rails 4.1.16 → 4.2.0.beta1

data/guides/source/active_record_postgresql.md

@@ -0,0 +1,437 @@
+Active Record and PostgreSQL
+============================
+
+This guide covers PostgreSQL specific usage of Active Record.
+
+After reading this guide, you will know:
+
+* How to use PostgreSQL's datatypes.
+* How to use UUID primary keys.
+* How to implement full text search with PostgreSQL.
+* How to back your Active Record models with database views.
+
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+In order to use the PostgreSQL adapter you need to have at least version 8.2
+installed. Older versions are not supported.
+
+To get started with PostgreSQL have a look at the
+[configuring Rails guide](configuring.html#configuring-a-postgresql-database).
+It describes how to properly setup Active Record for PostgreSQL.
+
+Datatypes
+---------
+
+PostgreSQL offers a number of specific datatypes. Following is a list of types,
+that are supported by the PostgreSQL adapter.
+
+### Bytea
+
+* [type definition](http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.3/static/datatype-binary.html)
+* [functions and operators](http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.3/static/functions-binarystring.html)
+
+```ruby
+# db/migrate/20140207133952_create_documents.rb
+create_table :documents do |t|
+  t.binary 'payload'
+end
+
+# app/models/document.rb
+class Document < ActiveRecord::Base
+end
+
+# Usage
+data = File.read(Rails.root + "tmp/output.pdf")
+Document.create payload: data
+```
+
+### Array
+
+* [type definition](http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.3/static/arrays.html)
+* [functions and operators](http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.3/static/functions-array.html)
+
+```ruby
+# db/migrate/20140207133952_create_books.rb
+create_table :books do |t|
+  t.string 'title'
+  t.string 'tags', array: true
+  t.integer 'ratings', array: true
+end
+add_index :books, :tags, using: 'gin'
+add_index :books, :ratings, using: 'gin'
+
+# app/models/book.rb
+class Book < ActiveRecord::Base
+end
+
+# Usage
+Book.create title: "Brave New World",
+            tags: ["fantasy", "fiction"],
+            ratings: [4, 5]
+
+## Books for a single tag
+Book.where("'fantasy' = ANY (tags)")
+
+## Books for multiple tags
+Book.where("tags @> ARRAY[?]::varchar[]", ["fantasy", "fiction"])
+
+## Books with 3 or more ratings
+Book.where("array_length(ratings, 1) >= 3")
+```
+
+### Hstore
+
+* [type definition](http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.3/static/hstore.html)
+
+```ruby
+# db/migrate/20131009135255_create_profiles.rb
+ActiveRecord::Schema.define do
+  create_table :profiles do |t|
+    t.hstore 'settings'
+  end
+end
+
+# app/models/profile.rb
+class Profile < ActiveRecord::Base
+end
+
+# Usage
+Profile.create(settings: { "color" => "blue", "resolution" => "800x600" })
+
+profile = Profile.first
+profile.settings # => {"color"=>"blue", "resolution"=>"800x600"}
+
+profile.settings = {"color" => "yellow", "resolution" => "1280x1024"}
+profile.save!
+
+## you need to call _will_change! if you are editing the store in place
+profile.settings["color"] = "green"
+profile.settings_will_change!
+profile.save!
+```
+
+### JSON
+
+* [type definition](http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.3/static/datatype-json.html)
+* [functions and operators](http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.3/static/functions-json.html)
+
+```ruby
+# db/migrate/20131220144913_create_events.rb
+create_table :events do |t|
+  t.json 'payload'
+end
+
+# app/models/event.rb
+class Event < ActiveRecord::Base
+end
+
+# Usage
+Event.create(payload: { kind: "user_renamed", change: ["jack", "john"]})
+
+event = Event.first
+event.payload # => {"kind"=>"user_renamed", "change"=>["jack", "john"]}
+
+## Query based on JSON document
+Event.where("payload->'kind' = ?", "user_renamed")
+```
+
+### Range Types
+
