tdiary 5.2.3 → 5.3.0

data/vendor/bundle/ruby/3.1.0/gems/matrix-0.4.2/lib/matrix.rb

@@ -1,2493 +0,0 @@
-# encoding: utf-8
-# frozen_string_literal: false
-#
-# = matrix.rb
-#
-# An implementation of Matrix and Vector classes.
-#
-# See classes Matrix and Vector for documentation.
-#
-# Current Maintainer:: Marc-André Lafortune
-# Original Author:: Keiju ISHITSUKA
-# Original Documentation:: Gavin Sinclair (sourced from <i>Ruby in a Nutshell</i> (Matsumoto, O'Reilly))
-##
-
-require_relative "matrix/version"
-
-module ExceptionForMatrix # :nodoc:
-  class ErrDimensionMismatch < StandardError
-    def initialize(val = nil)
-      if val
-        super(val)
-      else
-        super("Dimension mismatch")
-      end
-    end
-  end
-
-  class ErrNotRegular < StandardError
-    def initialize(val = nil)
-      if val
-        super(val)
-      else
-        super("Not Regular Matrix")
-      end
-    end
-  end
-
-  class ErrOperationNotDefined < StandardError
-    def initialize(vals)
-      if vals.is_a?(Array)
-        super("Operation(#{vals[0]}) can't be defined: #{vals[1]} op #{vals[2]}")
-      else
-        super(vals)
-      end
-    end
-  end
-
-  class ErrOperationNotImplemented < StandardError
-    def initialize(vals)
-      super("Sorry, Operation(#{vals[0]}) not implemented: #{vals[1]} op #{vals[2]}")
-    end
-  end
-end
-
-#
-# The +Matrix+ class represents a mathematical matrix. It provides methods for creating
-# matrices, operating on them arithmetically and algebraically,
-# and determining their mathematical properties such as trace, rank, inverse, determinant,
-# or eigensystem.
-#
-class Matrix
-  include Enumerable
-  include ExceptionForMatrix
-  autoload :EigenvalueDecomposition, "matrix/eigenvalue_decomposition"
-  autoload :LUPDecomposition, "matrix/lup_decomposition"
-
-  # instance creations
-  private_class_method :new
-  attr_reader :rows
-  protected :rows
-
-  #
-  # Creates a matrix where each argument is a row.
-  #   Matrix[ [25, 93], [-1, 66] ]
-  #   #   =>  25 93
-  #   #       -1 66
-  #
-  def Matrix.[](*rows)
-    rows(rows, false)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Creates a matrix where +rows+ is an array of arrays, each of which is a row
-  # of the matrix.  If the optional argument +copy+ is false, use the given
-  # arrays as the internal structure of the matrix without copying.
-  #   Matrix.rows([[25, 93], [-1, 66]])
-  #   #   =>  25 93
-  #   #       -1 66
-  #
-  def Matrix.rows(rows, copy = true)
-    rows = convert_to_array(rows, copy)
-    rows.map! do |row|
-      convert_to_array(row, copy)
-    end
-    size = (rows[0] || []).size
-    rows.each do |row|
-      raise ErrDimensionMismatch, "row size differs (#{row.size} should be #{size})" unless row.size == size
-    end
-    new rows, size
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Creates a matrix using +columns+ as an array of column vectors.
-  #   Matrix.columns([[25, 93], [-1, 66]])
-  #   #   =>  25 -1
-  #   #       93 66
-  #
-  def Matrix.columns(columns)
-    rows(columns, false).transpose
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Creates a matrix of size +row_count+ x +column_count+.
-  # It fills the values by calling the given block,
-  # passing the current row and column.
-  # Returns an enumerator if no block is given.
-  #
-  #   m = Matrix.build(2, 4) {|row, col| col - row }
-  #   #  => Matrix[[0, 1, 2, 3], [-1, 0, 1, 2]]
-  #   m = Matrix.build(3) { rand }
-  #   #  => a 3x3 matrix with random elements
-  #
-  def Matrix.build(row_count, column_count = row_count)
-    row_count = CoercionHelper.coerce_to_int(row_count)
-    column_count = CoercionHelper.coerce_to_int(column_count)
-    raise ArgumentError if row_count < 0 || column_count < 0
-    return to_enum :build, row_count, column_count unless block_given?
-    rows = Array.new(row_count) do |i|
-      Array.new(column_count) do |j|
-        yield i, j
-      end
-    end
-    new rows, column_count
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Creates a matrix where the diagonal elements are composed of +values+.
-  #   Matrix.diagonal(9, 5, -3)
-  #   #  =>  9  0  0
-  #   #      0  5  0
-  #   #      0  0 -3
-  #
-  def Matrix.diagonal(*values)
-    size = values.size
-    return Matrix.empty if size == 0
-    rows = Array.new(size) {|j|
-      row = Array.new(size, 0)
-      row[j] = values[j]
-      row
-    }
-    new rows
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Creates an +n+ by +n+ diagonal matrix where each diagonal element is
-  # +value+.
-  #   Matrix.scalar(2, 5)
-  #   #  => 5 0
-  #   #     0 5
-  #
-  def Matrix.scalar(n, value)
-    diagonal(*Array.new(n, value))
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Creates an +n+ by +n+ identity matrix.
-  #   Matrix.identity(2)
-  #   #  => 1 0
-  #   #     0 1
-  #
-  def Matrix.identity(n)
-    scalar(n, 1)
-  end
-  class << Matrix
-    alias_method :unit, :identity
-    alias_method :I, :identity
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Creates a zero matrix.
-  #   Matrix.zero(2)
-  #   #  => 0 0
-  #   #     0 0
-  #
-  def Matrix.zero(row_count, column_count = row_count)
-    rows = Array.new(row_count){Array.new(column_count, 0)}
-    new rows, column_count
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Creates a single-row matrix where the values of that row are as given in
-  # +row+.
-  #   Matrix.row_vector([4,5,6])
-  #   #  => 4 5 6
-  #
-  def Matrix.row_vector(row)
-    row = convert_to_array(row)
-    new [row]
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Creates a single-column matrix where the values of that column are as given
-  # in +column+.
-  #   Matrix.column_vector([4,5,6])
-  #   #  => 4
-  #   #     5
-  #   #     6
-  #
-  def Matrix.column_vector(column)
-    column = convert_to_array(column)
-    new [column].transpose, 1
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Creates a empty matrix of +row_count+ x +column_count+.
-  # At least one of +row_count+ or +column_count+ must be 0.
-  #
-  #   m = Matrix.empty(2, 0)
-  #   m == Matrix[ [], [] ]
-  #   #  => true
-  #   n = Matrix.empty(0, 3)
-  #   n == Matrix.columns([ [], [], [] ])
-  #   #  => true
-  #   m * n
-  #   #  => Matrix[[0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]]
-  #
-  def Matrix.empty(row_count = 0, column_count = 0)
-    raise ArgumentError, "One size must be 0" if column_count != 0 && row_count != 0
-    raise ArgumentError, "Negative size" if column_count < 0 || row_count < 0
-
-    new([[]]*row_count, column_count)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Create a matrix by stacking matrices vertically
-  #
-  #   x = Matrix[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
-  #   y = Matrix[[5, 6], [7, 8]]
-  #   Matrix.vstack(x, y) # => Matrix[[1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6], [7, 8]]
-  #
-  def Matrix.vstack(x, *matrices)
-    x = CoercionHelper.coerce_to_matrix(x)
-    result = x.send(:rows).map(&:dup)
-    matrices.each do |m|
-      m = CoercionHelper.coerce_to_matrix(m)
-      if m.column_count != x.column_count
-        raise ErrDimensionMismatch, "The given matrices must have #{x.column_count} columns, but one has #{m.column_count}"
-      end
-      result.concat(m.send(:rows))
-    end
-    new result, x.column_count
-  end
-
-
-  #
-  # Create a matrix by stacking matrices horizontally
-  #
-  #   x = Matrix[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
-  #   y = Matrix[[5, 6], [7, 8]]
-  #   Matrix.hstack(x, y) # => Matrix[[1, 2, 5, 6], [3, 4, 7, 8]]
-  #
-  def Matrix.hstack(x, *matrices)
-    x = CoercionHelper.coerce_to_matrix(x)
-    result = x.send(:rows).map(&:dup)
-    total_column_count = x.column_count
-    matrices.each do |m|
-      m = CoercionHelper.coerce_to_matrix(m)
-      if m.row_count != x.row_count
-        raise ErrDimensionMismatch, "The given matrices must have #{x.row_count} rows, but one has #{m.row_count}"
-      end
-      result.each_with_index do |row, i|
-        row.concat m.send(:rows)[i]
-      end
-      total_column_count += m.column_count
-    end
-    new result, total_column_count
-  end
-
-  # :call-seq:
-  #   Matrix.combine(*matrices) { |*elements| ... }
-  #
-  # Create a matrix by combining matrices entrywise, using the given block
-  #
-  #   x = Matrix[[6, 6], [4, 4]]
-  #   y = Matrix[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
-  #   Matrix.combine(x, y) {|a, b| a - b} # => Matrix[[5, 4], [1, 0]]
-  #
-  def Matrix.combine(*matrices)
-    return to_enum(__method__, *matrices) unless block_given?
