whispercpp 1.3.0 → 1.3.2

data/ext/sources/ggml/src/ggml-opt.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,1037 @@
+#include "ggml-opt.h"
+
+#include "ggml.h"
+#include "ggml-alloc.h"
+#include "ggml-backend.h"
+#include "ggml-impl.h"
+
+#include <algorithm>
+#include <cmath>
+#include <cstdint>
+#include <cinttypes>
+#include <map>
+#include <random>
+#include <vector>
+
+struct ggml_opt_dataset {
+    struct ggml_context   * ctx    = nullptr;
+    ggml_backend_buffer_t   buf    = nullptr;
+    struct ggml_tensor    * data   = nullptr;
+    struct ggml_tensor    * labels = nullptr;
+
+    int64_t ndata       = -1;
+    int64_t ndata_shard = -1;
+    size_t  nbs_data    = -1;
+    size_t  nbs_labels  = -1;
+
+    std::vector<int64_t> permutation;
+};
+
+struct ggml_opt_context {
+    ggml_backend_sched_t       backend_sched        = nullptr;
+    ggml_cgraph              * allocated_graph      = nullptr;
+    ggml_cgraph              * allocated_graph_copy = nullptr;
+    struct ggml_context      * ctx_static           = nullptr;
+    struct ggml_context      * ctx_cpu              = nullptr;
+    struct ggml_context      * ctx_compute          = nullptr;
+    struct ggml_context      * ctx_copy             = nullptr;
+    ggml_backend_buffer_t      buf_static           = nullptr;
+    ggml_backend_buffer_t      buf_cpu              = nullptr;
+    std::mt19937               rng;
+    enum ggml_opt_loss_type    loss_type;
+    enum ggml_opt_build_type   build_type;
+    enum ggml_opt_build_type   build_type_alloc;
+
+    struct ggml_tensor * inputs  = nullptr;
+    struct ggml_tensor * outputs = nullptr;
+    struct ggml_tensor * labels  = nullptr;
+
+    struct ggml_tensor * loss     = nullptr;
+    struct ggml_tensor * pred     = nullptr;
+    struct ggml_tensor * ncorrect = nullptr;
+
+    struct ggml_cgraph * gf      = nullptr;
+    struct ggml_cgraph * gb_grad = nullptr;
+    struct ggml_cgraph * gb_opt  = nullptr;
+    bool static_graphs           = false;
+    bool eval_ready              = false;
+    std::vector<struct ggml_tensor *> grad_accs;
+    std::vector<struct ggml_tensor *> grad_m;
+    std::vector<struct ggml_tensor *> grad_v;
+
+    int64_t iter               = 1;
+    int32_t opt_period         = 1;
+    int32_t opt_i              = 0;
+    bool    loss_per_datapoint = false;
+
+    ggml_opt_get_optimizer_params get_opt_pars = nullptr;
+    void * get_opt_pars_ud                     = nullptr;
+    struct ggml_tensor * adamw_params          = nullptr;
+};
+
+struct ggml_opt_result {
+    int64_t              ndata    = 0;
+    std::vector<float>   loss;
+    std::vector<int32_t> pred;
+    int64_t              ncorrect = 0;
+
+    int64_t opt_period         = -1;
+    bool    loss_per_datapoint = false;
+};
+
+// ====== Dataset ======
+
+ggml_opt_dataset_t ggml_opt_dataset_init(
+        enum ggml_type type_data,
+        enum ggml_type type_label,
+        int64_t        ne_datapoint,
+        int64_t        ne_label,
+        int64_t        ndata,
+        int64_t        ndata_shard) {
+    GGML_ASSERT(ne_datapoint >  0);
+    GGML_ASSERT(ne_label     >= 0);
+    GGML_ASSERT(ndata        >  0);
+    GGML_ASSERT(ndata_shard  >  0);
+
+    ggml_opt_dataset_t result = new ggml_opt_dataset;
+    result->ndata       = ndata;
+    result->ndata_shard = ndata_shard;
+
+    {
+        struct ggml_init_params params = {
+            /*.mem_size   =*/ 2*ggml_tensor_overhead(),
+            /*.mem_buffer =*/ nullptr,
+            /*.no_alloc   =*/ true,
+        };
+        result->ctx = ggml_init(params);
+    }
+
+    result->data = ggml_new_tensor_2d(result->ctx, type_data, ne_datapoint, ndata);
+    result->nbs_data = ggml_nbytes(result->data) * ndata_shard/ndata;
+
+    if (ne_label > 0) {
+        result->labels = ggml_new_tensor_2d(result->ctx, type_label, ne_label, ndata);
+        result->nbs_labels = ggml_nbytes(result->labels) * ndata_shard/ndata;
+    } else {
+        result->labels = nullptr;
+        result->nbs_labels = 0;
+    }
+
+    result->buf = ggml_backend_alloc_ctx_tensors_from_buft(result->ctx, ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_type());
+
+    const int64_t nshards = ndata/ndata_shard;
+    result->permutation.resize(nshards);
+    for (int64_t i = 0; i < nshards; ++i) {
+        result->permutation[i] = i;
+    }
+    return result;
+}
+
+void ggml_opt_dataset_free(ggml_opt_dataset_t dataset) {
+    ggml_backend_buffer_free(dataset->buf);
+    ggml_free(dataset->ctx);
+    delete dataset;
+}
+
+int64_t ggml_opt_dataset_ndata(ggml_opt_dataset_t dataset) {
+    return dataset->ndata;
+}
+
+struct ggml_tensor * ggml_opt_dataset_data(ggml_opt_dataset_t dataset) {
+    return dataset->data;
+}
+
+struct ggml_tensor * ggml_opt_dataset_labels(ggml_opt_dataset_t dataset) {
+    return dataset->labels;
+}
+
+void ggml_opt_dataset_shuffle(ggml_opt_context_t opt_ctx, ggml_opt_dataset_t dataset, int64_t idata) {
+    GGML_ASSERT(idata <= dataset->ndata);
+
+    if (idata < 0) {
+        std::shuffle(dataset->permutation.begin(), dataset->permutation.end(), opt_ctx->rng);