+* [type definition](http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.3/static/rangetypes.html)
+* [functions and operators](http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.3/static/functions-range.html)
+
+This type is mapped to Ruby [`Range`](http://www.ruby-doc.org/core-2.1.1/Range.html) objects.
+
+```ruby
+# db/migrate/20130923065404_create_events.rb
+create_table :events do |t|
+  t.daterange 'duration'
+end
+
+# app/models/event.rb
+class Event < ActiveRecord::Base
+end
+
+# Usage
+Event.create(duration: Date.new(2014, 2, 11)..Date.new(2014, 2, 12))
+
+event = Event.first
+event.duration # => Tue, 11 Feb 2014...Thu, 13 Feb 2014
+
+## All Events on a given date
+Event.where("duration @> ?::date", Date.new(2014, 2, 12))
+
+## Working with range bounds
+event = Event.
+  select("lower(duration) AS starts_at").
+  select("upper(duration) AS ends_at").first
+
+event.starts_at # => Tue, 11 Feb 2014
+event.ends_at # => Thu, 13 Feb 2014
+```
+
+### Composite Types
+
+* [type definition](http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.3/static/rowtypes.html)
+
+Currently there is no special support for composite types. They are mapped to
+normal text columns:
+
+```sql
+CREATE TYPE full_address AS
+(
+  city VARCHAR(90),
+  street VARCHAR(90)
+);
+```
+
+```ruby
+# db/migrate/20140207133952_create_contacts.rb
+execute <<-SQL
+ CREATE TYPE full_address AS
+ (
+   city VARCHAR(90),
+   street VARCHAR(90)
+ );
+SQL
+create_table :contacts do |t|
+  t.column :address, :full_address
+end
+
+# app/models/contact.rb
+class Contact < ActiveRecord::Base
+end
+
+# Usage
+Contact.create address: "(Paris,Champs-Élysées)"
+contact = Contact.first
+contact.address # => "(Paris,Champs-Élysées)"
+contact.address = "(Paris,Rue Basse)"
+contact.save!
+```
+
+### Enumerated Types
+
+* [type definition](http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.3/static/datatype-enum.html)
+
+Currently there is no special support for enumerated types. They are mapped as
+normal text columns:
+
+```ruby
+# db/migrate/20131220144913_create_events.rb
+execute <<-SQL
+  CREATE TYPE article_status AS ENUM ('draft', 'published');
+SQL
+create_table :articles do |t|
+  t.column :status, :article_status
+end
+
+# app/models/article.rb
+class Article < ActiveRecord::Base
+end
+
+# Usage
+Article.create status: "draft"
+article = Article.first
+article.status # => "draft"
+
+article.status = "published"
+article.save!
+```
+
+### UUID
+
+* [type definition](http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.3/static/datatype-uuid.html)
+* [generator functions](http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.3/static/uuid-ossp.html)
+
+
+```ruby
+# db/migrate/20131220144913_create_revisions.rb
+create_table :revisions do |t|
+  t.column :identifier, :uuid
+end
+
+# app/models/revision.rb
+class Revision < ActiveRecord::Base
+end
+
+# Usage
+Revision.create identifier: "A0EEBC99-9C0B-4EF8-BB6D-6BB9BD380A11"
+
+revision = Revision.first
+revision.identifier # => "a0eebc99-9c0b-4ef8-bb6d-6bb9bd380a11"
+```
+
+### Bit String Types
+
+* [type definition](http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.3/static/datatype-bit.html)
+* [functions and operators](http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.3/static/functions-bitstring.html)
+
+```ruby
+# db/migrate/20131220144913_create_users.rb
+create_table :users, force: true do |t|
+  t.column :settings, "bit(8)"
+end
+
+# app/models/device.rb
+class User < ActiveRecord::Base
+end
+
+# Usage
+User.create settings: "01010011"
+user = User.first
+user.settings # => "(Paris,Champs-Élysées)"
+user.settings = "0xAF"
+user.settings # => 10101111
+user.save!
+```
+
+### Network Address Types
+
+* [type definition](http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.3/static/datatype-net-types.html)
+
+The types `inet` and `cidr` are mapped to Ruby
+[`IPAddr`](http://www.ruby-doc.org/stdlib-2.1.1/libdoc/ipaddr/rdoc/IPAddr.html)
+objects. The `macaddr` type is mapped to normal text.