-
-    return Matrix.empty if matrices.empty?
-    matrices.map!(&CoercionHelper.method(:coerce_to_matrix))
-    x = matrices.first
-    matrices.each do |m|
-      raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless x.row_count == m.row_count && x.column_count == m.column_count
-    end
-
-    rows = Array.new(x.row_count) do |i|
-      Array.new(x.column_count) do |j|
-        yield matrices.map{|m| m[i,j]}
-      end
-    end
-    new rows, x.column_count
-  end
-
-  # :call-seq:
-  #   combine(*other_matrices) { |*elements| ... }
-  #
-  # Creates new matrix by combining with <i>other_matrices</i> entrywise,
-  # using the given block.
-  #
-  #   x = Matrix[[6, 6], [4, 4]]
-  #   y = Matrix[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
-  #   x.combine(y) {|a, b| a - b} # => Matrix[[5, 4], [1, 0]]
-  def combine(*matrices, &block)
-    Matrix.combine(self, *matrices, &block)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Matrix.new is private; use ::rows, ::columns, ::[], etc... to create.
-  #
-  def initialize(rows, column_count = rows[0].size)
-    # No checking is done at this point. rows must be an Array of Arrays.
-    # column_count must be the size of the first row, if there is one,
-    # otherwise it *must* be specified and can be any integer >= 0
-    @rows = rows
-    @column_count = column_count
-  end
-
-  private def new_matrix(rows, column_count = rows[0].size) # :nodoc:
-    self.class.send(:new, rows, column_count) # bypass privacy of Matrix.new
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns element (+i+,+j+) of the matrix.  That is: row +i+, column +j+.
-  #
-  def [](i, j)
-    @rows.fetch(i){return nil}[j]
-  end
-  alias element []
-  alias component []
-
-  #
-  # :call-seq:
-  #   matrix[range, range] = matrix/element
-  #   matrix[range, integer] = vector/column_matrix/element
-  #   matrix[integer, range] = vector/row_matrix/element
-  #   matrix[integer, integer] = element
-  #
-  # Set element or elements of matrix.
-  def []=(i, j, v)
-    raise FrozenError, "can't modify frozen Matrix" if frozen?
-    rows = check_range(i, :row) or row = check_int(i, :row)
-    columns = check_range(j, :column) or column = check_int(j, :column)
-    if rows && columns
-      set_row_and_col_range(rows, columns, v)
-    elsif rows
-      set_row_range(rows, column, v)
-    elsif columns
-      set_col_range(row, columns, v)
-    else
-      set_value(row, column, v)
-    end
-  end
-  alias set_element []=
-  alias set_component []=
-  private :set_element, :set_component
-
-  # Returns range or nil
-  private def check_range(val, direction)
-    return unless val.is_a?(Range)
-    count = direction == :row ? row_count : column_count
-    CoercionHelper.check_range(val, count, direction)
-  end
-
-  private def check_int(val, direction)
-    count = direction == :row ? row_count : column_count
-    CoercionHelper.check_int(val, count, direction)
-  end
-
-  private def set_value(row, col, value)
-    raise ErrDimensionMismatch, "Expected a value, got a #{value.class}" if value.respond_to?(:to_matrix)
-
-    @rows[row][col] = value
-  end
-
-  private def set_row_and_col_range(row_range, col_range, value)
-    if value.is_a?(Matrix)
-      if row_range.size != value.row_count || col_range.size != value.column_count
-        raise ErrDimensionMismatch, [
-          'Expected a Matrix of dimensions',
-          "#{row_range.size}x#{col_range.size}",
-          'got',
-          "#{value.row_count}x#{value.column_count}",
-        ].join(' ')
-      end
-      source = value.instance_variable_get :@rows
-      row_range.each_with_index do |row, i|
-        @rows[row][col_range] = source[i]
-      end
-    elsif value.is_a?(Vector)
-      raise ErrDimensionMismatch, 'Expected a Matrix or a value, got a Vector'
-    else
-      value_to_set = Array.new(col_range.size, value)
-      row_range.each do |i|
-        @rows[i][col_range] = value_to_set
-      end
-    end
-  end
-
-  private def set_row_range(row_range, col, value)
-    if value.is_a?(Vector)
-      raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless row_range.size == value.size
-      set_column_vector(row_range, col, value)
-    elsif value.is_a?(Matrix)
-      raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless value.column_count == 1
-      value = value.column(0)
-      raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless row_range.size == value.size
-      set_column_vector(row_range, col, value)
-    else
-      @rows[row_range].each{|e| e[col] = value }
-    end
-  end
-
-  private def set_column_vector(row_range, col, value)
-    value.each_with_index do |e, index|
-      r = row_range.begin + index
-      @rows[r][col] = e
-    end
-  end
-
-  private def set_col_range(row, col_range, value)
-    value = if value.is_a?(Vector)
-      value.to_a
-    elsif value.is_a?(Matrix)
-      raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless value.row_count == 1
-      value.row(0).to_a
-    else
-      Array.new(col_range.size, value)
-    end
-    raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless col_range.size == value.size
-    @rows[row][col_range] = value
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns the number of rows.
-  #
-  def row_count
-    @rows.size
-  end
-
-  alias_method :row_size, :row_count
-  #
-  # Returns the number of columns.
-  #
-  attr_reader :column_count
-  alias_method :column_size, :column_count
-
-  #
-  # Returns row vector number +i+ of the matrix as a Vector (starting at 0 like
-  # an array).  When a block is given, the elements of that vector are iterated.
-  #
-  def row(i, &block) # :yield: e
-    if block_given?
-      @rows.fetch(i){return self}.each(&block)
-      self
-    else
-      Vector.elements(@rows.fetch(i){return nil})
-    end
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns column vector number +j+ of the matrix as a Vector (starting at 0
-  # like an array).  When a block is given, the elements of that vector are
-  # iterated.
-  #
-  def column(j) # :yield: e
-    if block_given?
-      return self if j >= column_count || j < -column_count
-      row_count.times do |i|
-        yield @rows[i][j]
-      end
-      self
-    else
-      return nil if j >= column_count || j < -column_count
-      col = Array.new(row_count) {|i|
-        @rows[i][j]
-      }
-      Vector.elements(col, false)
-    end
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns a matrix that is the result of iteration of the given block over all
-  # elements of the matrix.
-  # Elements can be restricted by passing an argument:
-  # * :all (default): yields all elements
-  # * :diagonal: yields only elements on the diagonal
-  # * :off_diagonal: yields all elements except on the diagonal
-  # * :lower: yields only elements on or below the diagonal
-  # * :strict_lower: yields only elements below the diagonal
-  # * :strict_upper: yields only elements above the diagonal
-  # * :upper: yields only elements on or above the diagonal
-  #   Matrix[ [1,2], [3,4] ].collect { |e| e**2 }
-  #   #  => 1  4
-  #   #     9 16
-  #
-  def collect(which = :all, &block) # :yield: e
-    return to_enum(:collect, which) unless block_given?
-    dup.collect!(which, &block)
-  end
-  alias_method :map, :collect
-
-  #
-  # Invokes the given block for each element of matrix, replacing the element with the value
-  # returned by the block.
-  # Elements can be restricted by passing an argument:
-  # * :all (default): yields all elements
-  # * :diagonal: yields only elements on the diagonal
-  # * :off_diagonal: yields all elements except on the diagonal
-  # * :lower: yields only elements on or below the diagonal
-  # * :strict_lower: yields only elements below the diagonal
-  # * :strict_upper: yields only elements above the diagonal
-  # * :upper: yields only elements on or above the diagonal
-  #
-  def collect!(which = :all)
-    return to_enum(:collect!, which) unless block_given?
-    raise FrozenError, "can't modify frozen Matrix" if frozen?
-    each_with_index(which){ |e, row_index, col_index| @rows[row_index][col_index] = yield e }
-  end
-
-  alias map! collect!
-
-  def freeze
-    @rows.each(&:freeze).freeze
-
-    super
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Yields all elements of the matrix, starting with those of the first row,
-  # or returns an Enumerator if no block given.
-  # Elements can be restricted by passing an argument:
-  # * :all (default): yields all elements
-  # * :diagonal: yields only elements on the diagonal
-  # * :off_diagonal: yields all elements except on the diagonal
-  # * :lower: yields only elements on or below the diagonal
-  # * :strict_lower: yields only elements below the diagonal
-  # * :strict_upper: yields only elements above the diagonal
-  # * :upper: yields only elements on or above the diagonal
-  #
-  #     Matrix[ [1,2], [3,4] ].each { |e| puts e }
-  #       # => prints the numbers 1 to 4
-  #     Matrix[ [1,2], [3,4] ].each(:strict_lower).to_a # => [3]
-  #
-  def each(which = :all, &block) # :yield: e
-    return to_enum :each, which unless block_given?