+        return;
+    }
+
+    GGML_ASSERT(idata % dataset->ndata_shard == 0);
+    const int64_t ishard_max = idata / dataset->ndata_shard;
+    std::shuffle(dataset->permutation.begin(), dataset->permutation.begin() + ishard_max, opt_ctx->rng);
+}
+
+void ggml_opt_dataset_get_batch(ggml_opt_dataset_t dataset, struct ggml_tensor * data_batch, struct ggml_tensor * labels_batch, int64_t ibatch) {
+    GGML_ASSERT(   data_batch && ggml_is_contiguous(data_batch));
+    GGML_ASSERT(!labels_batch || ggml_is_contiguous(labels_batch));
+    GGML_ASSERT((labels_batch == nullptr) == (dataset->labels == nullptr));
+    GGML_ASSERT(                   data_batch->type == dataset->data->type);
+    GGML_ASSERT(!labels_batch || labels_batch->type == dataset->labels->type);
+
+    const size_t nb_data_batch = ggml_nbytes(data_batch);
+    GGML_ASSERT(nb_data_batch % dataset->nbs_data == 0);
+    const int64_t shards_per_batch = nb_data_batch / dataset->nbs_data;
+
+    if (labels_batch) {
+        const size_t nb_labels_batch = ggml_nbytes(labels_batch);
+        GGML_ASSERT(nb_labels_batch == shards_per_batch*dataset->nbs_labels);
+    }
+
+    GGML_ASSERT((ibatch + 1)*shards_per_batch <= int64_t(dataset->permutation.size()));
+
+    for (int64_t ishard_batch = 0; ishard_batch < shards_per_batch; ++ishard_batch) {
+        const int64_t ishard = dataset->permutation[ibatch*shards_per_batch + ishard_batch];
+
+        const char * ptr_data = (const char *) dataset->data->data + ishard*dataset->nbs_data;
+        ggml_backend_tensor_set(data_batch, ptr_data, ishard_batch*dataset->nbs_data, dataset->nbs_data);
+
+        if (!labels_batch) {
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        const char * ptr_labels = (const char *) dataset->labels->data + ishard*dataset->nbs_labels;
+        ggml_backend_tensor_set(labels_batch, ptr_labels, ishard_batch*dataset->nbs_labels, dataset->nbs_labels);
+    }
+}
+
+void ggml_opt_dataset_get_batch_host(ggml_opt_dataset_t dataset, void * data_batch, size_t nb_data_batch, void * labels_batch, int64_t ibatch) {
+    GGML_ASSERT((labels_batch == nullptr) == (dataset->labels == nullptr));
+    GGML_ASSERT(nb_data_batch % dataset->nbs_data == 0);
+
+    const int64_t shards_per_batch = nb_data_batch / dataset->nbs_data;
+
+    GGML_ASSERT((ibatch + 1)*shards_per_batch <= int64_t(dataset->permutation.size()));
+
+    for (int64_t ishard_batch = 0; ishard_batch < shards_per_batch; ++ishard_batch) {
+        const int64_t ishard = dataset->permutation[ibatch*shards_per_batch + ishard_batch];
+
+        const char * ptr_data       = (const char *) dataset->data->data + ishard      *dataset->nbs_data;
+        char       * ptr_data_batch = (char       *) data_batch          + ishard_batch*dataset->nbs_data;
+        memcpy(ptr_data_batch, ptr_data, dataset->nbs_data);
+
+        if (!labels_batch) {
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        const char * ptr_labels       = (const char *) dataset->labels->data + ishard      *dataset->nbs_labels;
+        char       * ptr_labels_batch = (char       *) labels_batch          + ishard_batch*dataset->nbs_labels;
+        memcpy(ptr_labels_batch, ptr_labels, dataset->nbs_labels);
+    }
+}
+
+// ====== Model / Context ======
+
+struct ggml_opt_optimizer_params ggml_opt_get_default_optimizer_params(void * userdata) {
+    GGML_UNUSED(userdata);
+
+    ggml_opt_optimizer_params result;
+
+    result.adamw.alpha = 0.001f;
+    result.adamw.beta1 = 0.9f;
+    result.adamw.beta2 = 0.999f;
+    result.adamw.eps   = 1e-8f;
+    result.adamw.wd    = 0.0f;
+
+    return result;
+}
+
+struct ggml_opt_optimizer_params ggml_opt_get_constant_optimizer_params(void * userdata) {
+    return *((struct ggml_opt_optimizer_params *) userdata);
+}
+
+struct ggml_opt_params ggml_opt_default_params(
+        ggml_backend_sched_t      backend_sched,
+        enum ggml_opt_loss_type   loss_type) {
+    return {
+        /*backend_sched   =*/ backend_sched,
+        /*ctx_compute     =*/ nullptr,
+        /*inputs          =*/ nullptr,
+        /*logits          =*/ nullptr,
+        /*loss_type       =*/ loss_type,
+        /*build_type      =*/ GGML_OPT_BUILD_TYPE_OPT,
+        /*opt_period      =*/ 1,
+        /*get_opt_pars    =*/ ggml_opt_get_default_optimizer_params,
+        /*get_opt_pars_ud =*/ nullptr,
+    };
+}
+
+static ggml_tensor * map_tensor(std::map<ggml_tensor *, ggml_tensor *> & tensor_map, ggml_context * ctx, ggml_tensor * tensor) {
+    if (!tensor) {
+        return nullptr;
+    }
+
+    if (tensor_map.find(tensor) != tensor_map.end()) {
+        return tensor_map[tensor];
+    }
+
+    ggml_tensor * new_tensor = ggml_dup_tensor(ctx, tensor);
+    tensor_map[tensor] = new_tensor;
+
+    new_tensor->op = tensor->op;
+    for (int i = 0; i < GGML_MAX_DIMS; i++) {
+        new_tensor->nb[i] = tensor->nb[i];
+    }
+    new_tensor->flags = tensor->flags;
+    memcpy(new_tensor->op_params, tensor->op_params, sizeof(tensor->op_params));
+    strcpy(new_tensor->name, tensor->name);
+    new_tensor->data = tensor->data;
+    new_tensor->buffer = tensor->buffer;