+
+```ruby
+# db/migrate/20140508144913_create_devices.rb
+create_table(:devices, force: true) do |t|
+  t.inet 'ip'
+  t.cidr 'network'
+  t.macaddr 'address'
+end
+
+# app/models/device.rb
+class Device < ActiveRecord::Base
+end
+
+# Usage
+macbook = Device.create(ip: "192.168.1.12",
+                        network: "192.168.2.0/24",
+                        address: "32:01:16:6d:05:ef")
+
+macbook.ip
+# => #<IPAddr: IPv4:192.168.1.12/255.255.255.255>
+
+macbook.network
+# => #<IPAddr: IPv4:192.168.2.0/255.255.255.0>
+
+macbook.address
+# => "32:01:16:6d:05:ef"
+```
+
+### Geometric Types
+
+* [type definition](http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.3/static/datatype-geometric.html)
+
+All geometric types, with the exception of `points` are mapped to normal text.
+A point is casted to an array containing `x` and `y` coordinates.
+
+
+UUID Primary Keys
+-----------------
+
+NOTE: you need to enable the `uuid-ossp` extension to generate UUIDs.
+
+```ruby
+# db/migrate/20131220144913_create_devices.rb
+enable_extension 'uuid-ossp' unless extension_enabled?('uuid-ossp')
+create_table :devices, id: :uuid, default: 'uuid_generate_v4()' do |t|
+  t.string :kind
+end
+
+# app/models/device.rb
+class Device < ActiveRecord::Base
+end
+
+# Usage
+device = Device.create
+device.id # => "814865cd-5a1d-4771-9306-4268f188fe9e"
+```
+
+Full Text Search
+----------------
+
+```ruby
+# db/migrate/20131220144913_create_documents.rb
+create_table :documents do |t|
+  t.string 'title'
+  t.string 'body'
+end
+
+execute "CREATE INDEX documents_idx ON documents USING gin(to_tsvector('english', title || ' ' || body));"
+
+# app/models/document.rb
+class Document < ActiveRecord::Base
+end
+
+# Usage
+Document.create(title: "Cats and Dogs", body: "are nice!")
+
+## all documents matching 'cat & dog'
+Document.where("to_tsvector('english', title || ' ' || body) @@ to_tsquery(?)",
+                 "cat & dog")
+```
+
+Database Views
+--------------
+
+* [view creation](http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.3/static/sql-createview.html)
+
+Imagine you need to work with a legacy database containing the following table:
+
+```
+rails_pg_guide=# \d "TBL_ART"
+                                        Table "public.TBL_ART"
+   Column   |            Type             |                         Modifiers
+------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------
+ INT_ID     | integer                     | not null default nextval('"TBL_ART_INT_ID_seq"'::regclass)
+ STR_TITLE  | character varying           |
+ STR_STAT   | character varying           | default 'draft'::character varying
+ DT_PUBL_AT | timestamp without time zone |
+ BL_ARCH    | boolean                     | default false
+Indexes:
+    "TBL_ART_pkey" PRIMARY KEY, btree ("INT_ID")
+```
+
+This table does not follow the Rails conventions at all.
+Because simple PostgreSQL views are updateable by default,
+we can wrap it as follows:
+
+```ruby
+# db/migrate/20131220144913_create_articles_view.rb
+execute <<-SQL
+CREATE VIEW articles AS
+  SELECT "INT_ID" AS id,
+         "STR_TITLE" AS title,
+         "STR_STAT" AS status,
+         "DT_PUBL_AT" AS published_at,
+         "BL_ARCH" AS archived
+  FROM "TBL_ART"
+  WHERE "BL_ARCH" = 'f'
+  SQL
+
+# app/models/article.rb
+class Article < ActiveRecord::Base
+  self.primary_key = "id"
+  def archive!
+    update_attribute :archived, true
+  end
+end
+
+# Usage
+first = Article.create! title: "Winter is coming",
+                        status: "published",
+                        published_at: 1.year.ago
+second = Article.create! title: "Brace yourself",
+                         status: "draft",
+                         published_at: 1.month.ago
+
+Article.count # => 1
+first.archive!
+Article.count # => 2
+```
+
+NOTE: This application only cares about non-archived `Articles`. A view also
+allows for conditions so we can exclude the archived `Articles` directly.

