ruby-paa 0.0.1

data/lib/ruby-paa/aws.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,1489 @@
+# $Id: aws.rb,v 1.130 2010/03/20 11:58:50 ianmacd Exp $
+#
+
+module Amazon
+
+  module AWS
+
+    require 'rubygems'
+    require 'ruby-paa'
+    require 'ruby-paa/aws/cache'
+    require 'enumerator'
+    require 'iconv'
+    require 'rexml/document'
+    require 'uri'
+
+    NAME = '%s/%s' % [ Amazon::NAME, 'AWS' ]
+    VERSION = '0.8.1'
+    USER_AGENT = '%s %s' % [ NAME, VERSION ]
+
+    # Default Associate tags to use per locale.
+    #
+    DEF_ASSOC  = {
+      'ca' => 'caliban-20',
+      'de' => 'calibanorg0a-21',
+      'fr' => 'caliban08-21',
+      'jp' => 'calibanorg-20',
+      'uk' => 'caliban-21',
+      'us' => 'calibanorg-20'
+    }
+
+    # Service name and API version for AWS. The version of the API used can be
+    # changed via the user configuration file.
+    #
+    SERVICE = { 'Service' => 'AWSECommerceService',
+		'Version' => '2011-08-01'
+    }
+
+    # Maximum number of 301 and 302 HTTP responses to follow, should Amazon
+    # later decide to change the location of the service.
+    #
+    MAX_REDIRECTS = 3
+
+    # Maximum number of results pages that can be retrieved for a given
+    # search operation, using whichever pagination parameter is appropriate
+    # for that kind of operation.
+    #
+    PAGINATION = {
+      'ItemSearch'	      => { 'parameter' => 'ItemPage',
+						  'max_page' => 400 },
+      'ItemLookup'	      => { 'parameter' => 'OfferPage',
+						  'max_page' => 100 },
+      'ListLookup'	      => { 'parameter' => 'ProductPage',
+						  'max_page' =>  30 },
+      'ListSearch'	      => { 'parameter' => 'ListPage',
+						  'max_page' =>  20 },
+      'CustomerContentLookup' => { 'parameter' => 'ReviewPage',
+						  'max_page' =>  10 },
+      'CustomerContentSearch' => { 'parameter' => 'CustomerPage',
+						  'max_page' =>  20 },
+      'VehiclePartLookup'     => { 'parameter' => 'FitmentPage',
+						  'max_page' =>  10 }
+    }
+    # N.B. ItemLookup can also use the following two pagination parameters
+    #
+    #		      max. page
+    #		      ---------
+    # VariationPage   150
+    # ReviewPage       20
+  
+
+    # A hash to store character encoding converters.
+    #
+    @@encodings = {}
+
+
+    # Exception class for HTTP errors.
+    #
+    class HTTPError < AmazonError; end
+
+
+    # Exception class for faulty batch operations.
+    #
+    class BatchError < AmazonError; end
+
+
+    # Exception class for obsolete features.
+    #
+    class ObsolescenceError < AmazonError; end
+
+
+    class Endpoint
+
+      attr_reader :host, :path
+
+      def initialize(endpoint)
+      	uri = URI.parse( endpoint )
+      	@host = uri.host
+      	@path = uri.path
+      end
+    end
+
+    ENDPOINT = {
+      'ca' => Endpoint.new( 'http://ecs.amazonaws.ca/onca/xml' ),
+      'de' => Endpoint.new( 'http://ecs.amazonaws.de/onca/xml' ),
+      'fr' => Endpoint.new( 'http://ecs.amazonaws.fr/onca/xml' ),
+      'jp' => Endpoint.new( 'http://ecs.amazonaws.jp/onca/xml' ),
+      'uk' => Endpoint.new( 'http://ecs.amazonaws.co.uk/onca/xml' ),
+      'us' => Endpoint.new( 'http://ecs.amazonaws.com/onca/xml' )
+    }
+
+
+    # Fetch a page, either from the cache or by HTTP. This is used internally.
+    #
+    def AWS.get_page(request)  # :nodoc:
+
+      url = ENDPOINT[request.locale].path + request.query
+      cache_url = ENDPOINT[request.locale].host + url
+
+      # Check for cached page and return that if it's there.
+      #
+      if request.cache && request.cache.cached?( cache_url )
+      	body = request.cache.fetch( cache_url )
+      	return body if body
+      end
+
+      # Check whether we have a secret key available for signing the request.
+      # If so, sign the request for authentication.
+      #
+      if request.config['secret_key_id']
+      	unless request.sign
+      	  Amazon.dprintf( 'Warning! Failed to sign request. No OpenSSL support for SHA256 digest.' )
+      	end
+
+      	url = ENDPOINT[request.locale].path + request.query
+      end
+
+      # Get the existing connection. If there isn't one, force a new one.
+      #
+      conn = request.conn || request.reconnect.conn
+      user_agent = request.user_agent
+
+      Amazon.dprintf( 'Fetching http://%s%s ...', conn.address, url )
+
+      begin
+	      response = conn.get( url, { 'user-agent' => user_agent } )
+
+        # If we've pulled and processed a lot of pages from the cache (or
+        # just not passed by here recently), the HTTP connection to the server
+        # will probably have timed out.
+        #
+      rescue EOFError,		Errno::ECONNABORTED, Errno::ECONNREFUSED,
+	     Errno::ECONNRESET, Errno::EPIPE,	     Errno::ETIMEDOUT,
+	     Timeout::Error	=> error
+      	Amazon.dprintf( 'Connection to server lost: %s. Retrying...', error )
+      	conn = request.reconnect.conn
+      	retry
+      end
+
+      redirects = 0
+      while response.key? 'location'
+      	if ( redirects += 1 ) > MAX_REDIRECTS
+      	  raise HTTPError, "More than #{MAX_REDIRECTS} redirections"
+      	end
+
+      	old_url = url
+      	url = URI.parse( response['location'] )
+      	url.scheme = old_url.scheme unless url.scheme
+      	url.host = old_url.host unless url.host
+      	Amazon.dprintf( 'Following HTTP %s to %s ...', response.code, url )
+      	response = Net::HTTP::start( url.host ).