+    new_tensor->extra = tensor->extra;
+    new_tensor->view_offs = tensor->view_offs;
+    new_tensor->view_src = map_tensor(tensor_map, ctx, tensor->view_src);
+    for (int i = 0; i < GGML_MAX_SRC; i++) {
+        new_tensor->src[i] = map_tensor(tensor_map, ctx, tensor->src[i]);
+    }
+
+    return new_tensor;
+}
+
+static ggml_cgraph * dup_graph(ggml_context * ctx, ggml_cgraph * src) {
+    std::map<ggml_tensor *, ggml_tensor *> tensor_map;
+
+    ggml_cgraph * dst = ggml_new_graph_custom(ctx, src->size, /*grads =*/ true);
+
+    for (int i = 0; i < src->n_leafs; i++) {
+        ggml_build_forward_expand(dst, map_tensor(tensor_map, ctx, src->leafs[i]));
+    }
+    GGML_ASSERT(dst->n_leafs == src->n_leafs);
+    for (int i = 0; i < src->n_nodes; i++) {
+        ggml_build_forward_expand(dst, map_tensor(tensor_map, ctx, src->nodes[i]));
+    }
+    GGML_ASSERT(dst->n_nodes == src->n_nodes);
+    for (int i = 0; i < src->n_nodes; ++i) {
+        const size_t igrad_src = ggml_hash_find(&src->visited_hash_set, src->nodes[i]);
+        const size_t igrad_dst = ggml_hash_find(&dst->visited_hash_set, dst->nodes[i]);
+
+        GGML_ASSERT(igrad_src != GGML_HASHSET_FULL);
+        GGML_ASSERT(ggml_bitset_get(src->visited_hash_set.used, igrad_src));
+        GGML_ASSERT(igrad_dst != GGML_HASHSET_FULL);
+        GGML_ASSERT(ggml_bitset_get(dst->visited_hash_set.used, igrad_dst));
+
+        dst->grads[igrad_dst]     = src->grads[igrad_src];
+        dst->grad_accs[igrad_dst] = src->grad_accs[igrad_src];
+    }
+
+    return dst;
+}
+
+static void ggml_opt_build(ggml_opt_context_t opt_ctx) {
+    GGML_ASSERT(opt_ctx->ctx_compute && "no compute context set, either use static graphs or set one with ggml_opt_prepare_alloc");
+    GGML_ASSERT((!opt_ctx->static_graphs || opt_ctx->inputs->data) && "when using static graphs the inputs must be allocated statically");
+
+    const bool accumulate = opt_ctx->build_type_alloc >= GGML_OPT_BUILD_TYPE_GRAD &&
+        !(opt_ctx->static_graphs && opt_ctx->build_type_alloc == GGML_OPT_BUILD_TYPE_OPT && opt_ctx->opt_period == 1);
+
+    ggml_set_input(opt_ctx->inputs);
+    ggml_set_output(opt_ctx->outputs);
+
+    int n_param = 0;
+    for (int i = 0; i < opt_ctx->gf->n_nodes; ++i) {
+        const struct ggml_tensor * node = opt_ctx->gf->nodes[i];
+        if (node->flags & GGML_TENSOR_FLAG_PARAM) {
+            n_param++;
+        }
+        GGML_ASSERT(!(node->flags & GGML_TENSOR_FLAG_LOSS) && "support for extra loss terms not implemented");
+    }
+
+    if (!opt_ctx->ctx_static) {
+        // The static context is used for:
+        //   - gradients (1 per loss, 1 tensor per param if using gradient accumulation)
+        //   - optimizer momenta (2 tensors per param)
+        //   - labels (if using static graphs)
+        //   - loss (if using static graphs, up to 5 tensors)
+        //   - pred (if using static graphs)
+        //   - ncorrect (if using static graphs, 2 tensors).
+        constexpr size_t n_loss = 1;
+        const size_t tensors_per_param = (accumulate ? 1 : 0) +
+            (opt_ctx->build_type_alloc == GGML_OPT_BUILD_TYPE_OPT ? 2 : 0);
+        const size_t tensors_const = opt_ctx->static_graphs ? 9 : 0;
+        const size_t size_meta = (n_loss + tensors_per_param*n_param + tensors_const) * ggml_tensor_overhead();
+        struct ggml_init_params params = {
+            /*.mem_size   =*/ size_meta,
+            /*.mem_buffer =*/ nullptr,
+            /*.no_alloc   =*/ true,
+        };
+        opt_ctx->ctx_static = ggml_init(params);
+    }
+    GGML_ASSERT(opt_ctx->build_type <= opt_ctx->build_type_alloc);
+
+    {
+        // The cpu context is allocated statically if using static graphs, dynamically otherwise.
+        // It is used for:
+        //   - optimizer parameters (1 shared for all optimizer invocations)
+        const size_t size_meta = 1 * ggml_tensor_overhead();
+        struct ggml_init_params params = {
+            /*.mem_size   =*/ size_meta,
+            /*.mem_buffer =*/ nullptr,
+            /*.no_alloc   =*/ true,
+        };
+        ggml_free(opt_ctx->ctx_cpu);
+        opt_ctx->ctx_cpu = ggml_init(params);
+
+        ggml_backend_buffer_free(opt_ctx->buf_cpu);
+        opt_ctx->buf_cpu = nullptr;
+    }
+
+    struct ggml_context * ctx_results = opt_ctx->static_graphs ? opt_ctx->ctx_static : opt_ctx->ctx_compute;
+
+    switch (opt_ctx->loss_type) {
+        case GGML_OPT_LOSS_TYPE_MEAN: {
+            opt_ctx->loss = ggml_sum(ctx_results, opt_ctx->outputs);
+            ggml_set_name(opt_ctx->loss, "loss_sum");
+            const float scale = 1.0f / (opt_ctx->opt_period * ggml_nelements(opt_ctx->outputs));
+            opt_ctx->loss = ggml_scale(ctx_results, opt_ctx->loss, scale);
+            ggml_set_name(opt_ctx->loss, "loss_mean");
+            opt_ctx->loss_per_datapoint = true;
+            break;
+        }
+        case GGML_OPT_LOSS_TYPE_SUM: {
+            opt_ctx->loss = ggml_sum(ctx_results, opt_ctx->outputs);
+            ggml_set_name(opt_ctx->loss, "loss_sum");
+            opt_ctx->loss_per_datapoint = false;
