place
+\family default
+, 
+\family typewriter
+Transition
+\family default
+ and 
+\family typewriter
+Net
+\family default
+ belonging to the module 
+\family typewriter
+YPetri
+\family default
+ and containing the relevant class objects.
+ But each of these classes is a namespace of its own, that can have constants
+ defined on it.
+ For example, 
+\family typewriter
+YPetri::Simulation
+\family default
+ has constants 
+\family typewriter
+YPetri::Simulation::PlaceRepresentation
+\family default
+ and 
+\family typewriter
+YPetri::Simulation::TransitionRepresentation
+\family default
+, representing copies of the net's places and transitions when executed
+ inside a 
+\family typewriter
+Simulation
+\family default
+ instance.
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Section*
+Parametrized subclassing
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+One of the core techniques used in 
+\family typewriter
+YNelson
+\family default
+ / 
+\family typewriter
+YPetri
+\family default
+ domain model is parametrized subclassing.
+ Literature on the topic does exist 
+\begin_inset CommandInset citation
+LatexCommand citep
+key "Roberts1996efp"
+
+\end_inset
+
+, but again, the concept is best explained on examples:
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+require 'y_support/all'
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+class Human
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+  include NameMagic  # allows humans to be named easily
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+end
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+Humans generally live in settlements.
+ Let us create class 
+\family typewriter
+Village
+\family default
+ representing settlements.
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+class Village
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+  include NameMagic  # allows villages to be named easily
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+end
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+At this point, we are standing in front of the problem of making humans
+ associated with their settlements.
+ One way to do it is to make each 
+\family typewriter
+Human
+\family default
+ instance remember which settlement they belong to.
+ This approach, which you can certainly imagine well even without demonstration,
+ is in common use.
+ But we have a more powerful approach at our disposal – subclassing.
+ This is how we can define a subclass of humans living in London:
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+London = Village.new
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+class Londoner 
+\color red
+<
+\color inherit
+ Human            # using < sign
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+  def self.settlement; London end # let the class know its city
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+end
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+John = Londoner.new
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+John.class.settlement #=> London
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+Alternative syntax for subclassing is this:
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+Dublin = Village.new
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+Dubliner = Class.new Human do     # using argument to Class.new
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+  def self.settlement; Dublin end
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+end
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+Finnegan = Dubliner.new
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+Finnegan.class.settlement #=> Dublin
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+Simply, each settlement has its own class of humans – its inhabitants.
+ But since there are many settlements, it is inconvenient to manually define
+ the inhabitant class for each of them.
+ We therefore make each village automatically construct its own subclass
+ of 
+\family typewriter
+Human
+\family default
+ and parametrize it with 
+\family typewriter
+settlement
+\family default
+ attribute.
+ 
+\family typewriter
+YSupport
+\family default
+ supports parametrized subclassing with method 
+\family typewriter
+#param_class
+\family default
+, and makes it easy to construct a PS of 
+\family typewriter
+Human
+\family default
+ for each 
+\family typewriter
+Village
+\family default
+ istance.
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+class Village            # reopening the class defined earlier
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+  def initialize         # defining a constructor
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+    param_class( { Human: Human }, with: { settlement: self } )
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+  end
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+end
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+Each village has now its own PS of 
+\family typewriter
+Human
+\family default
+.
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+Stockholm, Riga, Canberra = 3.times.map { Village.new }
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+Stockholm.Human               # class of Stockholm citizens
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+Riga.Human                    # class of Riga citizens
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+Canberra.Human                # class of Vilnius citizens
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+Stockholm.Human == Riga.Human #=> false
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+Fred = Stockholm.Human.new    # Stockholm citizen constructor
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+Fred.class.settlement         #=> Stockholm
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+We say that PS of 
+\family typewriter
+Human
+\family default
+ class 
+\emph on
+depends
+\emph default
+ on 
+\family typewriter
+Village
+\family default
+.
+ The advantage is that instances of the PS of 
+\family typewriter
+Human
+\family default
+ don't need to be explicitly told which village do they belong to, and have
+ easy access to the assets of its owner 
+\family typewriter
+Village
+\family default
+ instance.
+ The concept of parametrized subclassing is actually very simple.
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Section*
+Convenience methods
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+Convenience methods are methods in which the consistency of the behavior
+ is traded for syntax sweetness.
+ Convenience methods may do entirely different things for different argument
+ sets.
+ For example, 
+\family typewriter
+Place#marking
+\family default
+ without arguments simply returns the place's marking.
+ But with arguments, it can be used to define a guard.
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+A = Place.new marking: 42
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+A.marking # Simply returns its marking
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+# But with different arguments, same method can be used to
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+# define a guard.
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+A.marking "must never be negative" do |m| m >= 0 end
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+Depending on circumstances, use of convenience methods in reusable code
+ may or may not be bad practice.
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+\begin_inset CommandInset bibtex
+LatexCommand bibtex
+bibfiles "/home/boris/b/5ced/ced"
+options "plainnat"
+
+\end_inset
+
+
+\end_layout
+
 \end_body
 \end_document