sycamore 0.1.0

data/lib/sycamore/path_root.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+require 'singleton'
+
+module Sycamore
+  class Path
+    ##
+    # @api private
+    #
+    class Root < Path
+      include Singleton
+
+      def initialize
+        @parent, @node = nil, nil
+      end
+
+      def up(distance = 1)
+        super unless distance.is_a? Integer
+        self
+      end
+
+      def root?
+        true
+      end
+
+      def length
+        0
+      end
+
+      def join(delimiter = '/')
+        ''
+      end
+
+      def to_s
+        '#<Path:Root>'
+      end
+
+      def inspect
+        '#<Sycamore::Path::Root>'
+      end
+    end
+
+    ROOT = Root.instance # @api private
+  end
+end

data/lib/sycamore/stree.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+require 'sycamore'
+
+# optional global shortcut constant for Sycamore::Tree
+STree = Sycamore::Tree

data/lib/sycamore/tree.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,1272 @@
+module Sycamore
+
+  ##
+  # A tree data structure as a recursively nested set of {#nodes nodes} of immutable values.
+  #
+  # See {file:README.md} for a general introduction.
+  #
+  class Tree
+
+    include Enumerable
+
+    # the internal hash representation of this tree
+    attr_reader :data
+    protected :data
+
+    ########################################################################
+    # @group CQS reflection
+    ########################################################################
+
+    # the names of all command methods, which add elements to a Tree
+    ADDITIVE_COMMAND_METHODS = %i[add << replace add_node_with_empty_child] << :[]=
+
+    # the names of all command methods, which delete elements from a Tree
+    DESTRUCTIVE_COMMAND_METHODS = %i[delete >> clear compact replace] << :[]=
+
+    # the names of all additive command methods, which only add elements from a Tree
+    PURE_ADDITIVE_COMMAND_METHODS = ADDITIVE_COMMAND_METHODS - DESTRUCTIVE_COMMAND_METHODS
+
+    # the names of all destructive command methods, which only delete elements from a Tree
+    PURE_DESTRUCTIVE_COMMAND_METHODS = DESTRUCTIVE_COMMAND_METHODS - ADDITIVE_COMMAND_METHODS
+
+    # the names of all methods, which change the state of a Tree
+    COMMAND_METHODS = ADDITIVE_COMMAND_METHODS + DESTRUCTIVE_COMMAND_METHODS +
+      %i[freeze]
+
+    # the names of all query methods, which return a boolean
+    PREDICATE_METHODS =
+      %i[nothing? absent? existent? present? blank? empty?
+         include? include_node? member? key? has_key? include_path? path? >= > < <=
+         leaf? leaves? internal? external? flat? nested?
+         sleaf? sleaves? strict_leaf? strict_leaves?
+         eql? matches? === ==]
+
+    # the names of all methods, which side-effect-freeze return only a value
+    QUERY_METHODS = PREDICATE_METHODS +
+      %i[new_child dup hash to_native_object to_h to_s inspect
+         node nodes keys child_of child_at dig fetch
+         size total_size tsize height
+         each each_path paths each_node each_key each_pair] << :[]
+
+    %i[COMMAND_METHODS QUERY_METHODS PREDICATE_METHODS
+       ADDITIVE_COMMAND_METHODS DESTRUCTIVE_COMMAND_METHODS
+       PURE_ADDITIVE_COMMAND_METHODS PURE_DESTRUCTIVE_COMMAND_METHODS]
+      .each do |method_set|
+        define_singleton_method(method_set.downcase) { const_get method_set }
+      end
+
+    ########################################################################
+    # @group Construction
+    ########################################################################
+
+    ##
+    # Creates a new empty Tree.
+    #
+    def initialize
+      @data = Hash.new
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Creates a new Tree and initializes it with the given data.
+    #
+    # @param (see #add)
+    # @return [Tree]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Tree[1]
+    #   Tree[1, 2, 3]
+    #   Tree[1, 2, 2, 3]  # duplicates are ignored, so this results in the same tree as the previous
+    #   Tree[x: 1, y: 2]
+    #
+    def self.with(*args)
+      tree = new
+      tree.add( args.size == 1 ? args.first : args ) unless args.empty?
+      tree
+    end
+
+    class << self
+      alias from with
+      alias [] with
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Creates a new tree meant to be used as a child.
+    #
+    # This method is used for instantiation of child trees. When you want to a
+    # tree with different types child trees, maybe depending on the parent node,
+    # you can subclass {Sycamore::Tree} and override this method to your needs.
+    # By default it creates trees of the same type as this tree.
+    #
+    # @param parent_node [Object] of the child tree to be created
+    # @return [Tree]
+    #
+    # @api private
+    #
+    def new_child(parent_node, *args)
+      self.class.new(*args)
+    end
+
+
+    ########################################################################
+    # @group Absence and Nothing predicates
+    ########################################################################
+
+    ##
+    # Checks if this is the {Nothing} tree.