+            break;
+        }
+        case GGML_OPT_LOSS_TYPE_CROSS_ENTROPY: {
+            opt_ctx->labels = ggml_dup_tensor(ctx_results, opt_ctx->outputs);
+            ggml_set_input(opt_ctx->labels);
+            ggml_set_name(opt_ctx->labels, "labels");
+            opt_ctx->loss = ggml_cross_entropy_loss(ctx_results, opt_ctx->outputs, opt_ctx->labels);
+            ggml_set_name(opt_ctx->loss, "loss_cross_entropy");
+            if (opt_ctx->opt_period > 1) {
+                opt_ctx->loss = ggml_scale(ctx_results, opt_ctx->loss, 1.0f / opt_ctx->opt_period);
+                ggml_set_name(opt_ctx->loss, "loss_cross_entropy_scaled");
+            }
+            opt_ctx->loss_per_datapoint = true;
+            break;
+        }
+        case GGML_OPT_LOSS_TYPE_MEAN_SQUARED_ERROR: {
+            opt_ctx->labels = ggml_dup_tensor(ctx_results, opt_ctx->outputs);
+            ggml_set_input(opt_ctx->labels);
+            ggml_set_name(opt_ctx->labels, "labels");
+            opt_ctx->loss = ggml_sub(ctx_results, opt_ctx->outputs, opt_ctx->labels);
+            ggml_set_name(opt_ctx->loss, "loss_error");
+            opt_ctx->loss = ggml_sqr(ctx_results, opt_ctx->loss);
+            ggml_set_name(opt_ctx->loss, "loss_squared_error");
+            opt_ctx->loss = ggml_sum(ctx_results, opt_ctx->loss);
+            ggml_set_name(opt_ctx->loss, "loss_sum_squared_error");
+            const float scale = 1.0f / (opt_ctx->opt_period * ggml_nelements(opt_ctx->outputs));
+            opt_ctx->loss = ggml_scale(ctx_results, opt_ctx->loss, scale);
+            ggml_set_name(opt_ctx->loss, "loss_mean_squared_error");
+            opt_ctx->loss_per_datapoint = true;
+            break;
+        }
+    }
+    ggml_set_output(opt_ctx->loss);
+    ggml_set_loss(opt_ctx->loss);
+    ggml_build_forward_expand(opt_ctx->gf, opt_ctx->loss);
+
+    if (opt_ctx->loss_type == GGML_OPT_LOSS_TYPE_CROSS_ENTROPY) {
+        opt_ctx->pred = ggml_argmax(ctx_results, opt_ctx->outputs);
+        ggml_set_name(opt_ctx->pred, "pred");
+        ggml_set_output(opt_ctx->pred);
+        ggml_build_forward_expand(opt_ctx->gf, opt_ctx->pred);
+
+        opt_ctx->ncorrect = ggml_count_equal(ctx_results, opt_ctx->pred, ggml_argmax(ctx_results, opt_ctx->labels));
+        ggml_set_name(opt_ctx->ncorrect, "ncorrect");
+        ggml_set_output(opt_ctx->ncorrect);
+        ggml_build_forward_expand(opt_ctx->gf, opt_ctx->ncorrect);
+    }
+
+    if (opt_ctx->buf_static) {
+        if (opt_ctx->build_type == GGML_OPT_BUILD_TYPE_FORWARD) {
+            return;
+        }
+    } else if (opt_ctx->build_type_alloc == GGML_OPT_BUILD_TYPE_FORWARD) {
+        opt_ctx->buf_static = ggml_backend_alloc_ctx_tensors(
+            opt_ctx->ctx_static, ggml_backend_sched_get_backend(opt_ctx->backend_sched, 0));
+        return;
+    }
+
+    if (opt_ctx->grad_accs.empty()) {
+        GGML_ASSERT(opt_ctx->build_type_alloc >= GGML_OPT_BUILD_TYPE_GRAD);
+
+        const int n_nodes = opt_ctx->gf->n_nodes;
+        opt_ctx->grad_accs.resize(n_nodes);
+        for (int i = 0; i < n_nodes; ++i) {
+            ggml_tensor * node = opt_ctx->gf->nodes[i];
+            if ((accumulate && (node->flags & GGML_TENSOR_FLAG_PARAM)) || (node->flags & GGML_TENSOR_FLAG_LOSS)) {
+                opt_ctx->grad_accs[i] = ggml_new_tensor(opt_ctx->ctx_static, GGML_TYPE_F32, GGML_MAX_DIMS, node->ne);
+            } else {
+                opt_ctx->grad_accs[i] = nullptr;
+            }
+        }
+
+        if (opt_ctx->build_type_alloc >= GGML_OPT_BUILD_TYPE_OPT) {
+            opt_ctx->grad_m.resize(n_nodes);
+            opt_ctx->grad_v.resize(n_nodes);
+            for (int i = 0; i < n_nodes; ++i) {
+                ggml_tensor * node = opt_ctx->gf->nodes[i];
+                if (node->flags & GGML_TENSOR_FLAG_PARAM) {
+                    opt_ctx->grad_m[i] = ggml_new_tensor(opt_ctx->ctx_static, GGML_TYPE_F32, GGML_MAX_DIMS, node->ne);
+                    opt_ctx->grad_v[i] = ggml_new_tensor(opt_ctx->ctx_static, GGML_TYPE_F32, GGML_MAX_DIMS, node->ne);
+                } else {
+                    opt_ctx->grad_m[i] = nullptr;
+                    opt_ctx->grad_v[i] = nullptr;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // gb_grad == graph backward gradients, forward pass, then backward pass to calculate gradients.
+    opt_ctx->gb_grad = ggml_graph_dup(opt_ctx->ctx_compute, opt_ctx->gf, /*force_grads =*/ true);
+    ggml_build_backward_expand(opt_ctx->ctx_compute, opt_ctx->gb_grad, opt_ctx->grad_accs.data());
+
+    if (opt_ctx->buf_static) {
+        if (opt_ctx->build_type == GGML_OPT_BUILD_TYPE_GRAD) {
+            return;
+        }
+    } else if (opt_ctx->build_type_alloc == GGML_OPT_BUILD_TYPE_GRAD) {
+        opt_ctx->buf_static = ggml_backend_alloc_ctx_tensors(opt_ctx->ctx_static, ggml_backend_sched_get_backend(opt_ctx->backend_sched, 0));
+        ggml_graph_reset(opt_ctx->gb_grad);
+    }
+
+    GGML_ASSERT(opt_ctx->build_type_alloc == GGML_OPT_BUILD_TYPE_OPT);
+
+    // gb_opt == graph backward optimize, forward pass, then backward pass to calculate gradients, then optimizer step.