data/guides/source/active_record_querying.md

@@ -93,9 +93,9 @@ The primary operation of `Model.find(options)` can be summarized as:
 
 Active Record provides several different ways of retrieving a single object.
 
-#### Using a Primary Key
+#### `find`
 
-Using `Model.find(primary_key)`, you can retrieve the object corresponding to the specified _primary key_ that matches any supplied options. For example:
+Using the `find` method, you can retrieve the object corresponding to the specified _primary key_ that matches any supplied options. For example:
 
 ```ruby
 # Find the client with primary key (id) 10.
@@ -109,119 +109,103 @@ The SQL equivalent of the above is:
 SELECT * FROM clients WHERE (clients.id = 10) LIMIT 1
 ```
 
-`Model.find(primary_key)` will raise an `ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound` exception if no matching record is found.
+The `find` method will raise an `ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound` exception if no matching record is found.
 
-#### `take`
-
-`Model.take` retrieves a record without any implicit ordering. For example:
+You can also use this method to query for multiple objects. Call the `find` method and pass in an array of primary keys. The return will be an array containing all of the matching records for the supplied _primary keys_. For example:
 
 ```ruby
-client = Client.take
-# => #<Client id: 1, first_name: "Lifo">
+# Find the clients with primary keys 1 and 10.
+client = Client.find([1, 10]) # Or even Client.find(1, 10)
+# => [#<Client id: 1, first_name: "Lifo">, #<Client id: 10, first_name: "Ryan">]
 ```
 
 The SQL equivalent of the above is:
 
 ```sql
-SELECT * FROM clients LIMIT 1
+SELECT * FROM clients WHERE (clients.id IN (1,10))
 ```
 
-`Model.take` returns `nil` if no record is found and no exception will be raised.
-
-TIP: The retrieved record may vary depending on the database engine.
+WARNING: The `find` method will raise an `ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound` exception unless a matching record is found for **all** of the supplied primary keys.
 
-#### `first`
+#### `take`
 
-`Model.first` finds the first record ordered by the primary key. For example:
+The `take` method retrieves a record without any implicit ordering. For example:
 
 ```ruby
-client = Client.first
+client = Client.take
 # => #<Client id: 1, first_name: "Lifo">
 ```
 
 The SQL equivalent of the above is:
 
 ```sql
-SELECT * FROM clients ORDER BY clients.id ASC LIMIT 1
+SELECT * FROM clients LIMIT 1
 ```
 
-`Model.first` returns `nil` if no matching record is found and no exception will be raised.
+The `take` method returns `nil` if no record is found and no exception will be raised.
 