+    #
+    # @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    def nothing?
+      false
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Checks if this is an unresolved {Absence} or {Nothing}.
+    #
+    # @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    def absent?
+      false
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Checks if this is not an {Absence} or {Nothing}.
+    #
+    # @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    def existent?
+      not absent?
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Checks if this is not {#blank? blank}, i.e. {#empty? empty}.
+    #
+    # @note This is not the negation of {#absent?}, since this would result in a
+    #   different behaviour than {http://api.rubyonrails.org/classes/Object.html#method-i-present-3F ActiveSupports present?}
+    #   method. For the negation of {#absent?}, see {#existent?}.
+    #
+    # @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    def present?
+      not blank?
+    end
+
+
+    ########################################################################
+    # @group Element access
+    ########################################################################
+
+    #####################
+    #  command methods  #
+    #####################
+
+    ##
+    # Adds nodes or a tree structure to this tree.
+    #
+    # @overload add(node)
+    #   adds a single node
+    #   @param node [Object]
+    #
+    # @overload add(node_collection)
+    #   adds multiple nodes
+    #   @param node_collection [Enumerable]
+    #
+    # @overload add(tree_structure)
+    #   adds a tree structure of nodes
+    #   @param tree_structure [Hash, Tree]
+    #
+    # @return +self+ as a proper command method
+    #
+    # @raise [InvalidNode] when given a nested node set
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree = Tree.new
+    #   tree.add :foo
+    #   tree.add [:bar, :baz]
+    #   tree.add [:node, [:nested, :values]]  # => raise Sycamore::InvalidNode, "[:nested, :values] is not a valid tree node"
+    #   tree.add foo: 1, bar: {baz: 2}
+    #   tree.add foo: [:node, [:nested, :values]]  # => raise Sycamore::InvalidNode, "[:nested, :values] is not a valid tree node"
+    #
+    #   tree = Tree.new
+    #   tree[:foo][:bar] << :baz
+    #   tree[:foo] << { bar: 1, qux: 2 }
+    #   tree.to_h  # => {:foo=>{:bar=>[:baz, 1], :qux=>2}}
+    #
+    # @todo support Paths
+    #
+    def add(nodes_or_tree)
+      case
+        when Tree.like?(nodes_or_tree)       then add_tree(nodes_or_tree)
+        when nodes_or_tree.is_a?(Enumerable) then add_nodes(nodes_or_tree)
+                                             else add_node(nodes_or_tree)
+      end
+
+      self
+    end
+
+    alias << add
+
+    private def add_node(node)
+      return self if node.equal? Nothing
+      return add_tree(node) if Tree.like? node
+      raise InvalidNode, "#{node} is not a valid tree node" if node.is_a? Enumerable
+
+      @data[node] ||= Nothing
+
+      self
+    end
+
+    private def add_nodes(nodes)
+      nodes.each { |node| add_node(node) }
+
+      self
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Adds a node with an empty child to this tree.
+    #
+    # @return +self+ as a proper command method
+    #
+    # @raise [InvalidNode]
+    #
+    # @api private
+    #
+    def add_node_with_empty_child(node)
+      raise InvalidNode, "#{node} is not a valid tree node" if node.is_a? Enumerable
+
+      if @data.fetch(node, Nothing).nothing?
+        @data[node] = new_child(node)
+      end
+
+      self
+    end
+
+    private def add_child(node, children)
+      return add_node(node) if Nothing.like?(children)
+
+      add_node_with_empty_child(node)
+      @data[node] << children
+
+      self
+    end
+
+    private def add_tree(tree)
+      tree.each { |node, child| add_child(node, child) }
+
+      self
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Remove nodes or a tree structure from this tree.
+    #
+    # If a given node is in the {#nodes} set, it gets deleted, otherwise it is
+    # silently ignored.