+    opt_ctx->gb_opt = ggml_graph_dup(opt_ctx->ctx_compute, opt_ctx->gb_grad, /*force_grads =*/ true);
+
+    opt_ctx->adamw_params = ggml_new_tensor_1d(opt_ctx->ctx_cpu, GGML_TYPE_F32, 7);
+    ggml_set_input(opt_ctx->adamw_params);
+    ggml_set_name(opt_ctx->adamw_params, "adamw_params");
+
+    for (int i = opt_ctx->gf->n_nodes-1; i >= 0; --i) {
+        struct ggml_tensor * node = opt_ctx->gb_opt->nodes[i];
+        struct ggml_tensor * grad = ggml_graph_get_grad(opt_ctx->gb_opt, node);
+
+        if (grad && (node->flags & GGML_TENSOR_FLAG_PARAM)) {
+            struct ggml_tensor * m        = opt_ctx->grad_m[i];
+            struct ggml_tensor * v        = opt_ctx->grad_v[i];
+            struct ggml_tensor * opt_step = ggml_opt_step_adamw(opt_ctx->ctx_compute, node, grad, m, v, opt_ctx->adamw_params);
+
+            ggml_set_name(m,        (std::string("AdamW m for ")    + std::string(node->name)).c_str());
+            ggml_set_name(v,        (std::string("AdamW v for ")    + std::string(node->name)).c_str());
+            ggml_set_name(opt_step, (std::string("AdamW step for ") + std::string(node->name)).c_str());
+
+            ggml_build_forward_expand(opt_ctx->gb_opt, opt_step);
+        }
+    }
+
+    if (!opt_ctx->buf_static) {
+        opt_ctx->buf_static = ggml_backend_alloc_ctx_tensors(
+            opt_ctx->ctx_static, ggml_backend_sched_get_backend(opt_ctx->backend_sched, 0));
+        ggml_graph_reset(opt_ctx->gb_opt);
+    }
+
+    opt_ctx->buf_cpu = ggml_backend_alloc_ctx_tensors_from_buft(opt_ctx->ctx_cpu, ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_type());
+}
+
+ggml_opt_context_t ggml_opt_init(struct ggml_opt_params params) {
+    ggml_opt_context_t result = new struct ggml_opt_context;
+    result->backend_sched    = params.backend_sched;
+    result->ctx_compute      = params.ctx_compute;
+    result->loss_type        = params.loss_type;
+    result->build_type       = params.build_type;
+    result->build_type_alloc = params.build_type;
+    result->inputs           = params.inputs;
+    result->outputs          = params.outputs;
+    result->opt_period       = params.opt_period;
+    result->get_opt_pars     = params.get_opt_pars;
+    result->get_opt_pars_ud  = params.get_opt_pars_ud;
+
+    GGML_ASSERT(result->opt_period >= 1);
+
+    result->static_graphs = result->ctx_compute;
+
+    if (!result->static_graphs) {
+        GGML_ASSERT(!result->inputs);
+        GGML_ASSERT(!result->outputs);
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    GGML_ASSERT(result->inputs);
+    GGML_ASSERT(result->outputs);
+
+    result->gf = ggml_new_graph_custom(result->ctx_compute, GGML_DEFAULT_GRAPH_SIZE, /*grads =*/ true); // Forward pass.
+    ggml_build_forward_expand(result->gf, result->outputs);
+
+    ggml_opt_build(result);
+
+    return result;
+}
+
+void ggml_opt_free(ggml_opt_context_t opt_ctx) {
+    if (opt_ctx == nullptr) {
+        return;
+    }
+    ggml_backend_buffer_free(opt_ctx->buf_static);
+    ggml_backend_buffer_free(opt_ctx->buf_cpu);
+    ggml_free(opt_ctx->ctx_static);
+    ggml_free(opt_ctx->ctx_cpu);
+    delete opt_ctx;
+}
+
+void ggml_opt_reset(ggml_opt_context_t opt_ctx, bool optimizer) {
+    if (optimizer) {
+        ggml_graph_reset(opt_ctx->gb_opt);
+        opt_ctx->iter = 1;
+    } else {
+        ggml_graph_reset(opt_ctx->gb_grad);
+    }
+}
+
+bool ggml_opt_static_graphs(ggml_opt_context_t opt_ctx) {
+    return opt_ctx->static_graphs;
+}
+
+struct ggml_tensor * ggml_opt_inputs(ggml_opt_context_t opt_ctx) {
+    return opt_ctx->inputs;
+}
+
+struct ggml_tensor * ggml_opt_outputs(ggml_opt_context_t opt_ctx) {
+    return opt_ctx->outputs;
+}
+
+struct ggml_tensor * ggml_opt_labels(ggml_opt_context_t opt_ctx) {
+    return opt_ctx->labels;
+}
+
+struct ggml_tensor * ggml_opt_loss(ggml_opt_context_t opt_ctx) {
+    return opt_ctx->loss;
+}
+
+struct ggml_tensor * ggml_opt_pred(ggml_opt_context_t opt_ctx) {
+    return opt_ctx->pred;
+}
+
+struct ggml_tensor * ggml_opt_ncorrect(ggml_opt_context_t opt_ctx) {
+    return opt_ctx->ncorrect;
+}
+
+struct ggml_tensor * ggml_opt_grad_acc(ggml_opt_context_t opt_ctx, struct ggml_tensor * node) {
+    return ggml_graph_get_grad_acc(opt_ctx->gb_opt, node);
+}
+
+// ====== Optimization Result ======
+
+ggml_opt_result_t ggml_opt_result_init() {
+    return new ggml_opt_result;
+}
+
+void ggml_opt_result_free(ggml_opt_result_t result) {
+    delete result;
+}
+
+void ggml_opt_result_reset(ggml_opt_result_t result) {
+    result->ndata = 0;
+    result->loss.clear();
+    result->pred.clear();
+    result->ncorrect = 0;
+}
+
+void ggml_opt_result_ndata(ggml_opt_result_t result, int64_t * ndata) {
+    *ndata = result->ndata;
+}
+
+void ggml_opt_result_loss(ggml_opt_result_t result, double * loss, double * unc) {
+    const int64_t nbatches = result->loss.size(); // Number of physical batches.
+
+    if (nbatches == 0) {
+        *loss = 0.0;
+        *unc  = NAN;
+        return;
+    }
+
+    double sum         = 0.0;
+    double sum_squared = 0.0;
+
+    for (const float & loss : result->loss) {
+        // If the loss is per datapoint it was scaled by 1.0f/opt_period for each physical batch.