-#### `last`
-
-`Model.last` finds the last record ordered by the primary key. For example:
+You can pass in a numerical argument to the `take` method to return up to that number of results. For example
 
 ```ruby
-client = Client.last
-# => #<Client id: 221, first_name: "Russel">
+client = Client.take(2)
+# => [
+  #<Client id: 1, first_name: "Lifo">,
+  #<Client id: 220, first_name: "Sara">
+]
 ```
 
 The SQL equivalent of the above is:
 
 ```sql
-SELECT * FROM clients ORDER BY clients.id DESC LIMIT 1
-```
-
-`Model.last` returns `nil` if no matching record is found and no exception will be raised.
-
-#### `find_by`
-
-`Model.find_by` finds the first record matching some conditions. For example:
-
-```ruby
-Client.find_by first_name: 'Lifo'
-# => #<Client id: 1, first_name: "Lifo">
-
-Client.find_by first_name: 'Jon'
-# => nil
+SELECT * FROM clients LIMIT 2
 ```
 
-It is equivalent to writing:
+The `take!` method behaves exactly like `take`, except that it will raise `ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound` if no matching record is found.
 
-```ruby
-Client.where(first_name: 'Lifo').take
-```
+TIP: The retrieved record may vary depending on the database engine.
 
-#### `take!`
+#### `first`
 
-`Model.take!` retrieves a record without any implicit ordering. For example:
+The `first` method finds the first record ordered by the primary key. For example:
 
 ```ruby
-client = Client.take!
+client = Client.first
 # => #<Client id: 1, first_name: "Lifo">
 ```
 
 The SQL equivalent of the above is:
 
 ```sql
-SELECT * FROM clients LIMIT 1
+SELECT * FROM clients ORDER BY clients.id ASC LIMIT 1
 ```
 
-`Model.take!` raises `ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound` if no matching record is found.
-
-#### `first!`
+The `first` method returns `nil` if no matching record is found and no exception will be raised.
 
-`Model.first!` finds the first record ordered by the primary key. For example:
+You can pass in a numerical argument to the `first` method to return up to that number of results. For example
 
 ```ruby
-client = Client.first!
-# => #<Client id: 1, first_name: "Lifo">
+client = Client.first(3)
+# => [
+  #<Client id: 1, first_name: "Lifo">,
+  #<Client id: 2, first_name: "Fifo">,
+  #<Client id: 3, first_name: "Filo">
+]
 ```
 
 The SQL equivalent of the above is:
 
 ```sql
-SELECT * FROM clients ORDER BY clients.id ASC LIMIT 1
+SELECT * FROM clients ORDER BY clients.id ASC LIMIT 3
 ```
 
-`Model.first!` raises `ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound` if no matching record is found.
+The `first!` method behaves exactly like `first`, except that it will raise `ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound` if no matching record is found.
 
-#### `last!`
+#### `last`
 
-`Model.last!` finds the last record ordered by the primary key. For example:
+The `last` method finds the last record ordered by the primary key. For example:
 
 ```ruby
-client = Client.last!
+client = Client.last
 # => #<Client id: 221, first_name: "Russel">
 ```
 
@@ -231,92 +215,56 @@ The SQL equivalent of the above is:
 SELECT * FROM clients ORDER BY clients.id DESC LIMIT 1
 ```
 
-`Model.last!` raises `ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound` if no matching record is found.
-
-#### `find_by!`
-
-`Model.find_by!` finds the first record matching some conditions. It raises `ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound` if no matching record is found. For example:
-
-```ruby
-Client.find_by! first_name: 'Lifo'
-# => #<Client id: 1, first_name: "Lifo">
-
-Client.find_by! first_name: 'Jon'
-# => ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound
-```
-
-It is equivalent to writing:
-
-```ruby
-Client.where(first_name: 'Lifo').take!
-```
-
-### Retrieving Multiple Objects
-
-#### Using Multiple Primary Keys
+The `last` method returns `nil` if no matching record is found and no exception will be raised.
 
-`Model.find(array_of_primary_key)` accepts an array of _primary keys_, returning an array containing all of the matching records for the supplied _primary keys_. For example:
+You can pass in a numerical argument to the `last` method to return up to that number of results. For example
 