+    #
+    # @overload delete(node)
+    #   deletes a single node
+    #   @param node [Object]
+    #
+    # @overload delete(node_collection)
+    #   deletes multiple nodes
+    #   @param node_collection [Enumerable]
+    #
+    # @overload delete(tree_structure)
+    #   deletes a tree structure of nodes
+    #   @param tree_structure [Hash, Tree]
+    #
+    # @return +self+ as a proper command method
+    #
+    # @raise [InvalidNode] when given a nested node set
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree = Tree[ "a" => 100, "b" => 200, "c" => 300, "d" => {foo: [:bar, :baz]} ]
+    #   tree.delete "a"
+    #   tree.to_h  # => {"b" => 200, "c" => 300, "d" => {foo: [:bar, :baz]}}
+    #   tree.delete ["a", "b", "c"]
+    #   tree.to_h  # => {"d" => {foo: [:bar, :baz]}}
+    #   tree.delete "d" => {foo: :bar}
+    #   tree.to_h  # => {"d" => {foo: :baz}}
+    #   tree.delete "d" => {foo: :baz}
+    #   tree.to_h  # => {}
+    #
+    # @todo differentiate a greedy and a non-greedy variant
+    # @todo support Paths
+    #
+    def delete(nodes_or_tree)
+      case
+        when Tree.like?(nodes_or_tree)       then delete_tree(nodes_or_tree)
+        when nodes_or_tree.is_a?(Enumerable) then delete_nodes(nodes_or_tree)
+                                             else delete_node(nodes_or_tree)
+      end
+
+      self
+    end
+
+    alias >> delete
+
+    private def delete_node(node)
+      return delete_tree(node) if Tree.like? node
+      raise InvalidNode, "#{node} is not a valid tree node" if node.is_a? Enumerable
+
+      @data.delete(node)
+
+      self
+    end
+
+    private def delete_nodes(nodes)
+      nodes.each { |node| delete_node(node) }
+
+      self
+    end
+
+    private def delete_tree(tree)
+      tree.each do |node, child|
+        raise InvalidNode, "#{node} is not a valid tree node" if node.is_a? Enumerable
+        next unless include? node
+        if Nothing.like?(child) or (child.respond_to?(:empty?) and child.empty?)
+          delete_node node
+        else
+          child_of(node).tap do |this_child|
+            this_child.delete child
+            delete_node(node) if this_child.empty?
+          end
+        end
+      end
+
+      self
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Replaces the contents of this tree.
+    #
+    # @overload replace(node)
+    #   Replaces the contents of this tree with a single node.
+    #   @param node [Object]
+    #
+    # @overload replace(node_collection)
+    #   Replaces the contents of this tree with multiple nodes.
+    #   @param node_collection [Enumerable]
+    #
+    # @overload replace(tree_structure)
+    #   Replaces the contents of this tree with a tree structure of nodes.
+    #   @param tree_structure [Hash, Tree]
+    #
+    # @return +self+ as a proper command method
+    #
+    # @raise [InvalidNode] when given a nested node set
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree = Tree[ "a" => 100, "b" => 200, "d" => {foo: [:bar, :baz]} ]
+    #   tree.replace(new: :content)
+    #   tree.to_h  # => {new: :content}
+    #
+    def replace(nodes_or_tree)
+      clear.add(nodes_or_tree)
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Replaces the contents of a child tree.
+    #
+    # As this is just a call of {#replace} on the child tree, you can assign
+    # content to not existing child trees. Just like {#child_at} you can
+    # reference a deeper node with a path of nodes.
+    #
+    # Note that even if you assign a {Sycamore::Tree} directly the given tree
+    # will not become part of this tree by reference.
+    #
+    # @overload []=(*path, node)
+    #   Replaces the contents of the child at the given path with a single node.
+    #   @param path [Array<Object>, Sycamore::Path] a path as a sequence of nodes or a {Path} object
+    #   @param node [Object]
+    #
+    # @overload []=(*path, node_collection)
+    #   Replaces the contents of the child at the given path with multiple nodes.
+    #   @param path [Array<Object>, Sycamore::Path] a path as a sequence of nodes or a {Path} object
+    #   @param node_collection [Enumerable]
+    #
+    # @overload []=(*path, tree_structure)
+    #   Replaces the contents of the child at the given path with a tree structure of nodes.
+    #   @param path [Array<Object>, Sycamore::Path] a path as a sequence of nodes or a {Path} object
+    #   @param tree_structure [Hash, Tree]
+    #
+    # @return the rvalue as for any Ruby assignment
+    #
+    # @raise [InvalidNode] when given a nested node set
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree = Tree[:foo]
+    #   tree[:foo] = :bar
+    #   tree.to_h  # => {:foo => :bar}
+    #   tree[:foo] = :baz
+    #   tree.to_h  # => {:foo => :baz}
+    #   tree[1][2][3] = 4
+    #   tree[1, 2, 3] = 4
+    #   tree.to_h  # => {:foo => :baz, 1 => {2 => {3 => 4}}}
+    #   tree[1] = tree[:foo]
+    #   tree.to_h  # => {:foo => :baz, 1 => :baz}
+    #   tree[:foo] << :bar
+    #   tree.to_h  # => {:foo => [:baz, :bar], 1 => :baz}
+    #
+    def []=(*args)
+      path, nodes_or_tree = args[0..-2], args[-1]
+      raise ArgumentError, 'wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)' if path.empty?
+
+      child_at(*path).replace(nodes_or_tree)
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Deletes all nodes and their children.
+    #
+    # @return +self+ as a proper command method
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree = Tree[1, 2, 3]
+    #   tree.size  # => 3
+    #   tree.clear
+    #   tree.size  # => 0
+    #
+    def clear
+      @data.clear
+
+      self
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Deletes all empty child trees recursively.