-    last = column_count - 1
-    case which
-    when :all
-      @rows.each do |row|
-        row.each(&block)
-      end
-    when :diagonal
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        yield row.fetch(row_index){return self}
-      end
-    when :off_diagonal
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        column_count.times do |col_index|
-          yield row[col_index] unless row_index == col_index
-        end
-      end
-    when :lower
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        0.upto([row_index, last].min) do |col_index|
-          yield row[col_index]
-        end
-      end
-    when :strict_lower
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        [row_index, column_count].min.times do |col_index|
-          yield row[col_index]
-        end
-      end
-    when :strict_upper
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        (row_index+1).upto(last) do |col_index|
-          yield row[col_index]
-        end
-      end
-    when :upper
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        row_index.upto(last) do |col_index|
-          yield row[col_index]
-        end
-      end
-    else
-      raise ArgumentError, "expected #{which.inspect} to be one of :all, :diagonal, :off_diagonal, :lower, :strict_lower, :strict_upper or :upper"
-    end
-    self
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Same as #each, but the row index and column index in addition to the element
-  #
-  #   Matrix[ [1,2], [3,4] ].each_with_index do |e, row, col|
-  #     puts "#{e} at #{row}, #{col}"
-  #   end
-  #     # => Prints:
-  #     #    1 at 0, 0
-  #     #    2 at 0, 1
-  #     #    3 at 1, 0
-  #     #    4 at 1, 1
-  #
-  def each_with_index(which = :all) # :yield: e, row, column
-    return to_enum :each_with_index, which unless block_given?
-    last = column_count - 1
-    case which
-    when :all
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        row.each_with_index do |e, col_index|
-          yield e, row_index, col_index
-        end
-      end
-    when :diagonal
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        yield row.fetch(row_index){return self}, row_index, row_index
-      end
-    when :off_diagonal
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        column_count.times do |col_index|
-          yield row[col_index], row_index, col_index unless row_index == col_index
-        end
-      end
-    when :lower
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        0.upto([row_index, last].min) do |col_index|
-          yield row[col_index], row_index, col_index
-        end
-      end
-    when :strict_lower
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        [row_index, column_count].min.times do |col_index|
-          yield row[col_index], row_index, col_index
-        end
-      end
-    when :strict_upper
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        (row_index+1).upto(last) do |col_index|
-          yield row[col_index], row_index, col_index
-        end
-      end
-    when :upper
-      @rows.each_with_index do |row, row_index|
-        row_index.upto(last) do |col_index|
-          yield row[col_index], row_index, col_index
-        end
-      end
-    else
-      raise ArgumentError, "expected #{which.inspect} to be one of :all, :diagonal, :off_diagonal, :lower, :strict_lower, :strict_upper or :upper"
-    end
-    self
-  end
-
-  SELECTORS = {all: true, diagonal: true, off_diagonal: true, lower: true, strict_lower: true, strict_upper: true, upper: true}.freeze
-  #
-  # :call-seq:
-  #   index(value, selector = :all) -> [row, column]
-  #   index(selector = :all){ block } -> [row, column]
-  #   index(selector = :all) -> an_enumerator
-  #
-  # The index method is specialized to return the index as [row, column]
-  # It also accepts an optional +selector+ argument, see #each for details.
-  #
-  #   Matrix[ [1,2], [3,4] ].index(&:even?) # => [0, 1]
-  #   Matrix[ [1,1], [1,1] ].index(1, :strict_lower) # => [1, 0]
-  #
-  def index(*args)
-    raise ArgumentError, "wrong number of arguments(#{args.size} for 0-2)" if args.size > 2
-    which = (args.size == 2 || SELECTORS.include?(args.last)) ? args.pop : :all
-    return to_enum :find_index, which, *args unless block_given? || args.size == 1
-    if args.size == 1
-      value = args.first
-      each_with_index(which) do |e, row_index, col_index|
-        return row_index, col_index if e == value
-      end
-    else
-      each_with_index(which) do |e, row_index, col_index|
-        return row_index, col_index if yield e
-      end
-    end
-    nil
-  end
-  alias_method :find_index, :index
-
-  #
-  # Returns a section of the matrix.  The parameters are either:
-  # *  start_row, nrows, start_col, ncols; OR
-  # *  row_range, col_range
-  #
-  #   Matrix.diagonal(9, 5, -3).minor(0..1, 0..2)
-  #   #  => 9 0 0
-  #   #     0 5 0
-  #
-  # Like Array#[], negative indices count backward from the end of the
-  # row or column (-1 is the last element). Returns nil if the starting
-  # row or column is greater than row_count or column_count respectively.
-  #
-  def minor(*param)
-    case param.size
-    when 2
-      row_range, col_range = param
-      from_row = row_range.first
-      from_row += row_count if from_row < 0
-      to_row = row_range.end
-      to_row += row_count if to_row < 0
-      to_row += 1 unless row_range.exclude_end?
-      size_row = to_row - from_row
-
-      from_col = col_range.first
-      from_col += column_count if from_col < 0
-      to_col = col_range.end
-      to_col += column_count if to_col < 0
-      to_col += 1 unless col_range.exclude_end?
-      size_col = to_col - from_col
-    when 4
-      from_row, size_row, from_col, size_col = param
-      return nil if size_row < 0 || size_col < 0
-      from_row += row_count if from_row < 0
-      from_col += column_count if from_col < 0
-    else
-      raise ArgumentError, param.inspect
-    end
-
-    return nil if from_row > row_count || from_col > column_count || from_row < 0 || from_col < 0
-    rows = @rows[from_row, size_row].collect{|row|
-      row[from_col, size_col]
-    }
-    new_matrix rows, [column_count - from_col, size_col].min
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns the submatrix obtained by deleting the specified row and column.
-  #
-  #   Matrix.diagonal(9, 5, -3, 4).first_minor(1, 2)
-  #   #  => 9 0 0
-  #   #     0 0 0
-  #   #     0 0 4
-  #
-  def first_minor(row, column)
-    raise RuntimeError, "first_minor of empty matrix is not defined" if empty?
-
-    unless 0 <= row && row < row_count
-      raise ArgumentError, "invalid row (#{row.inspect} for 0..#{row_count - 1})"
-    end
-
-    unless 0 <= column && column < column_count
-      raise ArgumentError, "invalid column (#{column.inspect} for 0..#{column_count - 1})"
-    end
-
-    arrays = to_a
-    arrays.delete_at(row)
-    arrays.each do |array|
-      array.delete_at(column)
-    end
-
-    new_matrix arrays, column_count - 1
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns the (row, column) cofactor which is obtained by multiplying
-  # the first minor by (-1)**(row + column).
-  #
-  #   Matrix.diagonal(9, 5, -3, 4).cofactor(1, 1)
-  #   #  => -108
-  #
-  def cofactor(row, column)
-    raise RuntimeError, "cofactor of empty matrix is not defined" if empty?
-    raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-
-    det_of_minor = first_minor(row, column).determinant
-    det_of_minor * (-1) ** (row + column)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns the adjugate of the matrix.
-  #
-  #   Matrix[ [7,6],[3,9] ].adjugate
-  #   #  => 9 -6
-  #   #     -3 7
-  #
-  def adjugate
-    raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    Matrix.build(row_count, column_count) do |row, column|
-      cofactor(column, row)
-    end
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns the Laplace expansion along given row or column.
-  #
-  #    Matrix[[7,6], [3,9]].laplace_expansion(column: 1)
-  #    # => 45
-  #
-  #    Matrix[[Vector[1, 0], Vector[0, 1]], [2, 3]].laplace_expansion(row: 0)
-  #    # => Vector[3, -2]
-  #
-  #
-  def laplace_expansion(row: nil, column: nil)
-    num = row || column
-
-    if !num || (row && column)
-      raise ArgumentError, "exactly one the row or column arguments must be specified"
-    end
-
-    raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    raise RuntimeError, "laplace_expansion of empty matrix is not defined" if empty?
-
-    unless 0 <= num && num < row_count
-      raise ArgumentError, "invalid num (#{num.inspect} for 0..#{row_count - 1})"
-    end
-
-    send(row ? :row : :column, num).map.with_index { |e, k|
-      e * cofactor(*(row ? [num, k] : [k,num]))
-    }.inject(:+)
-  end
-  alias_method :cofactor_expansion, :laplace_expansion
-
-
-  #--
-  # TESTING -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is a diagonal matrix.
-  # Raises an error if matrix is not square.
-  #
-  def diagonal?
-    raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    each(:off_diagonal).all?(&:zero?)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is an empty matrix, i.e. if the number of rows
-  # or the number of columns is 0.