 ```ruby
-# Find the clients with primary keys 1 and 10.
-client = Client.find([1, 10]) # Or even Client.find(1, 10)
-# => [#<Client id: 1, first_name: "Lifo">, #<Client id: 10, first_name: "Ryan">]
+client = Client.last(3)
+# => [
+  #<Client id: 219, first_name: "James">,
+  #<Client id: 220, first_name: "Sara">,
+  #<Client id: 221, first_name: "Russel">
+]
 ```
 
 The SQL equivalent of the above is:
 
 ```sql
-SELECT * FROM clients WHERE (clients.id IN (1,10))
+SELECT * FROM clients ORDER BY clients.id DESC LIMIT 3
 ```
 
-WARNING: `Model.find(array_of_primary_key)` will raise an `ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound` exception unless a matching record is found for **all** of the supplied primary keys.
+The `last!` method behaves exactly like `last`, except that it will raise `ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound` if no matching record is found.
 
-#### take
+#### `find_by`
 
-`Model.take(limit)` retrieves the first number of records specified by `limit` without any explicit ordering:
+The `find_by` method finds the first record matching some conditions. For example:
 
 ```ruby
-Client.take(2)
-# => [#<Client id: 1, first_name: "Lifo">,
-      #<Client id: 2, first_name: "Raf">]
-```
-
-The SQL equivalent of the above is:
+Client.find_by first_name: 'Lifo'
+# => #<Client id: 1, first_name: "Lifo">
 
-```sql
-SELECT * FROM clients LIMIT 2
+Client.find_by first_name: 'Jon'
+# => nil
 ```
 
-#### first
-
-`Model.first(limit)` finds the first number of records specified by `limit` ordered by primary key:
+It is equivalent to writing:
 
 ```ruby
-Client.first(2)
-# => [#<Client id: 1, first_name: "Lifo">,
-      #<Client id: 2, first_name: "Raf">]
-```
-
-The SQL equivalent of the above is:
-
-```sql
-SELECT * FROM clients ORDER BY id ASC LIMIT 2
+Client.where(first_name: 'Lifo').take
 ```
 
-#### last
-
-`Model.last(limit)` finds the number of records specified by `limit` ordered by primary key in descending order:
+The `find_by!` method behaves exactly like `find_by`, except that it will raise `ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound` if no matching record is found. For example:
 
 ```ruby
-Client.last(2)
-# => [#<Client id: 10, first_name: "Ryan">,
-      #<Client id: 9, first_name: "John">]
+Client.find_by! first_name: 'does not exist'
+# => ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound
 ```
 
-The SQL equivalent of the above is:
+This is equivalent to writing:
 
-```sql
-SELECT * FROM clients ORDER BY id DESC LIMIT 2
+```ruby
+Client.where(first_name: 'does not exist').take!
 ```
 
 ### Retrieving Multiple Objects in Batches
@@ -328,7 +276,7 @@ This may appear straightforward:
 ```ruby
 # This is very inefficient when the users table has thousands of rows.
 User.all.each do |user|
-  NewsLetter.weekly_deliver(user)
+  NewsMailer.weekly(user).deliver
 end
 ```
 
@@ -344,7 +292,15 @@ The `find_each` method retrieves a batch of records and then yields _each_ recor
 
 ```ruby
 User.find_each do |user|
-  NewsLetter.weekly_deliver(user)
+  NewsMailer.weekly(user).deliver
+end
+```
+
+To add conditions to a `find_each` operation you can chain other Active Record methods such as `where`:
+
+```ruby
+User.where(weekly_subscriber: true).find_each do |user|
+  NewsMailer.weekly(user).deliver
 end
 ```
 
@@ -360,7 +316,7 @@ The `:batch_size` option allows you to specify the number of records to be retri
 
 ```ruby
 User.find_each(batch_size: 5000) do |user|
-  NewsLetter.weekly_deliver(user)
+  NewsMailer.weekly(user).deliver
 end
 ```
 