+      		     get( url.path, { 'user-agent' => user_agent } )
+      end
+
+      if response.code != '200'
+	      raise HTTPError, "HTTP response code #{response.code}"
+      end
+
+      # Cache the page if we're using a cache.
+      #
+      if request.cache
+	      request.cache.store( cache_url, response.body )
+      end
+
+      response.body
+    end
+
+
+    def AWS.assemble_query(items, encoding=nil)  # :nodoc:
+
+      query = ''
+      @@encodings[encoding] ||= Iconv.new( 'utf-8', encoding ) if encoding
+
+      # We must sort the items into an array to get reproducible ordering
+      # of the query parameters. Otherwise, URL caching would not work. We
+      # must also convert the parameter values to strings, in case Symbols
+      # have been used as the values.
+      #
+      items.sort { |a,b| a.to_s <=> b.to_s }.each do |k, v|
+      	if encoding
+      	  query << '&%s=%s' %
+      	    [ k, Amazon.url_encode( @@encodings[encoding].iconv( v.to_s ) ) ]
+      	else
+      	  query << '&%s=%s' % [ k, Amazon.url_encode( v.to_s ) ]
+      	end
+      end
+
+      # Replace initial ampersand with question-mark.
+      #
+      query[0] = '?'
+
+      query
+    end
+
+
+    # Everything returned by AWS is an AWSObject.
+    #
+    class AWSObject
+
+      include REXML
+
+      # This method can be used to load AWSObject data previously serialised
+      # by Marshal.dump.
+      #
+      # Example:
+      #
+      #  File.open( 'aws.dat' ) { |f| Amazon::AWS::AWSObject.load( f ) }
+      #
+      # Marshal.load cannot be used directly, because subclasses of AWSObject
+      # are dynamically defined as needed when AWS XML responses are parsed.
+      #
+      # Later attempts to load objects instantiated from these classes cause a
+      # problem for Marshal, because it knows nothing of classes that were
+      # dynamically defined by a separate process.
+      #
+      def AWSObject.load(io)
+      	begin
+      	  Marshal.load( io )
+      	rescue ArgumentError => ex
+      	  m = ex.to_s.match( /Amazon::AWS::AWSObject::([^ ]+)/ )
+      	  const_set( m[1], Class.new( AWSObject ) )
+
+      	  io.rewind
+      	  retry
+      	end
+      end
+ 
+
+      # This method can be used to load AWSObject data previously serialised
+      # by YAML.dump.
+      #
+      # Example:
+      #
+      #  File.open( 'aws.yaml' ) { |f| Amazon::AWS::AWSObject.yaml_load( f ) }
+      #
+      # The standard YAML.load cannot be used directly, because subclasses of
+      # AWSObject are dynamically defined as needed when AWS XML responses are
+      # parsed.
+      #
+      # Later attempts to load objects instantiated from these classes cause a
+      # problem for YAML, because it knows nothing of classes that were
+      # dynamically defined by a separate process.
+      #
+      def AWSObject.yaml_load(io)
+      	io.each do |line|
+    
+      	  # File data is external, so it's deemed unsafe when $SAFE > 0, which
+      	  # is the case with mod_ruby, for example, where $SAFE == 1.
+      	  #
+      	  # YAML data isn't eval'ed or anything dangerous like that, so we
+      	  # consider it safe to untaint it. If we don't, mod_ruby will complain
+      	  # when Module#const_defined? is invoked a few lines down from here.
+      	  #
+      	  line.untaint
+	  
+      	  m = line.match( /Amazon::AWS::AWSObject::([^ ]+)/ )
+      	  if m
+      	    cl_name = [ m[1] ]
+	  
+      	    # Module#const_defined? takes 2 parameters in Ruby 1.9.
+      	    #
+      	    cl_name << false if RUBY_VERSION >= '1.9.0'
+	  
+      	    unless AWSObject.const_defined?( *cl_name )
+      	      AWSObject.const_set( m[1], Class.new( AWSObject ) )
+      	    end
+	  
+      	  end
+      	end
+    
+      	io.rewind
+      	YAML.load( io )
+      end
+
+
+      def initialize(op=nil)
+      	# The name of this instance variable must never clash with the
+      	# uncamelised name of an Amazon tag.
+      	#
+      	# This is used to store the REXML::Text value of an element, which
+      	# exists only when the element contains no children.
+      	#
+      	@__val__ = nil
+      	@__op__ = op if op
+      end
+
+
+      def method_missing(method, *params)
+      	iv = '@' + method.id2name
+
+      	if instance_variables.include?( iv )
+
+      	  # Return the instance variable that matches the method called.
+      	  #
+      	  instance_variable_get( iv )
+      	elsif instance_variables.include?( iv.to_sym )
+
+      	  # Ruby 1.9 Object#instance_variables method returns Array of Symbol,
+      	  # not String.
+      	  #
+      	  instance_variable_get( iv.to_sym )
+      	elsif @__val__.respond_to?( method.id2name )
+
+      	  # If our value responds to the method in question, call the method
+      	  # on that.
+      	  #
+      	  @__val__.send( method.id2name )
+      	else
+      	  nil
+      	end
+            end
+            private :method_missing
+ 
+
+            def remove_val
+      	remove_instance_variable( :@__val__ )
+            end
+            private :remove_val
+
+
+            # Iterator method for cycling through an object's properties and values.
+            #
+            def each  # :yields: property, value
+      	self.properties.each do |iv|
+      	  yield iv, instance_variable_get( "@#{iv}" )
+      	end
+      end
+
+      alias :each_property :each
+
+
+      def inspect  # :nodoc:
+      	remove_val if instance_variable_defined?( :@__val__ ) && @__val__.nil?
+      	str = super
+      	str.sub( /@__val__=/, 'value=' ) if str
+      end
+
+
+      def to_s	# :nodoc:
+      	if instance_variable_defined?( :@__val__ )
+      	  return @__val__ if @__val__.is_a?( String )
+      	  remove_val
+      	end
+
+      	string = ''
+
+      	# Assemble the object's details.