+    #
+    # @return +self+ as a proper command method
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree = Tree[foo: {bar: :baz}]
+    #   tree[:foo, :bar].clear
+    #   tree.to_h  # => {foo: {bar: []}}
+    #   tree.compact
+    #   tree.to_h  # => {foo: :bar}
+    #
+    def compact
+      @data.each do |node, child| case
+          when child.nothing? then next
+          when child.empty?   then @data[node] = Nothing
+          else child.compact
+        end
+      end
+
+      self
+    end
+
+
+    #####################
+    #   query methods   #
+    #####################
+
+    ##
+    # The nodes of this tree (without their children).
+    #
+    # @return [Array<Object>]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree = Tree[foo: [:bar, :baz]]
+    #   tree.nodes        # => [:foo]
+    #   tree[:foo].nodes  # => [:bar, :baz]
+    #
+    def nodes
+      @data.keys
+    end
+
+    alias keys nodes  # Hash compatibility
+
+
+    ##
+    # The only node of this tree or an exception, if more {#nodes nodes} present.
+    #
+    # @return [Object, nil] the single present node or +nil+, if no nodes present
+    #
+    # @raise [NonUniqueNodeSet] if more than one node present
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree = Tree[foo: 1, bar: [2,3]]
+    #   tree[:foo].node  # => 1
+    #   tree[:baz].node  # => nil
+    #   tree[:bar].node  # => raise Sycamore::NonUniqueNodeSet, "multiple nodes present: [2, 3]"
+    #
+    def node
+      nodes = self.nodes
+      raise NonUniqueNodeSet, "multiple nodes present: #{nodes}" if nodes.size > 1
+
+      nodes.first
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # The child tree of a node.
+    #
+    # When a child to the given node is not a present, an {Absence} object
+    # representing the missing tree is returned.
+    #
+    # @param node [Object]
+    # @return [Tree, Absence] the child tree of a node if present, otherwise an {Absence}
+    #
+    # @raise [InvalidNode] when given an +Enumerable+
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree = Tree[foo: 1]
+    #   tree.child_of(:foo).inspect  # "#<Sycamore::Tree:0x3fea48dd0e74 {1=>nil}>"
+    #   tree.child_of(:bar).inspect  # "absent child of node :bar in #<Sycamore::Tree:0x3fea48dd0f3c {:foo=>1}>"
+    #
+    # @todo Should we differentiate the case of a leaf and a not present node? How?
+    #
+    def child_of(node)
+      raise InvalidNode, "#{node} is not a valid tree node" if node.is_a? Enumerable
+
+      Nothing.like?(child = @data[node]) ? Absence.at(self, node) : child
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # The child tree of a node at a path.
+    #
+    # When a child at the given node path is not a present, an {Absence} object
+    # representing the missing tree is returned.
+    #
+    # @overload child_at(*nodes)
+    #   @param nodes [Array<Object>] a path as a sequence of nodes
+    #
+    # @overload child_at(path)
+    #   @param path [Path] a path as a {Sycamore::Path} object
+    #
+    # @return [Tree, Absence] the child tree at the given path if present, otherwise an {Absence}
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree = Tree[foo: {bar: 1}]
+    #   tree[:foo].inspect        # "#<Sycamore::Tree:0x3fea48e24f10 {:bar=>1}>"
+    #   tree[:foo, :bar].inspect  # "#<Sycamore::Tree:0x3fea48e24ed4 {1=>nil}>"
+    #   tree[:foo, :baz].inspect  # "absent child of node :baz in #<Sycamore::Tree:0x3fea48e24f10 {:bar=>1}>"
+    #
+    # @todo Should we differentiate the case of a leaf and a not present node? How?
+    #
+    def child_at(*path)
+      first = path.first
+      case path.length
+        when 0
+          raise ArgumentError, 'wrong number of arguments (given 0, expected 1+)'
+        when 1
+          if first.is_a? Enumerable
+            child_at(*first)
+          else
+            child_of(*path)
+          end
+        else
+          child_of(first).child_at(*path[1..-1])
+      end
+    end
+
+    alias [] child_at
+    alias dig child_at  # Hash compatibility
+
+    ##
+    # The child tree of a node.
+    #
+    # If the node can’t be found or has no child tree, there are several options:
+    # - With no other arguments, it will raise a +KeyError+ exception when the
+    #   node can’t be found or a {ChildError} exception (which is a subclass of
+    #   +KeyError+) when the node has no child tree
+    # - if +default+ is given, then that will be returned;
+    # - if the optional code block is specified, then that will be run and its result returned.
+    #
+    # @param node [Object]
+    # @param default [Object] optional
+    # @return [Tree, default]
+    #
+    # @raise [InvalidNode] when given an +Enumerable+ as node
+    # @raise [KeyError] when the given +node+ can't be found
+    # @raise [ChildError] when no child for the given +node+ present
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree = Tree[x: 1, y: nil]
+    #   tree.fetch(:x)               # #<Sycamore::Tree:0x3fc798a63854(1)>
+    #   tree.fetch(:y)               # => raise Sycamore::ChildError, "node y has no child tree"
+    #   tree.fetch(:z)               # => raise KeyError, "key not found: :z"
+    #   tree.fetch(:z, :default)     # => :default
+    #   tree.fetch(:y, :default)     # => :default
+    #   tree.fetch(:z) { :default }  # => :default
+    #
+    # @todo Should we differentiate the case of a leaf and a not present node? How?