@@ -372,7 +328,7 @@ For example, to send newsletters only to users with the primary key starting fro
 
 ```ruby
 User.find_each(start: 2000, batch_size: 5000) do |user|
-  NewsLetter.weekly_deliver(user)
+  NewsMailer.weekly(user).deliver
 end
 ```
 
@@ -472,8 +428,8 @@ Client.where('locked' => true)
 In the case of a belongs_to relationship, an association key can be used to specify the model if an Active Record object is used as the value. This method works with polymorphic relationships as well.
 
 ```ruby
-Post.where(author: author)
-Author.joins(:posts).where(posts: { author: author })
+Article.where(author: author)
+Author.joins(:articles).where(articles: { author: author })
 ```
 
 NOTE: The values cannot be symbols. For example, you cannot do `Client.where(status: :active)`.
@@ -511,7 +467,7 @@ SELECT * FROM clients WHERE (clients.orders_count IN (1,3,5))
 `NOT` SQL queries can be built by `where.not`.
 
 ```ruby
-Post.where.not(author: author)
+Article.where.not(author: author)
 ```
 
 In other words, this query can be generated by calling `where` with no argument, then immediately chain with `not` passing `where` conditions.
@@ -659,6 +615,23 @@ FROM orders
 GROUP BY date(created_at)
 ```
 
+### Total of grouped items
+
+To get the total of grouped items on a single query call `count` after the `group`.
+
+```ruby
+Order.group(:status).count
+# => { 'awaiting_approval' => 7, 'paid' => 12 }
+```
+
+The SQL that would be executed would be something like this:
+
+```sql
+SELECT COUNT (*) AS count_all, status AS status
+FROM "orders"
+GROUP BY status
+```
+
 Having
 ------
 
@@ -690,32 +663,32 @@ Overriding Conditions
 You can specify certain conditions to be removed using the `unscope` method. For example:
 
 ```ruby
-Post.where('id > 10').limit(20).order('id asc').except(:order)
+Article.where('id > 10').limit(20).order('id asc').unscope(:order)
 ```
 
 The SQL that would be executed:
 
 ```sql
-SELECT * FROM posts WHERE id > 10 LIMIT 20
+SELECT * FROM articles WHERE id > 10 LIMIT 20
 
 # Original query without `unscope`
-SELECT * FROM posts WHERE id > 10 ORDER BY id asc LIMIT 20
+SELECT * FROM articles WHERE id > 10 ORDER BY id asc LIMIT 20
 
 ```
 
-You can additionally unscope specific where clauses. For example:
+You can also unscope specific `where` clauses. For example:
 
 ```ruby
-Post.where(id: 10, trashed: false).unscope(where: :id)
-# SELECT "posts".* FROM "posts" WHERE trashed = 0
+Article.where(id: 10, trashed: false).unscope(where: :id)
+# SELECT "articles".* FROM "articles" WHERE trashed = 0
 ```
 
 A relation which has used `unscope` will affect any relation it is
 merged in to:
 
 ```ruby
-Post.order('id asc').merge(Post.unscope(:order))
-# SELECT "posts".* FROM "posts"
+Article.order('id asc').merge(Article.unscope(:order))
+# SELECT "articles".* FROM "articles"
 ```
 
 ### `only`
@@ -723,16 +696,16 @@ Post.order('id asc').merge(Post.unscope(:order))
 You can also override conditions using the `only` method. For example:
 
 ```ruby
-Post.where('id > 10').limit(20).order('id desc').only(:order, :where)
+Article.where('id > 10').limit(20).order('id desc').only(:order, :where)
 ```
 
 The SQL that would be executed:
 
 ```sql
-SELECT * FROM posts WHERE id > 10 ORDER BY id DESC
+SELECT * FROM articles WHERE id > 10 ORDER BY id DESC
 