+      	#
+      	each { |iv, value| string << "%s = %s\n" % [ iv, value ] }
+
+      	string
+      end
+
+      alias :to_str :to_s
+
+
+      def ==(other)  # :nodoc:
+	      @__val__.to_s == other
+      end
+
+
+      def =~(other)  # :nodoc:
+	      @__val__.to_s =~ other
+      end
+
+
+      # This alias makes the ability to determine an AWSObject's properties a
+      # little more intuitive. It's pretty much just an alias for the
+      # inherited <em>Object#instance_variables</em> method, with a little
+      # tidying.
+      #
+      def properties
+      	# Make sure we remove the leading @.
+      	#
+      	iv = instance_variables.collect { |v| v = v[1..-1] }
+      	iv.delete( '__val__' )
+      	iv
+      end
+
+
+      # Provide a shortcut down to the data likely to be of most interest.
+      # This method is experimental and may be removed.
+      #
+      def kernel  # :nodoc: 
+      	# E.g. Amazon::AWS::SellerListingLookup -> seller_listing_lookup
+      	#
+      	stub = Amazon.uncamelise( @__op__.class.to_s.sub( /^.+::/, '' ) )
+
+      	# E.g. seller_listing_response
+      	#
+      	level1 = stub + '_response'
+
+      	# E.g. seller_listing
+      	#
+      	level3 = stub.sub( /_[^_]+$/, '' )
+
+      	# E.g. seller_listings
+      	#
+      	level2 = level3 + 's'
+
+      	# E.g.
+      	# seller_listing_search_response[0].seller_listings[0].seller_listing
+      	#
+      	self.instance_variable_get( "@#{level1}" )[0].
+      	     instance_variable_get( "@#{level2}" )[0].
+      	     instance_variable_get( "@#{level3}" )
+      end
+
+
+      # Convert an AWSObject to a Hash.
+      #
+      def to_h
+      	hash = {}
+
+      	each do |iv, value|
+      	  if value.is_a? AWSObject
+      	    hash[iv] = value.to_h
+      	  elsif value.is_a?( AWSArray ) && value.size == 1
+      	    hash[iv] = value[0]
+      	  else
+      	    hash[iv] = value
+      	  end
+      	end
+
+      	hash
+      end
+
+
+      # Fake the appearance of an AWSObject as a hash. _key_ should be any
+      # attribute of the object and can be a String, Symbol or anything else
+      # that can be converted to a String with to_s.
+      #
+      def [](key)
+	      instance_variable_get( "@#{key}" )
+      end
+
+
+      # Recursively walk through an XML tree, starting from _node_. This is
+      # called internally and is not intended for user code.
+      #
+      def walk(node)  # :nodoc:
+    
+      	if node.instance_of?( REXML::Document )
+      	  walk( node.root )
+    
+      	elsif node.instance_of?( REXML::Element )
+      	  name = Amazon.uncamelise( node.name )
+    
+      	  cl_name = [ node.name ]
+
+      	  # Module#const_defined? takes 2 parameters in Ruby 1.9.
+      	  #
+      	  cl_name << false if RUBY_VERSION >= '1.9.0'
+
+      	  # Create a class for the new element type unless it already exists.
+      	  #
+      	  unless AWS::AWSObject.const_defined?( *cl_name )
+      	    cl = AWS::AWSObject.const_set( node.name, Class.new( AWSObject ) )
+
+      	    # Give it an accessor for @attrib.
+      	    #
+      	    cl.send( :attr_accessor, :attrib )
+      	  end
+    
+      	  # Instantiate an object in the newly created class.
+      	  #
+      	  obj = AWS::AWSObject.const_get( node.name ).new
+
+      	  sym_name = "@#{name}".to_sym
+    
+      	  if instance_variable_defined?( sym_name)
+          	    instance_variable_set( sym_name,
+          	      instance_variable_get( sym_name ) << obj )
+      	  else
+      	    instance_variable_set( sym_name, AWSArray.new( [ obj ] ) )
+      	  end
+    
+      	  if node.has_attributes?
+      	    obj.attrib = {}
+      	    node.attributes.each_pair do |a_name, a_value|
+      	      obj.attrib[a_name.downcase] =
+      		a_value.to_s.sub( /^#{a_name}=/, '' )
+      	    end
+      	  end
+
+      	  node.children.each { |child| obj.walk( child ) }
+    
+      	else # REXML::Text
+      	  @__val__ = node.to_s
+      	end
+      end
+
+
+      # For objects of class AWSObject::.*Image, fetch the image in question,
+      # optionally overlaying a discount icon for the percentage amount of
+      # _discount_ to the image.
+      #
+      def get(discount=nil)
+      	if self.class.to_s =~ /Image$/ && @url
+      	  url = URI.parse( @url[0] )
+      	  url.path.sub!( /(\.\d\d\._)/, "\\1PE#{discount}" ) if discount
+
+      	  # FIXME: All HTTP in Ruby/AWS should go through the same method.
+      	  #
+      	  Net::HTTP.start( url.host, url.port ) do |http|
+      	    http.get( url.path )
+      	  end.body
+
+      	else
+      	  nil
+      	end
+      end
+
+    end
+
+
+    # Everything we get back from AWS is transformed into an array. Many of
+    # these, however, have only one element, because the corresponding XML
+    # consists of a parent element containing only a single child element.
+    #
+    # This class consists solely to allow single element arrays to pass a
+    # method call down to their one element, thus obviating the need for lots
+    # of references to <tt>foo[0]</tt> in user code.
+    #
+    # For example, the following:
+    #
+    #  items = resp.item_search_response[0].items[0].item
+    #
+    # can be reduced to:
+    #
+    #  items = resp.item_search_response.items.item
+    #
+    class AWSArray < Array
+
+      def method_missing(method, *params)
+	      self.size == 1 ? self[0].send( method, *params ) : super
+      end
+      private :method_missing
+
+
+      # In the case of a single-element array, return the first element,
+      # converted to a String.
+      #
+      def to_s  # :nodoc:
+	      self.size == 1 ? self[0].to_s : super
+      end
+
+      alias :to_str :to_s
+
+
+      # In the case of a single-element array, return the first element,
+      # converted to an Integer.