+        const float loss_scaled = result->loss_per_datapoint ? loss*result->opt_period : loss;
+        sum         += loss_scaled;
+        sum_squared += loss_scaled*loss_scaled;
+    }
+
+    const double mean = sum/nbatches;
+    *loss = result->loss_per_datapoint ? mean : sum;
+
+    if (!unc) {
+        return;
+    }
+
+    if (nbatches < 2) {
+        *unc = NAN;
+        return;
+    }
+
+    const double var_sum = sum_squared/nbatches - mean*mean; // variance without Bessel's correction, i.e. nbatches/(nbatches-1)
+    *unc = result->loss_per_datapoint ? sqrt(var_sum / (nbatches - 1)) : sqrt(var_sum * nbatches/(nbatches - 1));
+}
+
+void ggml_opt_result_pred(ggml_opt_result_t result, int32_t * pred) {
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < result->pred.size(); ++i) {
+        pred[i] = result->pred[i];
+    }
+}
+
+void ggml_opt_result_accuracy(ggml_opt_result_t result, double * accuracy, double * unc) {
+    *accuracy = result->ncorrect >= 0 ? double(result->ncorrect) / double(result->ndata) : NAN;
+
+    if (!unc) {
+        return;
+    }
+
+    *unc = result->ncorrect >= 0 && result->ndata >= 2 ?
+        sqrt((*accuracy) * (1.0 - (*accuracy)) / double(result->ndata - 1)) : NAN;
+}
+
+// ====== Computation ======
+
+void ggml_opt_prepare_alloc(
+        ggml_opt_context_t    opt_ctx,
+        struct ggml_context * ctx_compute,
+        struct ggml_cgraph  * gf,
+        struct ggml_tensor  * inputs,
+        struct ggml_tensor  * outputs) {
+    GGML_ASSERT(!opt_ctx->static_graphs);
+    opt_ctx->ctx_compute = ctx_compute;
+    opt_ctx->gf          = gf;
+    opt_ctx->inputs      = inputs;
+    opt_ctx->outputs     = outputs;
+}
+
+void ggml_opt_alloc(ggml_opt_context_t opt_ctx, bool backward) {
+    GGML_ASSERT(!opt_ctx->eval_ready);
+    if (opt_ctx->build_type == GGML_OPT_BUILD_TYPE_OPT && opt_ctx->opt_period > 1 && opt_ctx->opt_i == 0) {
+        ggml_graph_reset(opt_ctx->gb_grad);
+    }
+    if (backward) {
+        const int32_t opt_i_next = (opt_ctx->opt_i + 1) % opt_ctx->opt_period;
+        opt_ctx->build_type = opt_i_next == 0 ? GGML_OPT_BUILD_TYPE_OPT : GGML_OPT_BUILD_TYPE_GRAD;
+    } else {
+        opt_ctx->build_type = GGML_OPT_BUILD_TYPE_FORWARD;
+    }
+
+    if (!opt_ctx->static_graphs) {
+        ggml_opt_build(opt_ctx);
+    }
+
+    struct ggml_cgraph * graph = nullptr;
+    switch (opt_ctx->build_type) {
+        case GGML_OPT_BUILD_TYPE_FORWARD: {
+            graph = opt_ctx->gf;
+        } break;
+        case GGML_OPT_BUILD_TYPE_GRAD: {
+            graph = opt_ctx->gb_grad;
+        } break;
+        case GGML_OPT_BUILD_TYPE_OPT: {
+            graph = opt_ctx->gb_opt;
+        } break;
+    }
+    GGML_ASSERT(graph);
+
+    if (opt_ctx->allocated_graph == graph) {
+        opt_ctx->eval_ready = true;
+        return;
+    }
+
+    ggml_backend_sched_reset(opt_ctx->backend_sched); // clear allocation of previous graph
+
+    if (opt_ctx->static_graphs) {
+        ggml_init_params params = {
+            /*.mem_size   =*/ graph->size*ggml_tensor_overhead() + ggml_graph_overhead_custom(graph->size, graph->grads),
+            /*.mem_buffer =*/ nullptr,
+            /*.no_alloc   =*/ true,
+        };
+        ggml_free(opt_ctx->ctx_copy);
+        opt_ctx->ctx_copy = ggml_init(params);
+
+        opt_ctx->allocated_graph_copy = dup_graph(opt_ctx->ctx_copy, graph);
+    } else {
+        opt_ctx->allocated_graph_copy = graph;
+    }
+
+    ggml_backend_sched_alloc_graph(opt_ctx->backend_sched, opt_ctx->allocated_graph_copy);
+    opt_ctx->allocated_graph = graph;
+
+    opt_ctx->eval_ready = true;
+}
+
+void ggml_opt_eval(ggml_opt_context_t opt_ctx, ggml_opt_result_t result) {
+    GGML_ASSERT(opt_ctx->eval_ready);
+    if (opt_ctx->allocated_graph == opt_ctx->gb_opt) {
+        struct ggml_opt_optimizer_params opt_pars = opt_ctx->get_opt_pars(opt_ctx->get_opt_pars_ud);
+
+        GGML_ASSERT(opt_pars.adamw.alpha >  0.0f);
+        GGML_ASSERT(opt_pars.adamw.beta1 >= 0.0f);
+        GGML_ASSERT(opt_pars.adamw.beta1 <= 1.0f);
+        GGML_ASSERT(opt_pars.adamw.beta2 >= 0.0f);
+        GGML_ASSERT(opt_pars.adamw.beta2 <= 1.0f);
+        GGML_ASSERT(opt_pars.adamw.eps   >= 0.0f);
+        GGML_ASSERT(opt_pars.adamw.wd    >= 0.0f);
+        GGML_ASSERT(opt_pars.adamw.wd    <= 1.0f);
+
+        // beta1, beta2 after applying warmup
+        const float beta1h = 1.0f/(1.0f - powf(opt_pars.adamw.beta1, opt_ctx->iter));
+        const float beta2h = 1.0f/(1.0f - powf(opt_pars.adamw.beta2, opt_ctx->iter));
+
+        float * adamw_par_data = ggml_get_data_f32(opt_ctx->adamw_params);
+        adamw_par_data[0] = opt_pars.adamw.alpha;
+        adamw_par_data[1] = opt_pars.adamw.beta1;