-  #
-  def empty?
-    column_count == 0 || row_count == 0
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is an hermitian matrix.
-  # Raises an error if matrix is not square.
-  #
-  def hermitian?
-    raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    each_with_index(:upper).all? do |e, row, col|
-      e == rows[col][row].conj
-    end
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is a lower triangular matrix.
-  #
-  def lower_triangular?
-    each(:strict_upper).all?(&:zero?)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is a normal matrix.
-  # Raises an error if matrix is not square.
-  #
-  def normal?
-    raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    rows.each_with_index do |row_i, i|
-      rows.each_with_index do |row_j, j|
-        s = 0
-        rows.each_with_index do |row_k, k|
-          s += row_i[k] * row_j[k].conj - row_k[i].conj * row_k[j]
-        end
-        return false unless s == 0
-      end
-    end
-    true
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is an orthogonal matrix
-  # Raises an error if matrix is not square.
-  #
-  def orthogonal?
-    raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-
-    rows.each_with_index do |row_i, i|
-      rows.each_with_index do |row_j, j|
-        s = 0
-        row_count.times do |k|
-          s += row_i[k] * row_j[k]
-        end
-        return false unless s == (i == j ? 1 : 0)
-      end
-    end
-    true
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is a permutation matrix
-  # Raises an error if matrix is not square.
-  #
-  def permutation?
-    raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    cols = Array.new(column_count)
-    rows.each_with_index do |row, i|
-      found = false
-      row.each_with_index do |e, j|
-        if e == 1
-          return false if found || cols[j]
-          found = cols[j] = true
-        elsif e != 0
-          return false
-        end
-      end
-      return false unless found
-    end
-    true
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if all entries of the matrix are real.
-  #
-  def real?
-    all?(&:real?)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is a regular (i.e. non-singular) matrix.
-  #
-  def regular?
-    not singular?
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is a singular matrix.
-  #
-  def singular?
-    determinant == 0
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is a square matrix.
-  #
-  def square?
-    column_count == row_count
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is a symmetric matrix.
-  # Raises an error if matrix is not square.
-  #
-  def symmetric?
-    raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    each_with_index(:strict_upper) do |e, row, col|
-      return false if e != rows[col][row]
-    end
-    true
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is an antisymmetric matrix.
-  # Raises an error if matrix is not square.
-  #
-  def antisymmetric?
-    raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    each_with_index(:upper) do |e, row, col|
-      return false unless e == -rows[col][row]
-    end
-    true
-  end
-  alias_method :skew_symmetric?, :antisymmetric?
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is a unitary matrix
-  # Raises an error if matrix is not square.
-  #
-  def unitary?
-    raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    rows.each_with_index do |row_i, i|
-      rows.each_with_index do |row_j, j|
-        s = 0
-        row_count.times do |k|
-          s += row_i[k].conj * row_j[k]
-        end
-        return false unless s == (i == j ? 1 : 0)
-      end
-    end
-    true
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is an upper triangular matrix.
-  #
-  def upper_triangular?
-    each(:strict_lower).all?(&:zero?)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns +true+ if this is a matrix with only zero elements
-  #
-  def zero?
-    all?(&:zero?)
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # OBJECT METHODS -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Returns whether the two matrices contain equal elements.
-  #
-  def ==(other)
-    return false unless Matrix === other &&
-                        column_count == other.column_count # necessary for empty matrices
-    rows == other.rows
-  end
-
-  def eql?(other)
-    return false unless Matrix === other &&
-                        column_count == other.column_count # necessary for empty matrices
-    rows.eql? other.rows
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Called for dup & clone.
-  #
-  private def initialize_copy(m)
-    super
-    @rows = @rows.map(&:dup) unless frozen?
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns a hash-code for the matrix.
-  #
-  def hash
-    @rows.hash
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # ARITHMETIC -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Matrix multiplication.
-  #   Matrix[[2,4], [6,8]] * Matrix.identity(2)
-  #   #  => 2 4
-  #   #     6 8
-  #
-  def *(m) # m is matrix or vector or number
-    case(m)
-    when Numeric
-      new_rows = @rows.collect {|row|
-        row.collect {|e| e * m }
-      }
-      return new_matrix new_rows, column_count
-    when Vector
-      m = self.class.column_vector(m)
-      r = self * m
-      return r.column(0)
-    when Matrix
-      raise ErrDimensionMismatch if column_count != m.row_count
-      m_rows = m.rows
-      new_rows = rows.map do |row_i|
-        Array.new(m.column_count) do |j|
-          vij = 0
-          column_count.times do |k|
-            vij += row_i[k] * m_rows[k][j]
-          end
-          vij
-        end
-      end
-      return new_matrix new_rows, m.column_count
-    else
-      return apply_through_coercion(m, __method__)
-    end
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Matrix addition.
-  #   Matrix.scalar(2,5) + Matrix[[1,0], [-4,7]]
-  #   #  =>  6  0
-  #   #     -4 12
-  #
-  def +(m)
-    case m
-    when Numeric
-      raise ErrOperationNotDefined, ["+", self.class, m.class]
-    when Vector
-      m = self.class.column_vector(m)
-    when Matrix
-    else
-      return apply_through_coercion(m, __method__)
-    end
-
-    raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless row_count == m.row_count && column_count == m.column_count
-
-    rows = Array.new(row_count) {|i|
-      Array.new(column_count) {|j|
-        self[i, j] + m[i, j]
-      }
-    }
-    new_matrix rows, column_count
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Matrix subtraction.
-  #   Matrix[[1,5], [4,2]] - Matrix[[9,3], [-4,1]]
-  #   #  => -8  2
-  #   #      8  1
-  #
-  def -(m)
-    case m
-    when Numeric
-      raise ErrOperationNotDefined, ["-", self.class, m.class]
-    when Vector
-      m = self.class.column_vector(m)
-    when Matrix
-    else
-      return apply_through_coercion(m, __method__)
-    end
-
-    raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless row_count == m.row_count && column_count == m.column_count
-
-    rows = Array.new(row_count) {|i|
-      Array.new(column_count) {|j|
-        self[i, j] - m[i, j]
-      }
-    }
-    new_matrix rows, column_count
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Matrix division (multiplication by the inverse).
-  #   Matrix[[7,6], [3,9]] / Matrix[[2,9], [3,1]]
-  #   #  => -7  1
-  #   #     -3 -6
-  #
-  def /(other)
-    case other
-    when Numeric
-      rows = @rows.collect {|row|
-        row.collect {|e| e / other }
-      }
-      return new_matrix rows, column_count
-    when Matrix
-      return self * other.inverse
-    else
-      return apply_through_coercion(other, __method__)
-    end
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Hadamard product
-  #    Matrix[[1,2], [3,4]].hadamard_product(Matrix[[1,2], [3,2]])
-  #    #  => 1  4
-  #    #     9  8
-  #
-  def hadamard_product(m)
-    combine(m){|a, b| a * b}
-  end
-  alias_method :entrywise_product, :hadamard_product
-
-  #
-  # Returns the inverse of the matrix.
-  #   Matrix[[-1, -1], [0, -1]].inverse
-  #   #  => -1  1
-  #   #      0 -1
-  #
-  def inverse
-    raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    self.class.I(row_count).send(:inverse_from, self)
-  end
-  alias_method :inv, :inverse
-
-  private def inverse_from(src) # :nodoc:
-    last = row_count - 1
-    a = src.to_a
-
-    0.upto(last) do |k|
-      i = k
-      akk = a[k][k].abs
-      (k+1).upto(last) do |j|
-        v = a[j][k].abs
-        if v > akk
-          i = j
-          akk = v
-        end
-      end
-      raise ErrNotRegular if akk == 0
-      if i != k
-        a[i], a[k] = a[k], a[i]
-        @rows[i], @rows[k] = @rows[k], @rows[i]
-      end
-      akk = a[k][k]
-
-      0.upto(last) do |ii|
-        next if ii == k
-        q = a[ii][k].quo(akk)
-        a[ii][k] = 0
-
-        (k + 1).upto(last) do |j|
-          a[ii][j] -= a[k][j] * q
-        end
-        0.upto(last) do |j|
-          @rows[ii][j] -= @rows[k][j] * q
-        end
-      end
-
-      (k+1).upto(last) do |j|
-        a[k][j] = a[k][j].quo(akk)
-      end
-      0.upto(last) do |j|
-        @rows[k][j] = @rows[k][j].quo(akk)
-      end
-    end
-    self
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Matrix exponentiation.
-  # Equivalent to multiplying the matrix by itself N times.
-  # Non integer exponents will be handled by diagonalizing the matrix.