+      #
+      def to_i  # :nodoc:
+	      self.size == 1 ? self[0].to_i : super
+      end
+
+
+      # In the case of a single-element array, compare the first element with
+      # _other_.
+      #
+      def ==(other)  # :nodoc:
+	      self.size == 1 ? self[0].to_s == other : super
+      end
+
+
+      # In the case of a single-element array, perform a pattern match on the
+      # first element against _other_.
+      #
+      def =~(other)  # :nodoc:
+	      self.size == 1 ? self[0].to_s =~ other : super
+      end
+
+    end
+
+ 
+    # This is the base class of all AWS operations.
+    #
+    class Operation
+
+      # These are the types of AWS operation currently implemented by Ruby/AWS.
+      #
+      OPERATIONS = %w[
+                    	BrowseNodeLookup      CustomerContentLookup   CustomerContentSearch
+                    	Help		      ItemLookup	      ItemSearch
+                    	ListLookup	      ListSearch	      MultipleOperation
+                    	SellerListingLookup   SellerListingSearch     SellerLookup
+                    	SimilarityLookup      TagLookup		      TransactionLookup
+                    	VehiclePartLookup     VehiclePartSearch	      VehicleSearch
+                    	CartAdd		      CartClear		      CartCreate
+                    	CartGet		      CartModify
+                     ]
+
+      attr_reader :kind
+      attr_accessor :params, :response_group
+
+      def initialize(parameters)
+
+      	op_kind = self.class.to_s.sub( /^.*::/, '' )
+
+      	raise "Bad operation: #{op_kind}" unless OPERATIONS.include?( op_kind )
+
+      	if ResponseGroup::DEFAULT.key?( op_kind )
+      	  response_group =
+      	    ResponseGroup.new( ResponseGroup::DEFAULT[op_kind] )
+      	else
+      	  response_group = nil
+      	end
+
+      	if op_kind =~ /^Cart/
+      	  @params = parameters
+      	else
+      	  @params = Hash.new { |hash, key| hash[key] = [] }
+      	  @response_group = Hash.new { |hash, key| hash[key] = [] }
+
+      	  unless op_kind == 'MultipleOperation'
+      	    @params[op_kind] = [ parameters ]
+      	    @response_group[op_kind] = [ response_group ]
+      	  end
+      	end
+
+      	@kind = op_kind
+      end
+
+
+      # Make sure we can still get to the old @response_group= writer method.
+      #
+      alias :response_group_orig= :response_group=
+
+      # If the user assigns to @response_group, we need to set this response
+      # group for any and all operations that may have been batched.
+      #
+      def response_group=(rg) # :nodoc:
+        @params.each_value do |op_arr|
+          op_arr.each do |op|
+            op['ResponseGroup'] = rg
+          end
+        end
+      end
+
+
+      # Group together operations of the same class in a batch request.
+      # _operations_ should be either an operation of the same class as *self*
+      # or an array of such operations.
+      #
+      # If you need to batch operations of different classes, use a
+      # MultipleOperation instead.
+      #
+      # Example:
+      #
+      #  is = ItemSearch.new( 'Books', { 'Title' => 'ruby programming' } )
+      #  is2 = ItemSearch.new( 'Music', { 'Artist' => 'stranglers' } )
+      #  is.response_group = ResponseGroup.new( :Small )
+      #  is2.response_group = ResponseGroup.new( :Tracks )
+      #  is.batch( is2 )
+      #
+      # Please see MultipleOperation.new for implementation details that also
+      # apply to batched operations.
+      #
+      def batch(*operations)
+
+	      operations.flatten.each do |op|
+
+      	  unless self.class == op.class
+      	    raise BatchError, "You can't batch operations of different classes. Use class MultipleOperation."
+      	  end
+
+      	  # Add the operation's single element array containing the parameter
+      	  # hash to the array.
+      	  #
+      	  @params[op.kind].concat( op.params[op.kind] )
+
+      	  # Add the operation's response group array to the array.
+      	  #
+      	  @response_group[op.kind].concat( op.response_group[op.kind] )
+      	end
+
+      end
+
+
+      # Return a hash of operation parameters and values, possibly converted to
+      # batch syntax, suitable for encoding in a query.
+      #
+      def query_parameters  # :nodoc:
+        query = {}
+
+        @params.each do |op_kind, ops|
+
+          # If we have only one type of operation and only one operation of
+	        # that type, return that one in non-batched syntax.
+          #
+          if @params.size == 1 && @params[op_kind].size == 1
+            return { 'Operation' => op_kind,
+          	   'ResponseGroup' => @response_group[op_kind][0] }.
+          	   merge( @params[op_kind][0] )
+          end
+
+          # Otherwise, use batch syntax.
+          #
+          ops.each_with_index do |op, op_index|
+
+            # Make sure we use a response group of some kind.
+            #
+            shared = '%s.%d.ResponseGroup' % [ op_kind, op_index + 1 ]
+            query[shared] = op['ResponseGroup'] ||
+          		  ResponseGroup::DEFAULT[op_kind]
+
+            # Add all of the parameters to the query hash.
+            #
+            op.each do |k, v|
+              shared = '%s.%d.%s' % [ op_kind, op_index + 1, k ]
+              query[shared] = v
+            end
+          end
+        end
+
+        # Add the operation list.
+        #
+        { 'Operation' => @params.keys.join( ',' ) }.merge( query )
+      end
+
+    end
+
+
+    # This class can be used to encapsulate multiple operations in a single
+    # operation for greater efficiency.
+    #
+    class MultipleOperation < Operation
+
+      # This allows you to take multiple Operation objects and encapsulate them
+      # to form a single object, which can then be used to send a single
+      # request to AWS. This allows for greater efficiency, reducing the number
+      # of requests sent to AWS.
+      #
+      # AWS currently imposes a limit of two operations when encapsulating
+      # operations in a multiple operation. Note, however, that one or both of
+      # these operations may be a batched operation. Combining two batched
+      # operations in this way makes it possible to send as many as four
+      # simple operations to AWS in a single MultipleOperation request.
+      #
+      # _operations_ is an array of objects subclassed from Operation, such as
+      # ItemSearch, ItemLookup, etc.