+        adamw_par_data[2] = opt_pars.adamw.beta2;
+        adamw_par_data[3] = opt_pars.adamw.eps;
+        adamw_par_data[4] = opt_pars.adamw.wd;
+        adamw_par_data[5] = beta1h;
+        adamw_par_data[6] = beta2h;
+    }
+
+    ggml_backend_sched_graph_compute(opt_ctx->backend_sched, opt_ctx->allocated_graph_copy);
+    opt_ctx->iter += opt_ctx->allocated_graph == opt_ctx->gb_opt;
+    opt_ctx->opt_i = (opt_ctx->opt_i + 1) % opt_ctx->opt_period;
+
+    if (!opt_ctx->static_graphs) {
+        opt_ctx->gf                   = nullptr;
+        opt_ctx->gb_grad              = nullptr;
+        opt_ctx->gb_opt               = nullptr;
+        opt_ctx->allocated_graph      = nullptr;
+        opt_ctx->allocated_graph_copy = nullptr;
+    }
+
+    opt_ctx->eval_ready = false;
+
+    if (!result) {
+        return;
+    }
+
+    if (result->ndata == 0) {
+        result->loss_per_datapoint = opt_ctx->loss_per_datapoint;
+        result->opt_period         = opt_ctx->opt_period;
+    } else {
+        GGML_ASSERT(result->loss_per_datapoint == opt_ctx->loss_per_datapoint);
+        GGML_ASSERT(result->opt_period         == opt_ctx->opt_period);
+    }
+
+    const int64_t ndata = opt_ctx->outputs->ne[1];
+    GGML_ASSERT(result->ndata == ndata*int64_t(result->loss.size()) && "varying batch size not supported");
+    result->ndata += ndata;
+
+    GGML_ASSERT(ggml_is_scalar(opt_ctx->loss));
+    GGML_ASSERT(opt_ctx->loss->type == GGML_TYPE_F32);
+    float loss;
+    ggml_backend_tensor_get(opt_ctx->loss, &loss, 0, ggml_nbytes(opt_ctx->loss));
+    result->loss.push_back(loss);
+
+    if (opt_ctx->pred) {
+        GGML_ASSERT(opt_ctx->pred->type == GGML_TYPE_I32);
+        std::vector<int32_t> pred(ndata);
+        ggml_backend_tensor_get(opt_ctx->pred, pred.data(), 0, ggml_nbytes(opt_ctx->pred));
+        result->pred.insert(result->pred.end(), pred.begin(), pred.end());
+    }
+
+    if (!opt_ctx->ncorrect || result->ncorrect < 0) {
+        result->ncorrect = -1;
+        return;
+    }
+
+    GGML_ASSERT(ggml_is_scalar(opt_ctx->ncorrect));
+    GGML_ASSERT(opt_ctx->ncorrect->type == GGML_TYPE_I64);
+    int64_t ncorrect;
+    ggml_backend_tensor_get(opt_ctx->ncorrect, &ncorrect, 0, ggml_nbytes(opt_ctx->ncorrect));
+    result->ncorrect += ncorrect;
+}
+
+// ====== High-Level Functions ======
+
+void ggml_opt_epoch(
+        ggml_opt_context_t      opt_ctx,
+        ggml_opt_dataset_t      dataset,
+        ggml_opt_result_t       result_train,
+        ggml_opt_result_t       result_eval,
+        int64_t                 idata_split,
+        ggml_opt_epoch_callback callback_train,
+        ggml_opt_epoch_callback callback_eval) {
+    GGML_ASSERT(ggml_opt_static_graphs(opt_ctx) && "ggml_opt_epoch requires static graphs");
+    struct ggml_tensor * inputs = ggml_opt_inputs(opt_ctx);
+    struct ggml_tensor * labels = ggml_opt_labels(opt_ctx);
+    struct ggml_tensor * data   = ggml_opt_dataset_data(dataset);
+    GGML_ASSERT(data->ne[0] == inputs->ne[0]);
+
+    const int64_t ndata       =   data->ne[1];
+    const int64_t ndata_batch = inputs->ne[1];
+
+    GGML_ASSERT(data->ne[1] % inputs->ne[1] == 0);
+    const int64_t nbatches = ndata/ndata_batch;
+
+    idata_split = idata_split < 0 ? ndata : idata_split;
+    GGML_ASSERT(idata_split % ndata_batch == 0);
+    const int64_t ibatch_split = idata_split / ndata_batch;
+
+    int64_t ibatch = 0;
+    int64_t t_loop_start = ggml_time_us();
+    for (; ibatch < ibatch_split; ++ibatch) {
+        ggml_opt_alloc(opt_ctx, /*backward =*/ true);
+        ggml_opt_dataset_get_batch(dataset, inputs, labels, ibatch);
+        ggml_opt_eval(opt_ctx, result_train);
+        if (callback_train) {
+            callback_train(true, opt_ctx, dataset, result_train, ibatch+1, ibatch_split, t_loop_start);
+        }
+    }
+    t_loop_start = ggml_time_us();
+    for (; ibatch < nbatches; ++ibatch) {
+        ggml_opt_alloc(opt_ctx, /*backward =*/ false);
+        ggml_opt_dataset_get_batch(dataset, inputs, labels, ibatch);
+        ggml_opt_eval(opt_ctx, result_eval);
+        if (callback_eval) {
+            callback_eval(false, opt_ctx, dataset, result_eval, ibatch+1-ibatch_split, nbatches-ibatch_split, t_loop_start);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+void ggml_opt_epoch_callback_progress_bar(
+        bool               train,
+        ggml_opt_context_t opt_ctx,
+        ggml_opt_dataset_t dataset,
+        ggml_opt_result_t  result,
+        int64_t            ibatch,
+        int64_t            ibatch_max,
+        int64_t            t_start_us) {
+    fprintf(stderr, "%s[", train ? "train: " : "val:   ");
+
+    // The progress bar consists of partially filled blocks, unicode has 8 separate fill levels.