+    #
+    def fetch(node, *default, &block)
+      raise InvalidNode, "#{node} is not a valid tree node" if node.is_a? Enumerable
+
+      child = @data.fetch(node, *default, &block)
+      if child.equal? Nothing
+        child = case
+          when block_given?    then yield
+          when !default.empty? then default.first
+          else raise ChildError, "node #{node} has no child tree"
+        end
+      end
+
+      child
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Iterates over all {#nodes nodes} of this tree.
+    #
+    # Note that does not include the nodes of the child trees.
+    #
+    # @overload each_node
+    #   Iterates over all {#nodes nodes} of this tree.
+    #   @yield [Object] each node
+    #   @return [Tree]
+    #
+    # @overload each_node
+    #   Returns an enumerator over all {#nodes nodes} of this tree.
+    #   @return [Enumerator<Object>]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree = Tree[ "a" => 100, "b" => 200 ]
+    #   tree.each_node {|node| puts node }
+    #
+    #   > a
+    #   > b
+    #
+    def each_node(&block)
+      return enum_for(__callee__) unless block_given?
+
+      @data.each_key(&block)
+
+      self
+    end
+
+    alias each_key each_node  # Hash compatibility
+
+    ##
+    # Iterates over all {#nodes nodes} and their child trees.
+    #
+    # @overload each_pair
+    #   Iterates over all {#nodes nodes} and their child trees.
+    #   @yield [Object, Tree] each node-child pair
+    #   @return [Tree] +self+
+    #
+    # @overload each_pair
+    #   Returns an enumerator over all {#nodes nodes} and their child trees.
+    #   @return [Enumerator<Array(Object, Tree)>]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree = Tree[ "a" => 100, "b" => nil ]
+    #   tree.each_pair {|node, child| puts "#{node} => #{child}" }
+    #
+    #   > a => #<Tree[ 100 ]>
+    #   > b => #<Tree: Nothing>
+    #
+    def each_pair(&block)
+      return enum_for(__callee__) unless block_given?
+
+      @data.each_pair(&block)
+
+      self
+    end
+
+    alias each each_pair
+
+    ##
+    # Iterates over the {Path paths} to all leaves of this tree.
+    #
+    # @overload each_path
+    #   Iterates over the {Path paths} to all leaves of this tree.
+    #   @yieldparam [Path] path
+    #   @return [Tree] +self+
+    #
+    # @overload each_path
+    #   Returns an enumerator over the {Path paths} to all leaves of this tree.
+    #   @return [Enumerator<Path>]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree = Tree[ "a" => 100, "b" => { foo: [:bar, :baz] } ]
+    #   tree.each_path { |path| puts path }
+    #
+    #   > #<Path: /a/100>
+    #   > #<Path: /b/foo/bar>
+    #   > #<Path: /b/foo/baz>
+    #
+    def each_path(with_ancestor: Path::ROOT, &block)
+      return enum_for(__callee__) unless block_given?
+
+      each do |node, child|
+        if child.empty?
+          yield Path[with_ancestor, node]
+        else
+          child.each_path(with_ancestor: with_ancestor.branch(node), &block)
+        end
+      end
+
+      self
+    end
+
+    alias paths each_path
+
+    ##
+    # Checks if a path of nodes exists in this tree.
+    #
+    # @param args [Array<Object>, Path] a splat of nodes, an array of nodes or a {Path} object
+    # @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree = Tree[ "a" => 100, "b" => 200, "c" => { foo: [:bar, :baz] } ]
+    #   tree.include_path? "a", 200  # => false
+    #   tree.include_path? "c", :foo, :bar  # => true
+    #   tree.include_path? ["c", :foo, :bar]  # => true
+    #   tree.include_path? Sycamore::Path["c", :foo, :bar]  # => true
+    #
+    def include_path?(*args)
+      raise ArgumentError, 'wrong number of arguments (given 0, expected 1+)' if args.count == 0
+      first = args.first
+      if first.is_a? Enumerable
+        return include_path?(*first) if args.count == 1
+        raise InvalidNode, "#{first} is not a valid tree node"
+      end
+
+      if args.count == 1
+        include? first
+      else
+        include?(first) and child_of(first).include_path?(args[1..-1])
+      end
+    end
+
+    alias path? include_path?
+
+    ##
+    # Checks if a node exists in the {#nodes nodes} set of this tree.