+      #
+      # Please note the following implementation details:
+      #
+      # - As mentioned above, Amazon currently imposes a limit of two
+      #   operations encapsulated in a MultipleOperation.
+      #
+      # - To use a different set of response groups for each encapsulated
+      #   operation, assign to each operation's @response_group attribute prior
+      #   to encapulation in a MultipleOperation.
+      #
+      # - To use the same set of response groups for all encapsulated
+      #   operations, you can directly assign to the @response_group attribute
+      #   of the MultipleOperation. This will propagate to the encapsulated
+      #   operations.
+      #
+      # - One or both operations may have multiple results pages available,
+      #   but only the first page will be returned by your requests. If you
+      #   need subsequent pages, you must perform the operations separately.
+      #   It is not possible to page through the results of a MultipleOperation
+      #   response.
+      #
+      # - In this implementation, an error in any of the constituent operations
+      #   will cause an exception to be thrown. If you don't want partial
+      #   success (i.e. the success of fewer than all of the operations) to be
+      #   treated as failure, you should perform the operations separately.
+      #
+      # - MultipleOperation is intended for encapsulation of objects from
+      #   different classes, e.g. an ItemSearch and an ItemLookup. If you just
+      #   want to batch operations of the same class, Operation#batch
+      #   provides an alternative.
+      #
+      #   In fact, if you create a MultipleOperation encapsulating objects of
+      #   the same class, Ruby/AWS will actually apply simple batch syntax to
+      #   your request, so it amounts to the same as using Operation#batch.
+      #
+      # - Although all of the encapsulated operations can be batched
+      #   operations, Amazon places a limit of two on the number of same-class
+      #   operations that can be carried out in any one request. This means
+      #   that you cannot encapsulate two batched requests from the same
+      #   class, so attempting, for example, four ItemLookup operations via
+      #   two batched ItemLookup operations will not work.
+      #
+      # Example:
+      #
+      #  is = ItemSearch.new( 'Books', { 'Title' => 'Ruby' } )
+      #  il = ItemLookup.new( 'ASIN', { 'ItemId' => 'B0013DZAYO',
+      #					'MerchantId' => 'Amazon' } )
+      #  is.response_group = ResponseGroup.new( :Large )
+      #  il.response_group = ResponseGroup.new( :Small )
+      #  mo = MultipleOperation.new( is, il )
+      # 
+      def initialize(*operations)
+
+      	# Start with an empty parameter hash.
+      	#
+      	super( {} )
+	
+      	# Start off with the first operation and duplicate the original's
+      	# parameters to avoid accidental in-place modification.
+      	#
+      	operations.flatten!
+      	@params = operations.shift.params.freeze.dup
+
+      	# Add subsequent operations' parameter hashes, protecting them
+      	# against accidental in-place modification.
+      	#
+      	operations.each do |op|
+      	  op.params.freeze.each do |op_kind, op_arr|
+      	    @params[op_kind].concat( op_arr )
+      	  end
+      	end
+
+      end
+      
+    end
+
+
+    # This class of operation aids in finding out about AWS operations and
+    # response groups.
+    #
+    class Help < Operation
+
+      # Return information on AWS operations and response groups.
+      #
+      # For operations, required and optional parameters are returned, along
+      # with information about which response groups the operation can use.
+      #
+      # For response groups, The list of operations that can use that group is
+      # returned, as well as the list of response tags returned by the group.
+      #
+      # _help_type_ is the type of object for which help is being sought, such
+      # as *Operation* or *ResponseGroup*. _about_ is the name of the
+      # operation or response group you need help with, and _parameters_ is an
+      # optional hash of parameters that further refine the request for help.
+      #
+      def initialize(help_type, about, parameters={})
+	      super( { 'HelpType' => help_type, 'About'    => about  }.merge( parameters ) )
+      end
+
+    end
+
+
+    # This is the class for the most common type of AWS look-up, an
+    # ItemSearch. This allows you to search for items that match a set of
+    # broad criteria. It returns items for sale by Amazon merchants and most
+    # types of seller.
+    #
+    class ItemSearch < Operation
+
+      # Not all search indices work in all locales. It is the user's
+      # responsibility to ensure that a given index is valid within a given
+      # locale.
+      #
+      # According to the AWS documentation:
+      #
+      # - *All* searches through all indices.
+      # - *Blended* combines Apparel, Automotive, Books, DVD, Electronics,
+      #   GourmetFood, Kitchen, Music, PCHardware, PetSupplies, Software,
+      #   SoftwareVideoGames, SportingGoods, Tools, Toys, VHS and VideoGames.
+      # - *Merchants* combines all search indices for a merchant given with
+      #   MerchantId.
+      # - *Music* combines the Classical, DigitalMusic, and MusicTracks
+      #   indices.
+      # - *Video* combines the DVD and VHS search indices.
+      #
+      SEARCH_INDICES = %w[
+	All
+	Apparel
+	Automotive
+	Baby
+	Beauty
+	Blended
+	Books
+	Classical
+	DigitalMusic
+	DVD
+	Electronics
+	ForeignBooks
+	GourmetFood
+	Grocery
+	HealthPersonalCare
+	Hobbies
+	HomeGarden
+	HomeImprovement
+	Industrial
+	Jewelry
+	KindleStore
+	Kitchen
+	Lighting
+	Magazines
+	Merchants
+	Miscellaneous
+	MP3Downloads
+	Music
+	MusicalInstruments
+	MusicTracks
+	OfficeProducts
+	OutdoorLiving
+	Outlet
+	PCHardware
+	PetSupplies
+	Photo
+	Shoes
+	SilverMerchants
+	Software
+	SoftwareVideoGames
+	SportingGoods
+	Tools
+	Toys
+	UnboxVideo
+	VHS
+	Video
+	VideoGames
+	Watches
+	Wireless
+	WirelessAccessories
+      ]
+
+
+      # Search AWS for items. _search_index_ must be one of _SEARCH_INDICES_
+      # and _parameters_ is an optional hash of parameters that further refine
+      # the scope of the search.