-  #
-  #   Matrix[[7,6], [3,9]] ** 2
-  #   #  => 67 96
-  #   #     48 99
-  #
-  def **(exp)
-    case exp
-    when Integer
-      case
-      when exp == 0
-        raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-        self.class.identity(column_count)
-      when exp < 0
-        inverse.power_int(-exp)
-      else
-        power_int(exp)
-      end
-    when Numeric
-      v, d, v_inv = eigensystem
-      v * self.class.diagonal(*d.each(:diagonal).map{|e| e ** exp}) * v_inv
-    else
-      raise ErrOperationNotDefined, ["**", self.class, exp.class]
-    end
-  end
-
-  protected def power_int(exp)
-    # assumes `exp` is an Integer > 0
-    #
-    # Previous algorithm:
-    #   build M**2, M**4 = (M**2)**2, M**8, ... and multiplying those you need
-    #   e.g. M**0b1011 = M**11 = M * M**2 * M**8
-    #                              ^  ^
-    #   (highlighted the 2 out of 5 multiplications involving `M * x`)
-    #
-    # Current algorithm has same number of multiplications but with lower exponents:
-    #    M**11 = M * (M * M**4)**2
-    #              ^    ^  ^
-    #   (highlighted the 3 out of 5 multiplications involving `M * x`)
-    #
-    # This should be faster for all (non nil-potent) matrices.
-    case
-    when exp == 1
-      self
-    when exp.odd?
-      self * power_int(exp - 1)
-    else
-      sqrt = power_int(exp / 2)
-      sqrt * sqrt
-    end
-  end
-
-  def +@
-    self
-  end
-
-  # Unary matrix negation.
-  #
-  #   -Matrix[[1,5], [4,2]]
-  #   # => -1 -5
-  #   #    -4 -2
-  def -@
-    collect {|e| -e }
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns the absolute value elementwise
-  #
-  def abs
-    collect(&:abs)
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # MATRIX FUNCTIONS -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Returns the determinant of the matrix.
-  #
-  # Beware that using Float values can yield erroneous results
-  # because of their lack of precision.
-  # Consider using exact types like Rational or BigDecimal instead.
-  #
-  #   Matrix[[7,6], [3,9]].determinant
-  #   #  => 45
-  #
-  def determinant
-    raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    m = @rows
-    case row_count
-      # Up to 4x4, give result using Laplacian expansion by minors.
-      # This will typically be faster, as well as giving good results
-      # in case of Floats
-    when 0
-      +1
-    when 1
-      + m[0][0]
-    when 2
-      + m[0][0] * m[1][1] - m[0][1] * m[1][0]
-    when 3
-      m0, m1, m2 = m
-      + m0[0] * m1[1] * m2[2] - m0[0] * m1[2] * m2[1] \
-      - m0[1] * m1[0] * m2[2] + m0[1] * m1[2] * m2[0] \
-      + m0[2] * m1[0] * m2[1] - m0[2] * m1[1] * m2[0]
-    when 4
-      m0, m1, m2, m3 = m
-      + m0[0] * m1[1] * m2[2] * m3[3] - m0[0] * m1[1] * m2[3] * m3[2] \
-      - m0[0] * m1[2] * m2[1] * m3[3] + m0[0] * m1[2] * m2[3] * m3[1] \
-      + m0[0] * m1[3] * m2[1] * m3[2] - m0[0] * m1[3] * m2[2] * m3[1] \
-      - m0[1] * m1[0] * m2[2] * m3[3] + m0[1] * m1[0] * m2[3] * m3[2] \
-      + m0[1] * m1[2] * m2[0] * m3[3] - m0[1] * m1[2] * m2[3] * m3[0] \
-      - m0[1] * m1[3] * m2[0] * m3[2] + m0[1] * m1[3] * m2[2] * m3[0] \
-      + m0[2] * m1[0] * m2[1] * m3[3] - m0[2] * m1[0] * m2[3] * m3[1] \
-      - m0[2] * m1[1] * m2[0] * m3[3] + m0[2] * m1[1] * m2[3] * m3[0] \
-      + m0[2] * m1[3] * m2[0] * m3[1] - m0[2] * m1[3] * m2[1] * m3[0] \
-      - m0[3] * m1[0] * m2[1] * m3[2] + m0[3] * m1[0] * m2[2] * m3[1] \
-      + m0[3] * m1[1] * m2[0] * m3[2] - m0[3] * m1[1] * m2[2] * m3[0] \
-      - m0[3] * m1[2] * m2[0] * m3[1] + m0[3] * m1[2] * m2[1] * m3[0]
-    else
-      # For bigger matrices, use an efficient and general algorithm.
-      # Currently, we use the Gauss-Bareiss algorithm
-      determinant_bareiss
-    end
-  end
-  alias_method :det, :determinant
-
-  #
-  # Private. Use Matrix#determinant
-  #
-  # Returns the determinant of the matrix, using
-  # Bareiss' multistep integer-preserving gaussian elimination.
-  # It has the same computational cost order O(n^3) as standard Gaussian elimination.
-  # Intermediate results are fraction free and of lower complexity.
-  # A matrix of Integers will have thus intermediate results that are also Integers,
-  # with smaller bignums (if any), while a matrix of Float will usually have
-  # intermediate results with better precision.
-  #
-  private def determinant_bareiss
-    size = row_count
-    last = size - 1
-    a = to_a
-    no_pivot = Proc.new{ return 0 }
-    sign = +1
-    pivot = 1
-    size.times do |k|
-      previous_pivot = pivot
-      if (pivot = a[k][k]) == 0
-        switch = (k+1 ... size).find(no_pivot) {|row|
-          a[row][k] != 0
-        }
-        a[switch], a[k] = a[k], a[switch]
-        pivot = a[k][k]
-        sign = -sign
-      end
-      (k+1).upto(last) do |i|
-        ai = a[i]
-        (k+1).upto(last) do |j|
-          ai[j] =  (pivot * ai[j] - ai[k] * a[k][j]) / previous_pivot
-        end
-      end
-    end
-    sign * pivot
-  end
-
-  #
-  # deprecated; use Matrix#determinant
-  #
-  def determinant_e
-    warn "Matrix#determinant_e is deprecated; use #determinant", uplevel: 1
-    determinant
-  end
-  alias_method :det_e, :determinant_e
-
-  #
-  # Returns a new matrix resulting by stacking horizontally
-  # the receiver with the given matrices
-  #
-  #   x = Matrix[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
-  #   y = Matrix[[5, 6], [7, 8]]
-  #   x.hstack(y) # => Matrix[[1, 2, 5, 6], [3, 4, 7, 8]]
-  #
-  def hstack(*matrices)
-    self.class.hstack(self, *matrices)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns the rank of the matrix.
-  # Beware that using Float values can yield erroneous results
-  # because of their lack of precision.
-  # Consider using exact types like Rational or BigDecimal instead.
-  #
-  #   Matrix[[7,6], [3,9]].rank
-  #   #  => 2
-  #
-  def rank
-    # We currently use Bareiss' multistep integer-preserving gaussian elimination
-    # (see comments on determinant)
-    a = to_a
-    last_column = column_count - 1
-    last_row = row_count - 1
-    pivot_row = 0
-    previous_pivot = 1
-    0.upto(last_column) do |k|
-      switch_row = (pivot_row .. last_row).find {|row|
-        a[row][k] != 0
-      }
-      if switch_row
-        a[switch_row], a[pivot_row] = a[pivot_row], a[switch_row] unless pivot_row == switch_row
-        pivot = a[pivot_row][k]
-        (pivot_row+1).upto(last_row) do |i|
-           ai = a[i]
-           (k+1).upto(last_column) do |j|
-             ai[j] =  (pivot * ai[j] - ai[k] * a[pivot_row][j]) / previous_pivot
-           end
-         end
-        pivot_row += 1
-        previous_pivot = pivot
-      end
-    end
-    pivot_row
-  end
-
-  #
-  # deprecated; use Matrix#rank
-  #
-  def rank_e
-    warn "Matrix#rank_e is deprecated; use #rank", uplevel: 1
-    rank
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns a new matrix with rotated elements.
-  # The argument specifies the rotation (defaults to `:clockwise`):
-  # * :clockwise, 1, -3, etc.: "turn right" - first row becomes last column
-  # * :half_turn, 2, -2, etc.: first row becomes last row, elements in reverse order
-  # * :counter_clockwise, -1, 3: "turn left" - first row becomes first column
-  #   (but with elements in reverse order)
-  #
-  #   m = Matrix[ [1, 2], [3, 4] ]
-  #   r = m.rotate_entries(:clockwise)
-  #   #  => Matrix[[3, 1], [4, 2]]
-  #
-  def rotate_entries(rotation = :clockwise)
-    rotation %= 4 if rotation.respond_to? :to_int
-
-    case rotation
-    when 0
-      dup
-    when 1, :clockwise
-      new_matrix @rows.transpose.each(&:reverse!), row_count
-    when 2, :half_turn
-      new_matrix @rows.map(&:reverse).reverse!, column_count
-    when 3, :counter_clockwise
-      new_matrix @rows.transpose.reverse!, row_count
-    else
-      raise ArgumentError, "expected #{rotation.inspect} to be one of :clockwise, :counter_clockwise, :half_turn or an integer"
-    end
-  end
-
-  # Returns a matrix with entries rounded to the given precision
-  # (see Float#round)
-  #
-  def round(ndigits=0)
-    map{|e| e.round(ndigits)}
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns the trace (sum of diagonal elements) of the matrix.