+    #
+    # @param node [Object]
+    # @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #  Tree[1,2,3].include_node? 3   # => true
+    #  Tree[1 => 2].include_node? 2  # => false
+    #
+    def include_node?(node)
+      @data.include?(node)
+    end
+
+    alias member?  include_node?  # Hash compatibility
+    alias has_key? include_node?  # Hash compatibility
+    alias key?     include_node?  # Hash compatibility
+
+    ##
+    # Checks if some nodes or a full tree-like structure is included in this tree.
+    #
+    # @param elements [Object, Array, Tree, Hash]
+    # @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree = Tree[ "a" => 100, "b" => 200, "c" => { foo: [:bar, :baz] } ]
+    #   tree.include?("a")                 # => true
+    #   tree.include?(:foo)                # => false
+    #   tree.include?(["a", "b"])          # => true
+    #   tree.include?("c" => {foo: :bar})  # => true
+    #   tree.include?("a", "b" => 200)     # => true
+    #
+    def include?(*elements)
+      raise ArgumentError, 'wrong number of arguments (given 0, expected 1+)' if
+        elements.size == 0
+      return elements.all? { |element| include? element } if
+        elements.size > 1
+
+      elements = elements.first
+      case
+        when Tree.like?(elements)
+          elements.all? do |node, child|
+            include_node?(node) and ( child.nil? or child.equal?(Nothing) or
+                                        self.child_of(node).include?(child) )
+          end
+        when elements.is_a?(Path)
+          include_path? elements
+        when elements.is_a?(Enumerable)
+          elements.all? { |element| include_node? element }
+        else
+          include_node? elements
+      end
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # The number of {#nodes nodes} in this tree.
+    #
+    # Note, this does not count the nodes in the child trees.
+    #
+    # @return [Fixnum]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree = Tree[ "d" => 100, "a" => 200, "v" => 300, "e" => [400, 500] ]
+    #   tree.size  # => 4
+    #   tree.delete("a")
+    #   tree.size  # => 3
+    #   tree["e"].size  # => 2
+    #
+    def size
+      @data.size
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # The number of {#nodes nodes} in this tree and all of their children.
+    #
+    # @return [Fixnum]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree = Tree[ "d" => 100, "a" => 200, "v" => 300, "e" => [400, 500] ]
+    #   tree.total_size  # => 9
+    #   tree.delete("a")
+    #   tree.total_size  # => 7
+    #   tree["e"].total_size  # => 2
+    #
+    def total_size
+      total = size
+      @data.each { |_, child| total += child.total_size }
+      total
+    end
+
+    alias tsize total_size
+
+    ##
+    # The length of the longest path of this tree.
+    #
+    # @return [Fixnum]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree = Tree[a: 1, b: {2 => 3}]
+    #   tree.height  # => 3
+    #
+    def height
+      return 0 if empty?
+      paths.map(&:length).max
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Checks if this tree is empty.
+    #
+    # @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Tree.new.empty?    # => true
+    #   Tree[a: 1].empty?  # => false
+    #
+    def empty?
+      @data.empty?
+    end
+
+    alias blank? empty?
+
+    ##
+    # Checks if the given node has no children.
+    #
+    # @param node [Object]
+    # @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree = Tree[x: 1, y: [], z: nil]
+    #   tree.leaf?(:x)  # => false
+    #   tree.leaf?(:y)  # => true
+    #   tree.leaf?(:z)  # => true
+    #
+    def leaf?(node)
+      include_node?(node) && child_of(node).empty?
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Checks if the given node has no children, even not an empty child tree.
+    #
+    # @param node [Object]
+    # @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree = Tree[x: 1, y: [], z: nil]
+    #   tree.strict_leaf?(:x)  # => false
+    #   tree.strict_leaf?(:y)  # => false
+    #   tree.strict_leaf?(:z)  # => true
+    #
+    def strict_leaf?(node)
+      include_node?(node) && child_of(node).absent?
+    end
+
+    alias sleaf? strict_leaf?
+
+    ##
+    # Checks if all given nodes or that of the tree have no children, even not an empty child tree.
+    #
+    # @overload strict_leaves?()
+    #   Returns if all {#nodes} of this tree have no children, even not an empty child tree.
+    #   @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    # @overload strict_leaves?(*nodes)
+    #   Checks if all of the given nodes have no children, even not an empty child tree.
+    #   @param nodes [Array<Object>] splat of nodes
+    #   @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Tree[1,2,3].strict_leaves?  # => true
+    #   tree = Tree[a: :foo, b: :bar, c: []]
+    #   tree.strict_leaves?          # => false
+    #   tree.strict_leaves?(:x, :y)  # => false
+    #   tree.strict_leaves?(:y, :z)  # => false
+    #
+    def strict_leaves?(*nodes)
+      nodes = self.nodes if nodes.empty?
+
+      nodes.all? { |node| strict_leaf?(node) }
+    end
+
+    alias sleaves? strict_leaves?
+
+    ##
+    # Checks if all given nodes or that of the tree have no children.