+      #
+      # Example:
+      #
+      #  is = ItemSearch.new( 'Books', { 'Title' => 'ruby programming' } )
+      #
+      # In the above example, we search for books with <b>Ruby Programming</b>
+      # in the title.
+      #
+      def initialize(search_index, parameters)
+      	unless SEARCH_INDICES.include? search_index.to_s
+      	  raise "Invalid search index: #{search_index}"
+      	end
+
+      	super( { 'SearchIndex' => search_index }.merge( parameters ) )
+      end
+
+    end
+
+
+    # This class of look-up deals with searching for *specific* items by some
+    # uniquely identifying attribute, such as the ASIN (*A*mazon *S*tandard
+    # *I*tem *N*umber).
+    #
+    class ItemLookup < Operation
+
+      # Look up a specific item in the AWS catalogue. _id_type_ is the type of
+      # identifier and  _parameters_ is a hash that identifies the item to be
+      # located and narrows the scope of the search.
+      #
+      # Example:
+      #
+      #  il = ItemLookup.new( 'ASIN', { 'ItemId' => 'B000AE4QEC'
+      #					'MerchantId' => 'Amazon' } )
+      #
+      # In the above example, we search for an item, based on its ASIN. The
+      # use of _MerchantId_ restricts the offers returned to those for sale
+      # by Amazon (as opposed to third-party sellers).
+      #
+      def initialize(id_type, parameters)
+	      super( { 'IdType' => id_type }.merge( parameters ) )
+      end
+
+    end
+
+
+    # Search for items for sale by a particular seller.
+    #
+    class SellerListingSearch < Operation
+
+      # Search for items for sale by a particular seller. _seller_id_ is the
+      # Amazon seller ID and _parameters_ is an optional hash of parameters
+      # that further refine the scope of the search.
+      #
+      # Example:
+      #
+      #  sls = SellerListingSearch.new( 'A33J388YD2MWJZ',
+      #					{ 'Keywords' => 'Killing Joke' } )
+      #
+      # In the above example, we search seller <b>A33J388YD2MWJ</b>'s listings
+      # for items with the keywords <b>Killing Joke</b>.
+      #
+      def initialize(seller_id, parameters)
+	      super( { 'SellerId' => seller_id }.merge( parameters ) )
+      end
+
+    end
+
+
+    # Return specified items in a seller's store.
+    #
+    class SellerListingLookup < ItemLookup
+
+      # Look up a specific item for sale by a specific seller. _id_type_ is
+      # the type of identifier and _parameters_ is a hash that identifies the
+      # item to be located and narrows the scope of the search.
+      #
+      # Example:
+      #
+      #  sll = SellerListingLookup.new( 'AP8U6Y3PYQ9VO', 'ASIN',
+      #					{ 'Id' => 'B0009RRRC8' } )
+      #
+      # In the above example, we search seller <b>AP8U6Y3PYQ9VO</b>'s listings
+      # to find items for sale with the ASIN <b>B0009RRRC8</b>.
+      #
+      def initialize(seller_id, id_type, parameters)
+	      super( id_type, { 'SellerId' => seller_id }.merge( parameters ) )
+      end
+
+    end
+
+
+    # Return information about a specific seller.
+    #
+    class SellerLookup < Operation
+
+      # Search for the details of a specific seller. _seller_id_ is the Amazon
+      # ID of the seller in question and _parameters_ is an optional hash of
+      # parameters that further refine the scope of the search.
+      #
+      # Example:
+      #
+      #  sl = SellerLookup.new( 'A3QFR0K2KCB7EG' )
+      #
+      # In the above example, we look up the details of the seller with ID
+      # <b>A3QFR0K2KCB7EG</b>.
+      #
+      def initialize(seller_id, parameters={})
+	      super( { 'SellerId' => seller_id }.merge( parameters ) )
+      end
+
+    end
+
+
+    # Obtain the information an Amazon customer has made public about
+    # themselves.
+    #
+    class CustomerContentLookup < Operation
+
+      # Search for public customer data. _customer_id_ is the unique ID
+      # identifying the customer on Amazon and _parameters_ is an optional
+      # hash of parameters that further refine the scope of the search.
+      #
+      # Example:
+      #
+      #  ccl = CustomerContentLookup.new( 'AJDWXANG1SYZP' )
+      #
+      # In the above example, we look up public data about the customer with
+      # the ID <b>AJDWXANG1SYZP</b>.
+      #
+      def initialize(customer_id, parameters={})
+	      super( { 'CustomerId' => customer_id }.merge( parameters ) )
+      end
+
+    end
+
+
+    # Retrieve basic Amazon customer data.
+    #
+    class CustomerContentSearch < Operation
+
+      # Retrieve customer information, using an e-mail address or name.
+      #
+      # If _customer_id_ contains an '@' sign, it is assumed to be an e-mail
+      # address. Otherwise, it is assumed to be the customer's name.
+      #
+      # Example:
+      #
+      #  ccs = CustomerContentSearch.new( 'ian@caliban.org' )
+      #
+      # In the above example, we look up customer information about
+      # <b>ian@caliban.org</b>. The *CustomerInfo* response group will return,
+      # amongst other things, a _customer_id_ property, which can then be
+      # plugged into CustomerContentLookup to retrieve more detailed customer
+      # information.
+      #
+      def initialize(customer_id)
+      	id = customer_id =~ /@/ ? 'Email' : 'Name'
+      	super( { id => customer_id } )
+      end
+
+    end
+
+
+    # Find wishlists, registry lists, etc. created by users and placed on
+    # Amazon. These are items that customers would like to receive as
+    # presnets.
+    #
+    class ListSearch < Operation
+
+      # Search for Amazon lists. _list_type_ is the type of list to search for
+      # and _parameters_ is an optional hash of parameters that narrow the
+      # scope of the search.
+      #
+      # Example:
+      #
+      #  ls = ListSearch.new( 'WishList', { 'Name' => 'Peter Duff' }
+      #
+      # In the above example, we retrieve the wishlist for the Amazon user,
+      # <b>Peter Duff</b>.
+      #
+      def initialize(list_type, parameters)
+	      super( { 'ListType' => list_type }.merge( parameters ) )
+      end
+
+    end
+
+
+    # Find the details of specific wishlists, registries, etc.