-  #   Matrix[[7,6], [3,9]].trace
-  #   #  => 16
-  #
-  def trace
-    raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless square?
-    (0...column_count).inject(0) do |tr, i|
-      tr + @rows[i][i]
-    end
-  end
-  alias_method :tr, :trace
-
-  #
-  # Returns the transpose of the matrix.
-  #   Matrix[[1,2], [3,4], [5,6]]
-  #   #  => 1 2
-  #   #     3 4
-  #   #     5 6
-  #   Matrix[[1,2], [3,4], [5,6]].transpose
-  #   #  => 1 3 5
-  #   #     2 4 6
-  #
-  def transpose
-    return self.class.empty(column_count, 0) if row_count.zero?
-    new_matrix @rows.transpose, row_count
-  end
-  alias_method :t, :transpose
-
-  #
-  # Returns a new matrix resulting by stacking vertically
-  # the receiver with the given matrices
-  #
-  #   x = Matrix[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
-  #   y = Matrix[[5, 6], [7, 8]]
-  #   x.vstack(y) # => Matrix[[1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6], [7, 8]]
-  #
-  def vstack(*matrices)
-    self.class.vstack(self, *matrices)
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # DECOMPOSITIONS -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Returns the Eigensystem of the matrix; see +EigenvalueDecomposition+.
-  #   m = Matrix[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
-  #   v, d, v_inv = m.eigensystem
-  #   d.diagonal? # => true
-  #   v.inv == v_inv # => true
-  #   (v * d * v_inv).round(5) == m # => true
-  #
-  def eigensystem
-    EigenvalueDecomposition.new(self)
-  end
-  alias_method :eigen, :eigensystem
-
-  #
-  # Returns the LUP decomposition of the matrix; see +LUPDecomposition+.
-  #   a = Matrix[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
-  #   l, u, p = a.lup
-  #   l.lower_triangular? # => true
-  #   u.upper_triangular? # => true
-  #   p.permutation?      # => true
-  #   l * u == p * a      # => true
-  #   a.lup.solve([2, 5]) # => Vector[(1/1), (1/2)]
-  #
-  def lup
-    LUPDecomposition.new(self)
-  end
-  alias_method :lup_decomposition, :lup
-
-  #--
-  # COMPLEX ARITHMETIC -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Returns the conjugate of the matrix.
-  #   Matrix[[Complex(1,2), Complex(0,1), 0], [1, 2, 3]]
-  #   #  => 1+2i   i  0
-  #   #        1   2  3
-  #   Matrix[[Complex(1,2), Complex(0,1), 0], [1, 2, 3]].conjugate
-  #   #  => 1-2i  -i  0
-  #   #        1   2  3
-  #
-  def conjugate
-    collect(&:conjugate)
-  end
-  alias_method :conj, :conjugate
-
-  #
-  # Returns the adjoint of the matrix.
-  #
-  #   Matrix[ [i,1],[2,-i] ].adjoint
-  #   #  => -i 2
-  #   #      1 i
-  #
-  def adjoint
-    conjugate.transpose
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns the imaginary part of the matrix.
-  #   Matrix[[Complex(1,2), Complex(0,1), 0], [1, 2, 3]]
-  #   #  => 1+2i  i  0
-  #   #        1  2  3
-  #   Matrix[[Complex(1,2), Complex(0,1), 0], [1, 2, 3]].imaginary
-  #   #  =>   2i  i  0
-  #   #        0  0  0
-  #
-  def imaginary
-    collect(&:imaginary)
-  end
-  alias_method :imag, :imaginary
-
-  #
-  # Returns the real part of the matrix.
-  #   Matrix[[Complex(1,2), Complex(0,1), 0], [1, 2, 3]]
-  #   #  => 1+2i  i  0
-  #   #        1  2  3
-  #   Matrix[[Complex(1,2), Complex(0,1), 0], [1, 2, 3]].real
-  #   #  =>    1  0  0
-  #   #        1  2  3
-  #
-  def real
-    collect(&:real)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns an array containing matrices corresponding to the real and imaginary
-  # parts of the matrix
-  #
-  #   m.rect == [m.real, m.imag]  # ==> true for all matrices m
-  #
-  def rect
-    [real, imag]
-  end
-  alias_method :rectangular, :rect
-
-  #--
-  # CONVERTING -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # The coerce method provides support for Ruby type coercion.
-  # This coercion mechanism is used by Ruby to handle mixed-type
-  # numeric operations: it is intended to find a compatible common
-  # type between the two operands of the operator.
-  # See also Numeric#coerce.
-  #
-  def coerce(other)
-    case other
-    when Numeric
-      return Scalar.new(other), self
-    else
-      raise TypeError, "#{self.class} can't be coerced into #{other.class}"
-    end
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns an array of the row vectors of the matrix.  See Vector.
-  #
-  def row_vectors
-    Array.new(row_count) {|i|
-      row(i)
-    }
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns an array of the column vectors of the matrix.  See Vector.
-  #
-  def column_vectors
-    Array.new(column_count) {|i|
-      column(i)
-    }
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Explicit conversion to a Matrix. Returns self
-  #
-  def to_matrix
-    self
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns an array of arrays that describe the rows of the matrix.
-  #
-  def to_a
-    @rows.collect(&:dup)
-  end
-
-  # Deprecated.
-  #
-  # Use <code>map(&:to_f)</code>
-  def elements_to_f
-    warn "Matrix#elements_to_f is deprecated, use map(&:to_f)", uplevel: 1
-    map(&:to_f)
-  end
-
-  # Deprecated.
-  #
-  # Use <code>map(&:to_i)</code>
-  def elements_to_i
-    warn "Matrix#elements_to_i is deprecated, use map(&:to_i)", uplevel: 1
-    map(&:to_i)
-  end
-
-  # Deprecated.
-  #
-  # Use <code>map(&:to_r)</code>
-  def elements_to_r
-    warn "Matrix#elements_to_r is deprecated, use map(&:to_r)", uplevel: 1
-    map(&:to_r)
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # PRINTING -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Overrides Object#to_s
-  #
-  def to_s
-    if empty?
-      "#{self.class}.empty(#{row_count}, #{column_count})"
-    else
-      "#{self.class}[" + @rows.collect{|row|
-        "[" + row.collect{|e| e.to_s}.join(", ") + "]"
-      }.join(", ")+"]"
-    end
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Overrides Object#inspect
-  #
-  def inspect
-    if empty?
-      "#{self.class}.empty(#{row_count}, #{column_count})"
-    else
-      "#{self.class}#{@rows.inspect}"
-    end
-  end
-
-  # Private helper modules
-
-  module ConversionHelper # :nodoc:
-    #
-    # Converts the obj to an Array. If copy is set to true
-    # a copy of obj will be made if necessary.
-    #
-    private def convert_to_array(obj, copy = false) # :nodoc:
-      case obj
-      when Array
-        copy ? obj.dup : obj
-      when Vector
-        obj.to_a
-      else
-        begin
-          converted = obj.to_ary
-        rescue Exception => e
-          raise TypeError, "can't convert #{obj.class} into an Array (#{e.message})"
-        end
-        raise TypeError, "#{obj.class}#to_ary should return an Array" unless converted.is_a? Array
-        converted
-      end
-    end
-  end
-
-  extend ConversionHelper
-
-  module CoercionHelper # :nodoc:
-    #
-    # Applies the operator +oper+ with argument +obj+
-    # through coercion of +obj+
-    #
-    private def apply_through_coercion(obj, oper)
-      coercion = obj.coerce(self)
-      raise TypeError unless coercion.is_a?(Array) && coercion.length == 2
-      coercion[0].public_send(oper, coercion[1])
-    rescue
-      raise TypeError, "#{obj.inspect} can't be coerced into #{self.class}"
-    end
-
-    #
-    # Helper method to coerce a value into a specific class.
-    # Raises a TypeError if the coercion fails or the returned value
-    # is not of the right class.