+    constexpr int64_t bar_length = 8;
+    const int64_t ibatch8 = 8 * ibatch;
+    for (int64_t j = 0; j < bar_length; ++j) {
+        if        (ibatch_max * (8*j + 8) / bar_length < ibatch8) {
+            fprintf(stderr, "\u2588"); // full block
+        } else if (ibatch_max * (8*j + 7) / bar_length < ibatch8) {
+            fprintf(stderr, "\u2589"); // 7/8 filled
+        } else if (ibatch_max * (8*j + 6) / bar_length < ibatch8) {
+            fprintf(stderr, "\u258A"); // 6/8 filled
+        } else if (ibatch_max * (8*j + 5) / bar_length < ibatch8) {
+            fprintf(stderr, "\u258B"); // 5/8 filled
+        } else if (ibatch_max * (8*j + 4) / bar_length < ibatch8) {
+            fprintf(stderr, "\u258C"); // 4/8 filled
+        } else if (ibatch_max * (8*j + 3) / bar_length < ibatch8) {
+            fprintf(stderr, "\u258D"); // 3/8 filled
+        } else if (ibatch_max * (8*j + 2) / bar_length < ibatch8) {
+            fprintf(stderr, "\u258E"); // 2/8 filled
+        } else if (ibatch_max * (8*j + 1) / bar_length < ibatch8) {
+            fprintf(stderr, "\u258F"); // 1/8 filled
+        } else {
+            fprintf(stderr, " ");
+        }
+    }
+
+    const int64_t batch_size = ggml_opt_inputs(opt_ctx)->ne[1];
+    const int64_t idata      = ibatch*batch_size;
+    const int64_t idata_max  = ibatch_max*batch_size;
+
+    double loss;
+    double loss_unc;
+    ggml_opt_result_loss(result, &loss, &loss_unc);
+
+    double accuracy;
+    double accuracy_unc;
+    ggml_opt_result_accuracy(result, &accuracy, &accuracy_unc);
+
+    const int64_t t_ibatch_us = ggml_time_us() - t_start_us;
+    int64_t t_ibatch_s = t_ibatch_us / 1000000;
+    const int64_t t_ibatch_h = t_ibatch_s / 3600;
+    t_ibatch_s -= t_ibatch_h * 3600;
+    const int64_t t_ibatch_m = t_ibatch_s / 60;
+    t_ibatch_s -= t_ibatch_m * 60;
+
+    const int64_t t_eta_us = t_ibatch_us * (ibatch_max - ibatch)/ibatch;
+    int64_t t_eta_s = t_eta_us / 1000000;
+    const int64_t t_eta_h = t_eta_s / 3600;
+    t_eta_s -= t_eta_h * 3600;
+    const int64_t t_eta_m = t_eta_s / 60;
+    t_eta_s -= t_eta_m * 60;
+
+    fprintf(stderr, "] data=%07" PRId64 "/%07" PRId64 " loss=%.5lf±%.5lf acc=%.2lf±%.2lf%% "
+            "t=%02" PRId64 ":%02" PRId64 ":%02" PRId64 " ETA=%02" PRId64 ":%02" PRId64 ":%02" PRId64 " \r",
+            idata, idata_max, loss, loss_unc, 100.0*accuracy, 100.0*accuracy_unc,
+            t_ibatch_h, t_ibatch_m, t_ibatch_s, t_eta_h, t_eta_m, t_eta_s);
+    if (ibatch == ibatch_max) {
+        fprintf(stderr, "\n");
+    }
+    fflush(stderr);
+
+    GGML_UNUSED(dataset);
+}
+
+void ggml_opt_fit(
+        ggml_backend_sched_t            backend_sched,
+        ggml_context                  * ctx_compute,
+        ggml_tensor                   * inputs,
+        ggml_tensor                   * outputs,
+        ggml_opt_dataset_t              dataset,
+        enum ggml_opt_loss_type         loss_type,
+        ggml_opt_get_optimizer_params   get_opt_pars,
+        int64_t                         nepoch,
+        int64_t                         nbatch_logical,
+        float                           val_split,
+        bool                            silent) {
+    ggml_time_init();
+    const int64_t t_start_us = ggml_time_us();
+
+    const int64_t ndata           = ggml_opt_dataset_data(dataset)->ne[1];
+    const int64_t nbatch_physical = inputs->ne[1];
+    GGML_ASSERT(ndata          % nbatch_logical  == 0);
+    GGML_ASSERT(nbatch_logical % nbatch_physical == 0);
+
+    const int64_t opt_period       = nbatch_logical / nbatch_physical;
+    const int64_t nbatches_logical = ndata / nbatch_logical;
+
+    GGML_ASSERT(val_split >= 0.0f);
+    GGML_ASSERT(val_split <  1.0f);
+    const int64_t ibatch_split = int64_t(((1.0f - val_split) * nbatches_logical)) * opt_period; // train <-> val split index (physical)
+    const int64_t idata_split  = ibatch_split * nbatch_physical;
+
+    int64_t epoch = 1;
+
+    ggml_opt_params params = ggml_opt_default_params(backend_sched, loss_type);
+    params.ctx_compute     = ctx_compute;
+    params.inputs          = inputs;
+    params.outputs         = outputs;
+    params.opt_period      = opt_period;
+    params.get_opt_pars    = get_opt_pars;
+    params.get_opt_pars_ud = &epoch;
+    ggml_opt_context_t opt_ctx = ggml_opt_init(params);
+
+    // Shuffling the data is generally useful but there is only a point if not all data is used in a single batch.
+    if (nbatch_logical < ndata) {
+        ggml_opt_dataset_shuffle(opt_ctx, dataset, -1); // Shuffle all data (train + validation).
+    }
+
+    ggml_opt_result_t result_train = ggml_opt_result_init();
+    ggml_opt_result_t result_val   = ggml_opt_result_init();
+
+    ggml_opt_epoch_callback epoch_callback = silent ? nullptr : ggml_opt_epoch_callback_progress_bar;
+
+    for (; epoch <= nepoch; ++epoch) {
+        if (nbatch_logical < idata_split) {
+            ggml_opt_dataset_shuffle(opt_ctx, dataset, idata_split);
+        }
+
+        ggml_opt_result_reset(result_train);
+        ggml_opt_result_reset(result_val);
+
+        if (!silent) {
+            fprintf(stderr, "%s: epoch %04" PRId64 "/%04" PRId64 ":\n", __func__, epoch, nepoch);
+        }
+        ggml_opt_epoch(opt_ctx, dataset, result_train, result_val, idata_split, epoch_callback, epoch_callback);
+        if (!silent) {
+            fprintf(stderr, "\n");
+        }
+    }
+
+    if (!silent) {
+        int64_t t_total_s = (ggml_time_us() - t_start_us) / 1000000;
+        const int64_t t_total_h = t_total_s / 3600;
+        t_total_s -= t_total_h * 3600;
+        const int64_t t_total_m = t_total_s / 60;
+        t_total_s -= t_total_m * 60;
+        fprintf(stderr, "%s: training took %02" PRId64 ":%02" PRId64 ":%02" PRId64 "\n", __func__, t_total_h, t_total_m, t_total_s);
+    }
+
+    ggml_opt_free(opt_ctx);
+    ggml_opt_result_free(result_train);
+    ggml_opt_result_free(result_val);
+}