+    #
+    class ListLookup < Operation
+
+      # Look up and return details about a specific list. _list_id_ is the
+      # Amazon list ID, _list_type_ is the type of list and _parameters_ is an
+      # optional hash of parameters that narrow the scope of the search.
+      #
+      # Example:
+      #
+      #  ll = ListLookup.new( '3P722DU4KUPCP', 'Listmania' )
+      #
+      # In the above example, a *Listmania* list with the ID
+      # <b>3P722DU4KUPCP</b> is retrieved from AWS.
+      #
+      def initialize(list_id, list_type, parameters={})
+	      super( { 'ListId'   => list_id,
+	         'ListType' => list_type
+	       }.merge( parameters ) )
+      end
+
+    end
+
+
+    # Amazon use browse nodes as a means of organising the millions of items
+    # in their inventory. An example might be *Carving Knives*. Looking up a
+    # browse node enables you to determine that group's ancestors and
+    # descendants.
+    #
+    class BrowseNodeLookup < Operation
+
+      # Look up and return the details of an Amazon browse node. _node_ is the
+      # browse node to look up and _parameters_ is an optional hash of
+      # parameters that further refine the scope of the search. _parameters_
+      # is currently unused.
+      #
+      # Example:
+      #
+      #  bnl = BrowseNodeLookup.new( '11232', {} )
+      #
+      # In the above example, we look up the browse node with the ID
+      # <b>11232</b>. This is the <b>Social Sciences</b> browse node.
+      #
+      def initialize(node, parameters={})
+	      super( { 'BrowseNodeId' => node }.merge( parameters ) )
+      end
+
+    end
+
+
+    # Similarity look-up is for items similar to others.
+    #
+    class SimilarityLookup < Operation
+
+      # Look up items similar to _asin_, which can be a single item or an
+      # array. _parameters_ is an optional hash of parameters that further
+      # refine the scope of the search.
+      #
+      # Example:
+      #
+      #  sl = SimilarityLookup.new( 'B000051WBE' )
+      #
+      # In the above example, we search for items similar to the one with ASIN
+      # <b>B000051WBE</b>.
+      #
+      def initialize(asin, parameters={})
+	      super( { 'ItemId' => asin.to_a.join( ',' ) }.merge( parameters ) )
+      end
+
+    end
+
+
+    # Search for entities based on user-defined tags. A tag is a descriptive
+    # word that a customer uses to label entities on Amazon's Web site.
+    # Entities can be items for sale, Listmania lists, guides, etc.
+    #
+    class TagLookup < Operation
+
+      # Look up entities based on user-defined tags. _tag_name_ is the tag to
+      # search on and _parameters_ is an optional hash of parameters that
+      # further refine the scope of the search.
+      #
+      # Example:
+      #
+      #  tl = TagLookup.new( 'Awful' )
+      #
+      # In the example above, we search for entities tagged by users with the
+      # word *Awful*.
+      #
+      def initialize(tag_name, parameters={})
+	      super( { 'TagName' => tag_name }.merge( parameters ) )
+      end
+
+    end
+
+
+    # Search for information on previously completed purchases.
+    #
+    class TransactionLookup < Operation
+
+      # Return information on an already completed purchase. _transaction_id_
+      # is actually the order number that is created when you place an order
+      # on Amazon.
+      #
+      # Example:
+      #
+      #  tl = TransactionLookup.new( '103-5663398-5028241' )
+      #
+      # In the above example, we retrieve the details of order number
+      # <b>103-5663398-5028241</b>.
+      #
+      def initialize(transaction_id)
+	      super( { 'TransactionId' => transaction_id } )
+      end
+
+    end
+
+
+    # Look up individual vehicle parts.
+    #
+    class VehiclePartLookup < Operation
+
+      # Look up a particular vehicle part. _item_id_ is the ASIN of the part
+      # in question and _parameters_ is an optional hash of parameters that
+      # further refine the scope of the search.
+      #
+      # Although the _item_id_ alone is enough to locate the part, providing
+      # _parameters_ can be useful in determining whether the part looked up
+      # is a fit for a particular vehicle type, as with the *VehiclePartFit*
+      # response group.
+      # 
+      # Example:
+      #
+      #  vpl = VehiclePartLookup.new( 'B000C1ZLI8',
+      #				      { 'Year' => 2008,
+      #				        'MakeId' => 73,
+      #				        'ModelId' => 6039,
+      #				        'TrimId' => 20 } )
+      #
+      #	Here, we search for a <b>2008</b> model *Audi* <b>R8</b> with *Base*
+      #	trim. The required Ids can be found using VehiclePartSearch.
+      #
+      def initialize(item_id, parameters={})
+	      super( { 'ItemId' => item_id }.merge( parameters ) )
+      end
+
+    end
+
+
+    # Search for parts for a given vehicle.
+    #
+    class VehiclePartSearch < Operation
+
+      # Find parts for a given _year_, _make_id_ and _model_id_ of vehicle.
+      # _parameters_ is an optional hash of parameters that further refine the
+      # scope of the search.
+      #
+      # Example:
+      #
+      #  vps = VehiclePartSearch.new( 2008, 73, 6039,
+      #				      { 'TrimId' => 20,
+      #				        'EngineId' => 8914 } )
+      #
+      # In this example, we look for parts that will fit a <b>2008</b> model
+      # *Audi* <b>R8</b> with *Base* trim and a <b>4.2L V8 Gas DOHC
+      # Distributorless Naturally Aspirated Bosch Motronic Electronic FI
+      # MFI</b> engine.
+      #
+      # Note that pagination of VehiclePartSearch results is not currently
+      # supported.
+      #
+      # Use VehicleSearch to learn the MakeId and ModelId of the vehicle in
+      # which you are interested.
+      #
+      def initialize(year, make_id, model_id, parameters={})
+	      super( { 'Year'	   => year,
+    		 'MakeId'  => make_id,
+    		 'ModelId' => model_id }.merge( parameters ) )
+      end
+
+    end
+
+
+    # Search for vehicles.