-    # (from Rubinius)
-    #
-    def self.coerce_to(obj, cls, meth) # :nodoc:
-      return obj if obj.kind_of?(cls)
-      raise TypeError, "Expected a #{cls} but got a #{obj.class}" unless obj.respond_to? meth
-      begin
-        ret = obj.__send__(meth)
-      rescue Exception => e
-        raise TypeError, "Coercion error: #{obj.inspect}.#{meth} => #{cls} failed:\n" \
-                         "(#{e.message})"
-      end
-      raise TypeError, "Coercion error: obj.#{meth} did NOT return a #{cls} (was #{ret.class})" unless ret.kind_of? cls
-      ret
-    end
-
-    def self.coerce_to_int(obj)
-      coerce_to(obj, Integer, :to_int)
-    end
-
-    def self.coerce_to_matrix(obj)
-      coerce_to(obj, Matrix, :to_matrix)
-    end
-
-    # Returns `nil` for non Ranges
-    # Checks range validity, return canonical range with 0 <= begin <= end < count
-    def self.check_range(val, count, kind)
-      canonical = (val.begin + (val.begin < 0 ? count : 0))..
-                  (val.end ? val.end + (val.end < 0 ? count : 0) - (val.exclude_end? ? 1 : 0)
-                           : count - 1)
-      unless 0 <= canonical.begin && canonical.begin <= canonical.end && canonical.end < count
-        raise IndexError, "given range #{val} is outside of #{kind} dimensions: 0...#{count}"
-      end
-      canonical
-    end
-
-    def self.check_int(val, count, kind)
-      val = CoercionHelper.coerce_to_int(val)
-      if val >= count || val < -count
-        raise IndexError, "given #{kind} #{val} is outside of #{-count}...#{count}"
-      end
-      val
-    end
-  end
-
-  include CoercionHelper
-
-  # Private CLASS
-
-  class Scalar < Numeric # :nodoc:
-    include ExceptionForMatrix
-    include CoercionHelper
-
-    def initialize(value)
-      @value = value
-    end
-
-    # ARITHMETIC
-    def +(other)
-      case other
-      when Numeric
-        Scalar.new(@value + other)
-      when Vector, Matrix
-        raise ErrOperationNotDefined, ["+", @value.class, other.class]
-      else
-        apply_through_coercion(other, __method__)
-      end
-    end
-
-    def -(other)
-      case other
-      when Numeric
-        Scalar.new(@value - other)
-      when Vector, Matrix
-        raise ErrOperationNotDefined, ["-", @value.class, other.class]
-      else
-        apply_through_coercion(other, __method__)
-      end
-    end
-
-    def *(other)
-      case other
-      when Numeric
-        Scalar.new(@value * other)
-      when Vector, Matrix
-        other.collect{|e| @value * e}
-      else
-        apply_through_coercion(other, __method__)
-      end
-    end
-
-    def /(other)
-      case other
-      when Numeric
-        Scalar.new(@value / other)
-      when Vector
-        raise ErrOperationNotDefined, ["/", @value.class, other.class]
-      when Matrix
-        self * other.inverse
-      else
-        apply_through_coercion(other, __method__)
-      end
-    end
-
-    def **(other)
-      case other
-      when Numeric
-        Scalar.new(@value ** other)
-      when Vector
-        raise ErrOperationNotDefined, ["**", @value.class, other.class]
-      when Matrix
-        #other.powered_by(self)
-        raise ErrOperationNotImplemented, ["**", @value.class, other.class]
-      else
-        apply_through_coercion(other, __method__)
-      end
-    end
-  end
-
-end
-
-
-#
-# The +Vector+ class represents a mathematical vector, which is useful in its own right, and
-# also constitutes a row or column of a Matrix.
-#
-# == Method Catalogue
-#
-# To create a Vector:
-# * Vector.[](*array)
-# * Vector.elements(array, copy = true)
-# * Vector.basis(size: n, index: k)
-# * Vector.zero(n)
-#
-# To access elements:
-# * #[](i)
-#
-# To set elements:
-# * #[]=(i, v)
-#
-# To enumerate the elements:
-# * #each2(v)
-# * #collect2(v)
-#
-# Properties of vectors:
-# * #angle_with(v)
-# * Vector.independent?(*vs)
-# * #independent?(*vs)
-# * #zero?
-#
-# Vector arithmetic:
-# * #*(x) "is matrix or number"
-# * #+(v)
-# * #-(v)
-# * #/(v)
-# * #+@
-# * #-@
-#
-# Vector functions:
-# * #inner_product(v), #dot(v)
-# * #cross_product(v), #cross(v)
-# * #collect
-# * #collect!
-# * #magnitude
-# * #map
-# * #map!
-# * #map2(v)
-# * #norm
-# * #normalize
-# * #r
-# * #round
-# * #size
-#
-# Conversion to other data types:
-# * #covector
-# * #to_a
-# * #coerce(other)
-#
-# String representations:
-# * #to_s
-# * #inspect
-#
-class Vector
-  include ExceptionForMatrix
-  include Enumerable
-  include Matrix::CoercionHelper
-  extend Matrix::ConversionHelper
-  #INSTANCE CREATION
-
-  private_class_method :new
-  attr_reader :elements
-  protected :elements
-
-  #
-  # Creates a Vector from a list of elements.
-  #   Vector[7, 4, ...]
-  #
-  def Vector.[](*array)
-    new convert_to_array(array, false)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Creates a vector from an Array.  The optional second argument specifies
-  # whether the array itself or a copy is used internally.
-  #
-  def Vector.elements(array, copy = true)
-    new convert_to_array(array, copy)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns a standard basis +n+-vector, where k is the index.
-  #
-  #    Vector.basis(size:, index:) # => Vector[0, 1, 0]
-  #
-  def Vector.basis(size:, index:)
-    raise ArgumentError, "invalid size (#{size} for 1..)" if size < 1
-    raise ArgumentError, "invalid index (#{index} for 0...#{size})" unless 0 <= index && index < size
-    array = Array.new(size, 0)
-    array[index] = 1
-    new convert_to_array(array, false)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Return a zero vector.
-  #
-  #    Vector.zero(3) # => Vector[0, 0, 0]
-  #
-  def Vector.zero(size)
-    raise ArgumentError, "invalid size (#{size} for 0..)" if size < 0
-    array = Array.new(size, 0)
-    new convert_to_array(array, false)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Vector.new is private; use Vector[] or Vector.elements to create.
-  #
-  def initialize(array)
-    # No checking is done at this point.
-    @elements = array
-  end
-
-  # ACCESSING
-
-  #
-  # :call-seq:
-  #   vector[range]
-  #   vector[integer]
-  #
-  # Returns element or elements of the vector.
-  #
-  def [](i)
-    @elements[i]
-  end
-  alias element []
-  alias component []
-
-  #
-  # :call-seq:
-  #   vector[range] = new_vector
-  #   vector[range] = row_matrix
-  #   vector[range] = new_element
-  #   vector[integer] = new_element
-  #
-  # Set element or elements of vector.
-  #
-  def []=(i, v)
-    raise FrozenError, "can't modify frozen Vector" if frozen?
-    if i.is_a?(Range)
-      range = Matrix::CoercionHelper.check_range(i, size, :vector)
-      set_range(range, v)
-    else
-      index = Matrix::CoercionHelper.check_int(i, size, :index)
-      set_value(index, v)
-    end
-  end
-  alias set_element []=
-  alias set_component []=
-  private :set_element, :set_component
-
-  private def set_value(index, value)
-    @elements[index] = value
-  end
-
-  private def set_range(range, value)
-    if value.is_a?(Vector)
-      raise ArgumentError, "vector to be set has wrong size" unless range.size == value.size
-      @elements[range] = value.elements
-    elsif value.is_a?(Matrix)
-      raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless value.row_count == 1
-      @elements[range] = value.row(0).elements
-    else
-      @elements[range] = Array.new(range.size, value)
-    end
-  end
-
-  # Returns a vector with entries rounded to the given precision
-  # (see Float#round)
-  #
-  def round(ndigits=0)
-    map{|e| e.round(ndigits)}
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns the number of elements in the vector.
-  #
-  def size
-    @elements.size
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # ENUMERATIONS -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Iterate over the elements of this vector
-  #
-  def each(&block)
-    return to_enum(:each) unless block_given?
-    @elements.each(&block)
-    self
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Iterate over the elements of this vector and +v+ in conjunction.
-  #
-  def each2(v) # :yield: e1, e2
-    raise TypeError, "Integer is not like Vector" if v.kind_of?(Integer)
-    raise ErrDimensionMismatch if size != v.size
-    return to_enum(:each2, v) unless block_given?
-    size.times do |i|
-      yield @elements[i], v[i]
-    end
-    self
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Collects (as in Enumerable#collect) over the elements of this vector and +v+
-  # in conjunction.
-  #
-  def collect2(v) # :yield: e1, e2
-    raise TypeError, "Integer is not like Vector" if v.kind_of?(Integer)
-    raise ErrDimensionMismatch if size != v.size
-    return to_enum(:collect2, v) unless block_given?
-    Array.new(size) do |i|
-      yield @elements[i], v[i]
-    end
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # PROPERTIES -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Returns whether all of vectors are linearly independent.