+    #
+    # @overload external?
+    #   Checks if all {#nodes} of this tree have no children.
+    #   @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    # @overload external?(*nodes)
+    #   Checks if all of the given nodes have no children.
+    #   @param nodes [Array<Object>] splat of nodes
+    #   @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Tree[1,2,3].leaves?  # => true
+    #   tree = Tree[x: 1, y: [], z: nil]
+    #   tree.leaves?          # => false
+    #   tree.leaves?(:x, :y)  # => false
+    #   tree.leaves?(:y, :z)  # => true
+    #
+    def external?(*nodes)
+      nodes = self.nodes if nodes.empty?
+
+      nodes.all? { |node| leaf?(node) }
+    end
+
+    alias leaves? external?
+    alias flat? external?
+
+    ##
+    # Checks if all given nodes or that of the tree have children.
+    #
+    # @overload internal?
+    #   Checks if all {#nodes} of this tree have children.
+    #   @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    # @overload internal?(*nodes)
+    #   Checks if all of the given nodes have children.
+    #   @param nodes [Array<Object>] splat of nodes
+    #   @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Tree[x: 1, y: 2].internal?  # => true
+    #   tree = Tree[x: 1, y: [], z: nil]
+    #   tree.internal?          # => false
+    #   tree.internal?(:x, :y)  # => false
+    #   tree.internal?(:y, :z)  # => false
+    #   tree.internal?(:x)      # => true
+    #
+    # @todo Does it make sense to support the no arguments variant here and with this semantics?
+    #   One would expect it to be the negation of #external? without arguments.
+    #
+    def internal?(*nodes)
+      return false if self.empty?
+      nodes = self.nodes if nodes.empty?
+
+      nodes.all? { |node| not leaf?(node) and include_node?(node) }
+    end
+
+    alias nested? internal?
+
+
+    ########################################################################
+    # @group Comparison
+    ########################################################################
+
+    ##
+    # A hash code of this tree.
+    #
+    # @return [Fixnum]
+    #
+    def hash
+      @data.hash ^ self.class.hash
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Checks if this tree has the same content as another tree.
+    #
+    # @param other [Object]
+    # @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree1 = Tree[a: 1, b: 2]
+    #   tree2 = Tree[a: 1, b: 2, c: 3]
+    #   tree3 = Tree[b: 2, a: 1]
+    #   tree4 = Tree[a: 1, b: {2 => []}]
+    #   tree1.eql? tree2  # => false
+    #   tree1.eql? tree3  # => true
+    #   tree1.eql? tree4  # => false
+    #
+    def eql?(other)
+      (other.instance_of?(self.class) and @data.eql?(other.data)) or
+        (other.instance_of?(Absence) and other.eql?(self))
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Checks if this tree has the same content as another tree, but ignores empty child trees.
+    #
+    # @param other [Object]
+    # @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree1 = Tree[a: 1, b: 2]
+    #   tree2 = Tree[a: 1, b: 2, c: 3]
+    #   tree3 = Tree[b: 2, a: 1]
+    #   tree4 = Tree[a: 1, b: {2 => []}]
+    #   tree1 == tree2  # => false
+    #   tree1 == tree3  # => true
+    #   tree1 == tree4  # => true
+    #
+    def ==(other)
+      (other.instance_of?(self.class) and size == other.size and
+        all? { |node, child| other.include?(node) and other[node] == child }) or
+        ((other.equal?(Nothing) or other.instance_of?(Absence)) and
+          other == self)
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Checks if this tree is a subtree of another tree.
+    #
+    # @param other [Object]
+    # @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree1 = Tree[a: 1, b: 2]
+    #   tree2 = Tree[a: 1, b: 2, c: 3]
+    #   tree1 < tree2  # => true
+    #   tree2 < tree1  # => false
+    #   tree1 < tree1  # => false
+    #
+    def <(other)
+      (other.is_a?(Tree) or other.is_a?(Absence)) and other.include?(self) and self != other
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Checks if this tree is a subtree or equal to another tree.
+    #
+    # @param other [Object]
+    # @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree1 = Tree[a: 1, b: 2]
+    #   tree2 = Tree[a: 1, b: 2, c: 3]
+    #   tree1 <= tree2  # => true
+    #   tree2 <= tree1  # => false
+    #   tree1 <= tree1  # => true
+    #
+    def <=(other)
+      (other.is_a?(Tree) or other.is_a?(Absence)) and other.include?(self)
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Checks if another tree is a subtree or equal to this tree.
+    #
+    # @param other [Object]
+    # @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree1 = Tree[a: 1, b: 2]
+    #   tree2 = Tree[a: 1, b: 2, c: 3]
+    #   tree1 >= tree2  # => false
+    #   tree2 >= tree1  # => true
+    #   tree1 >= tree1  # => true
+    #
+    def >=(other)
+      (other.is_a?(Tree) or other.is_a?(Absence)) and self.include?(other)
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Checks if another tree is a subtree or equal to this tree.