+    #
+    class VehicleSearch < Operation
+
+      # Search for vehicles, based on one or more of the following
+      # _parameters_: Year, MakeId, ModelId and TrimId.
+      #
+      # This method is best used iteratively. For example, first search on
+      # year with a response group of *VehicleMakes* to return all makes for
+      # that year.
+      #
+      # Next, search on year and make with a response group of *VehicleModels*
+      # to find all models for that year and make.
+      #
+      # Then, search on year, make and model with a response group of
+      # *VehicleTrims* to find all trim packages for that year, make and model.
+      #
+      # Finally, if required, search on year, make, model and trim package
+      # with a response group of *VehicleOptions* to find all vehicle options
+      # for that year, make, model and trim package.
+      #
+      # Example:
+      #
+      #  vs = VehicleSearch.new( { 'Year' => 2008,
+      #				   'MakeId' => 20,
+      #				   'ModelId' => 6039,
+      #				   'TrimId' => 20 } )
+      #
+      # In this example, we search for <b>2008 Audi R8</b> vehicles with a
+      # *Base* trim package. Used with the *VehicleOptions* response group,
+      # a list of vehicle options would be returned.
+      #
+      def initialize(parameters={})
+	      super
+      end
+
+    end
+
+    # Response groups determine which data pertaining to the item(s) being
+    # sought is returned. They strongly influence the amount of data returned,
+    # so you should always use the smallest response group(s) containing the
+    # data of interest to you, to avoid masses of unnecessary data being
+    # returned.
+    #
+    class ResponseGroup
+
+      # The default type of response group to use with each type of operation.
+      #
+      DEFAULT = { 'BrowseNodeLookup'	  => [ :BrowseNodeInfo, :TopSellers ],
+		  'CustomerContentLookup' => [ :CustomerInfo, :CustomerLists ],
+		  'CustomerContentSearch' => :CustomerInfo,
+		  'Help'		  => :Help,
+		  'ItemLookup'		  => :Large,
+		  'ItemSearch'		  => :Large,
+		  'ListLookup'		  => [ :ListInfo, :Small ],
+		  'ListSearch'		  => :ListInfo,
+		  'SellerListingLookup'	  => :SellerListing,
+		  'SellerListingSearch'	  => :SellerListing,
+		  'SellerLookup'	  => :Seller,
+		  'SimilarityLookup'	  => :Large,
+		  'TagLookup'		  => [ :Tags, :TagsSummary ],
+		  'TransactionLookup'	  => :TransactionDetails,
+		  'VehiclePartLookup'	  => :VehiclePartFit,
+		  'VehiclePartSearch'	  => :VehicleParts,
+		  'VehicleSearch'	  => :VehicleMakes
+      }
+
+      # Define a set of one or more response groups to be applied to items
+      # retrieved by an AWS operation.
+      #
+      # Example:
+      #
+      #  rg = ResponseGroup.new( 'Medium', 'Offers', 'Reviews' )
+      #
+      def initialize(*rg)
+	      @list = rg.join( ',' )
+      end
+
+
+      # We need a form we can interpolate into query strings.
+      #
+      def to_s	# :nodoc:
+	      @list
+      end
+
+    end
+
+
+    # All dynamically generated exceptions occur within this namespace.
+    #
+    module Error
+
+      # The base exception class for errors that result from AWS operations.
+      # Classes for these are dynamically generated as subclasses of this one.
+      #
+      class AWSError < AmazonError; end
+
+      def Error.exception(xml)
+      	err_class = xml.elements['Code'].text.sub( /^AWS.*\./, '' )
+      	err_msg = xml.elements['Message'].text
+
+      	# Dynamically define a new exception class for this class of error,
+      	# unless it already exists.
+      	#
+      	# Note that Ruby 1.9's Module.const_defined? needs a second parameter
+      	# of *false*, or it will also search AWSError's ancestors.
+      	#
+      	cd_params = [ err_class ]
+      	cd_params << false if RUBY_VERSION >= '1.9.0'
+
+      	unless Amazon::AWS::Error.const_defined?( *cd_params )
+      	  Amazon::AWS::Error.const_set( err_class, Class.new( AWSError ) )
+      	end
+
+      	# Generate and return a new exception from the relevant class.
+      	#
+      	Amazon::AWS::Error.const_get( err_class ).new( err_msg )
+      end
+
+    end
+
+
+    # Create a shorthand module method for each of the AWS operations. These
+    # can be used to create less verbose code at the expense of flexibility.
+    #
+    # For example, we might normally write the following code:
+    #
+    #  is = ItemSearch.new( 'Books', { 'Title' => 'Ruby' } )
+    #  rg = ResponseGroup.new( 'Large' )
+    #  req = Request.new
+    #  response = req.search( is, rg )
+    #
+    # but we could instead use ItemSearch's associated module method as
+    # follows:
+    #
+    #  response = Amazon::AWS.item_search( 'Books', { 'Title' => 'Ruby' } )
+    #
+    # Note that these equivalent module methods all attempt to use the *Large*
+    # response group, which may or may not work. If an
+    # Amazon::AWS::Error::InvalidResponseGroup is raised, we will scan the
+    # text of the error message returned by AWS to try to glean a valid
+    # response group and then retry the operation using that instead.
+
+
+    # Obtain a list of all subclasses of the Operation class.
+    #
+    classes = ObjectSpace.enum_for( :each_object, class << Operation; self; end ).to_a
+
+    classes.each do |cl|
+      # Convert class name to Ruby case, e.g. ItemSearch => item_search.
+      #
+      class_name = cl.to_s.sub( /^.+::/, '' )
+      uncamelised_name = Amazon.uncamelise( class_name )
+
+      # Define the module method counterpart of each operation.
+      #
+      module_eval %Q(
+      	def AWS.#{uncamelised_name}(*params)
+      	  # Instantiate an object of the desired operational class.
+      	  #
+      	  op = #{cl.to_s}.new( *params )
+
+      	  # Attempt a search for the given operation using its default
+      	  # response group types.
+      	  #
+      	  results = Search::Request.new.search( op )
+      	  yield results if block_given?
+      	  return results
+
+      	end
+      )
+    end
+
+  end
+
+end