-  #
-  #   Vector.independent?(Vector[1,0], Vector[0,1])
-  #   #  => true
-  #
-  #   Vector.independent?(Vector[1,2], Vector[2,4])
-  #   #  => false
-  #
-  def Vector.independent?(*vs)
-    vs.each do |v|
-      raise TypeError, "expected Vector, got #{v.class}" unless v.is_a?(Vector)
-      raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless v.size == vs.first.size
-    end
-    return false if vs.count > vs.first.size
-    Matrix[*vs].rank.eql?(vs.count)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns whether all of vectors are linearly independent.
-  #
-  #   Vector[1,0].independent?(Vector[0,1])
-  #   # => true
-  #
-  #   Vector[1,2].independent?(Vector[2,4])
-  #   # => false
-  #
-  def independent?(*vs)
-    self.class.independent?(self, *vs)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns whether all elements are zero.
-  #
-  def zero?
-    all?(&:zero?)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Makes the matrix frozen and Ractor-shareable
-  #
-  def freeze
-    @elements.freeze
-    super
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Called for dup & clone.
-  #
-  private def initialize_copy(v)
-    super
-    @elements = @elements.dup unless frozen?
-  end
-
-
-  #--
-  # COMPARING -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Returns whether the two vectors have the same elements in the same order.
-  #
-  def ==(other)
-    return false unless Vector === other
-    @elements == other.elements
-  end
-
-  def eql?(other)
-    return false unless Vector === other
-    @elements.eql? other.elements
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns a hash-code for the vector.
-  #
-  def hash
-    @elements.hash
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # ARITHMETIC -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Multiplies the vector by +x+, where +x+ is a number or a matrix.
-  #
-  def *(x)
-    case x
-    when Numeric
-      els = @elements.collect{|e| e * x}
-      self.class.elements(els, false)
-    when Matrix
-      Matrix.column_vector(self) * x
-    when Vector
-      raise ErrOperationNotDefined, ["*", self.class, x.class]
-    else
-      apply_through_coercion(x, __method__)
-    end
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Vector addition.
-  #
-  def +(v)
-    case v
-    when Vector
-      raise ErrDimensionMismatch if size != v.size
-      els = collect2(v) {|v1, v2|
-        v1 + v2
-      }
-      self.class.elements(els, false)
-    when Matrix
-      Matrix.column_vector(self) + v
-    else
-      apply_through_coercion(v, __method__)
-    end
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Vector subtraction.
-  #
-  def -(v)
-    case v
-    when Vector
-      raise ErrDimensionMismatch if size != v.size
-      els = collect2(v) {|v1, v2|
-        v1 - v2
-      }
-      self.class.elements(els, false)
-    when Matrix
-      Matrix.column_vector(self) - v
-    else
-      apply_through_coercion(v, __method__)
-    end
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Vector division.
-  #
-  def /(x)
-    case x
-    when Numeric
-      els = @elements.collect{|e| e / x}
-      self.class.elements(els, false)
-    when Matrix, Vector
-      raise ErrOperationNotDefined, ["/", self.class, x.class]
-    else
-      apply_through_coercion(x, __method__)
-    end
-  end
-
-  def +@
-    self
-  end
-
-  def -@
-    collect {|e| -e }
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # VECTOR FUNCTIONS -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Returns the inner product of this vector with the other.
-  #   Vector[4,7].inner_product Vector[10,1] # => 47
-  #
-  def inner_product(v)
-    raise ErrDimensionMismatch if size != v.size
-
-    p = 0
-    each2(v) {|v1, v2|
-      p += v1 * v2.conj
-    }
-    p
-  end
-  alias_method :dot, :inner_product
-
-  #
-  # Returns the cross product of this vector with the others.
-  #   Vector[1, 0, 0].cross_product Vector[0, 1, 0]  # => Vector[0, 0, 1]
-  #
-  # It is generalized to other dimensions to return a vector perpendicular
-  # to the arguments.
-  #   Vector[1, 2].cross_product # => Vector[-2, 1]
-  #   Vector[1, 0, 0, 0].cross_product(
-  #      Vector[0, 1, 0, 0],
-  #      Vector[0, 0, 1, 0]
-  #   )  #=> Vector[0, 0, 0, 1]
-  #
-  def cross_product(*vs)
-    raise ErrOperationNotDefined, "cross product is not defined on vectors of dimension #{size}" unless size >= 2
-    raise ArgumentError, "wrong number of arguments (#{vs.size} for #{size - 2})" unless vs.size == size - 2
-    vs.each do |v|
-      raise TypeError, "expected Vector, got #{v.class}" unless v.is_a? Vector
-      raise ErrDimensionMismatch unless v.size == size
-    end
-    case size
-    when 2
-      Vector[-@elements[1], @elements[0]]
-    when 3
-      v = vs[0]
-      Vector[ v[2]*@elements[1] - v[1]*@elements[2],
-        v[0]*@elements[2] - v[2]*@elements[0],
-        v[1]*@elements[0] - v[0]*@elements[1] ]
-    else
-      rows = self, *vs, Array.new(size) {|i| Vector.basis(size: size, index: i) }
-      Matrix.rows(rows).laplace_expansion(row: size - 1)
-    end
-  end
-  alias_method :cross, :cross_product
-
-  #
-  # Like Array#collect.
-  #
-  def collect(&block) # :yield: e
-    return to_enum(:collect) unless block_given?
-    els = @elements.collect(&block)
-    self.class.elements(els, false)
-  end
-  alias_method :map, :collect
-
-  #
-  # Like Array#collect!
-  #
-  def collect!(&block)
-    return to_enum(:collect!) unless block_given?
-    raise FrozenError, "can't modify frozen Vector" if frozen?
-    @elements.collect!(&block)
-    self
-  end
-  alias map! collect!
-
-  #
-  # Returns the modulus (Pythagorean distance) of the vector.
-  #   Vector[5,8,2].r # => 9.643650761
-  #
-  def magnitude
-    Math.sqrt(@elements.inject(0) {|v, e| v + e.abs2})
-  end
-  alias_method :r, :magnitude
-  alias_method :norm, :magnitude
-
-  #
-  # Like Vector#collect2, but returns a Vector instead of an Array.
-  #
-  def map2(v, &block) # :yield: e1, e2
-    return to_enum(:map2, v) unless block_given?
-    els = collect2(v, &block)
-    self.class.elements(els, false)
-  end
-
-  class ZeroVectorError < StandardError
-  end
-  #
-  # Returns a new vector with the same direction but with norm 1.
-  #   v = Vector[5,8,2].normalize
-  #   # => Vector[0.5184758473652127, 0.8295613557843402, 0.20739033894608505]
-  #   v.norm # => 1.0
-  #
-  def normalize
-    n = magnitude
-    raise ZeroVectorError, "Zero vectors can not be normalized" if n == 0
-    self / n
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns an angle with another vector. Result is within the [0..Math::PI].
-  #   Vector[1,0].angle_with(Vector[0,1])
-  #   # => Math::PI / 2
-  #
-  def angle_with(v)
-    raise TypeError, "Expected a Vector, got a #{v.class}" unless v.is_a?(Vector)
-    raise ErrDimensionMismatch if size != v.size
-    prod = magnitude * v.magnitude
-    raise ZeroVectorError, "Can't get angle of zero vector" if prod == 0
-    dot = inner_product(v)
-    if dot.abs >= prod
-      dot.positive? ? 0 : Math::PI
-    else
-      Math.acos(dot / prod)
-    end
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # CONVERTING
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Creates a single-row matrix from this vector.
-  #
-  def covector
-    Matrix.row_vector(self)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Returns the elements of the vector in an array.
-  #
-  def to_a
-    @elements.dup
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Return a single-column matrix from this vector
-  #
-  def to_matrix
-    Matrix.column_vector(self)
-  end
-
-  def elements_to_f
-    warn "Vector#elements_to_f is deprecated", uplevel: 1
-    map(&:to_f)
-  end
-
-  def elements_to_i
-    warn "Vector#elements_to_i is deprecated", uplevel: 1
-    map(&:to_i)
-  end
-
-  def elements_to_r
-    warn "Vector#elements_to_r is deprecated", uplevel: 1
-    map(&:to_r)
-  end
-
-  #
-  # The coerce method provides support for Ruby type coercion.
-  # This coercion mechanism is used by Ruby to handle mixed-type
-  # numeric operations: it is intended to find a compatible common
-  # type between the two operands of the operator.
-  # See also Numeric#coerce.
-  #
-  def coerce(other)
-    case other
-    when Numeric
-      return Matrix::Scalar.new(other), self
-    else
-      raise TypeError, "#{self.class} can't be coerced into #{other.class}"
-    end
-  end
-
-  #--
-  # PRINTING -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
-  #++
-
-  #
-  # Overrides Object#to_s
-  #
-  def to_s
-    "Vector[" + @elements.join(", ") + "]"
-  end
-
-  #
-  # Overrides Object#inspect
-  #
-  def inspect
-    "Vector" + @elements.inspect
-  end
-end