+    #
+    # @param other [Object]
+    # @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   tree1 = Tree[a: 1, b: 2]
+    #   tree2 = Tree[a: 1, b: 2, c: 3]
+    #   tree1 > tree2  # => false
+    #   tree2 > tree1  # => true
+    #   tree1 > tree1  # => false
+    #
+    def >(other)
+      (other.is_a?(Tree) or other.is_a?(Absence)) and self.include?(other) and self != other
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Checks if another object matches this tree structurally and by content.
+    #
+    # @param other [Object]
+    # @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   Tree[foo: :bar] === Hash[foo: :bar]  # => true
+    #   Tree[1, 2, 3]   === Array[1, 2, 3]   # => true
+    #   Tree[42]        === 42               # => true
+    #
+    # @todo This should probably apply a less strict equivalence comparison on the nodes.
+    #   Problem: Requires a solution which doesn't use +Hash#include?+.
+    #
+    def matches?(other)
+      case
+        when Tree.like?(other)       then matches_tree?(other)
+        when other.is_a?(Enumerable) then matches_enumerable?(other)
+                                     else matches_atom?(other)
+      end
+    end
+
+    alias === matches?
+
+    private def matches_atom?(other)
+      not other.nil? and (size == 1 and nodes.first == other and leaf? other)
+    end
+
+    private def matches_enumerable?(other)
+      size == other.size and
+        all? { |node, child| child.empty? and other.include?(node) }
+    end
+
+    private def matches_tree?(other)
+      size == other.size and
+        all? { |node, child|
+          if child.nothing?
+            other.include?(node) and begin other_child = other.fetch(node, nil)
+              not other_child or
+                (other_child.respond_to?(:empty?) and other_child.empty?)
+            end
+          else
+            child.matches? other[node]
+          end }
+    end
+
+
+    ########################################################################
+    # @group Conversion
+    ########################################################################
+
+    ##
+    # A native Ruby object representing the content of the tree.
+    #
+    # It is used by {#to_h} to produce flattened representations of child trees.
+    #
+    # @api private
+    #
+    def to_native_object(sleaf_child_as: nil, special_nil: false)
+      case
+        when empty?
+          []
+        when strict_leaves?
+          size == 1 && (!special_nil || !nodes.first.nil?) ? nodes.first : nodes
+        else
+          to_h(sleaf_child_as: sleaf_child_as, special_nil: special_nil)
+      end
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # A hash representation of this tree.
+    #
+    # @return [Hash]
+    #
+    def to_h(*args)
+      return {} if empty?
+
+      # not the nicest, but fastest way to inject on hashes, as noted here:
+      # http://stackoverflow.com/questions/3230863/ruby-rails-inject-on-hashes-good-style
+      hash = {}
+      @data.each do |node, child|
+        hash[node] = child.to_native_object(*args)
+      end
+
+      hash
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # A string representation of this tree.
+    #
+    # @return [String]
+    #
+    def to_s
+      if (content = to_native_object(special_nil: true)).is_a? Enumerable
+        "Tree[#{content.inspect[1..-2]}]"
+      else
+        "Tree[#{content.inspect}]"
+      end
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # A developer-friendly string representation of this tree in the usual Ruby +Object#inspect+ style.
+    #
+    # @return [String]
+    #
+    def inspect
+      "#<#{self.class}:0x#{object_id.to_s(16)} #{
+            to_h(sleaf_child_as: Sycamore::NothingTree::NestedString).inspect}>"
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Checks if the given object can be converted into a Tree.
+    #
+    # Ideally these would be implemented with Refinements, but since they
+    # aren't available anywhere (I'm looking at you, JRuby), we have to be
+    # content with this.
+    #
+    # @param object [Object]
+    # @return [Boolean]
+    #
+    # @api private
+    #
+    def self.tree_like?(object)
+      case object
+        when Hash, Tree, Absence # ... ?!
+          true
+        else
+          (object.respond_to? :tree_like? and object.tree_like?) # or ...
+      end
+    end
+
+    class << self
+      alias like? tree_like?
+    end
+
+
+    ########################################################################
+    # @group Other standard Ruby methods
+    ########################################################################
+
+    ##
+    # Duplicates the whole tree.
+    #
+    # @return [Tree]
+    #
+    def dup
+      duplicate = self.class.new.add(self)
+      duplicate.taint if tainted?
+      duplicate
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Clones the whole tree.
+    #
+    def initialize_clone(other)
+      super
+      @data = Hash.new
+      add other
+    end
+
+    ##
+    # Deep freezes the whole tree.
+    #
+    # @see http://ruby-doc.org/core/Object.html#method-i-freeze
+    #
+    def freeze
+      @data.freeze
+      each { |_, child| child.freeze }
+      super
+    end
+
+  end  # Tree
+end  # Sycamore