 # Original query without `only`
-SELECT "posts".* FROM "posts" WHERE (id > 10) ORDER BY id desc LIMIT 20
+SELECT "articles".* FROM "articles" WHERE (id > 10) ORDER BY id desc LIMIT 20
 
 ```
 
@@ -741,27 +714,25 @@ SELECT "posts".* FROM "posts" WHERE (id > 10) ORDER BY id desc LIMIT 20
 The `reorder` method overrides the default scope order. For example:
 
 ```ruby
-class Post < ActiveRecord::Base
-  ..
-  ..
+class Article < ActiveRecord::Base
   has_many :comments, -> { order('posted_at DESC') }
 end
 
-Post.find(10).comments.reorder('name')
+Article.find(10).comments.reorder('name')
 ```
 
 The SQL that would be executed:
 
 ```sql
-SELECT * FROM posts WHERE id = 10
-SELECT * FROM comments WHERE post_id = 10 ORDER BY name
+SELECT * FROM articles WHERE id = 10
+SELECT * FROM comments WHERE article_id = 10 ORDER BY name
 ```
 
 In case the `reorder` clause is not used, the SQL executed would be:
 
 ```sql
-SELECT * FROM posts WHERE id = 10
-SELECT * FROM comments WHERE post_id = 10 ORDER BY posted_at DESC
+SELECT * FROM articles WHERE id = 10
+SELECT * FROM comments WHERE article_id = 10 ORDER BY posted_at DESC
 ```
 
 ### `reverse_order`
@@ -797,25 +768,25 @@ This method accepts **no** arguments.
 The `rewhere` method overrides an existing, named where condition. For example:
 
 ```ruby
-Post.where(trashed: true).rewhere(trashed: false)
+Article.where(trashed: true).rewhere(trashed: false)
 ```
 
 The SQL that would be executed:
 
 ```sql
-SELECT * FROM posts WHERE `trashed` = 0
+SELECT * FROM articles WHERE `trashed` = 0
 ```
 
 In case the `rewhere` clause is not used,
 
 ```ruby
-Post.where(trashed: true).where(trashed: false)
+Article.where(trashed: true).where(trashed: false)
 ```
 
 the SQL executed would be:
 
 ```sql
-SELECT * FROM posts WHERE `trashed` = 1 AND `trashed` = 0
+SELECT * FROM articles WHERE `trashed` = 1 AND `trashed` = 0
 ```
 
 Null Relation
@@ -824,21 +795,21 @@ Null Relation
 The `none` method returns a chainable relation with no records. Any subsequent conditions chained to the returned relation will continue generating empty relations. This is useful in scenarios where you need a chainable response to a method or a scope that could return zero results.
 
 ```ruby
-Post.none # returns an empty Relation and fires no queries.
+Article.none # returns an empty Relation and fires no queries.
 ```
 
 ```ruby
-# The visible_posts method below is expected to return a Relation.
-@posts = current_user.visible_posts.where(name: params[:name])
+# The visible_articles method below is expected to return a Relation.
+@articles = current_user.visible_articles.where(name: params[:name])
 
-def visible_posts
+def visible_articles
   case role
   when 'Country Manager'
-    Post.where(country: country)
+    Article.where(country: country)
   when 'Reviewer'
-    Post.published
+    Article.published
   when 'Bad User'
-    Post.none # => returning [] or nil breaks the caller code in this case
+    Article.none # => returning [] or nil breaks the caller code in this case
   end
 end
 ```
@@ -963,23 +934,23 @@ SELECT clients.* FROM clients LEFT OUTER JOIN addresses ON addresses.client_id =
 
 WARNING: This method only works with `INNER JOIN`.
 
-Active Record lets you use the names of the [associations](association_basics.html) defined on the model as a shortcut for specifying `JOIN` clause for those associations when using the `joins` method.
+Active Record lets you use the names of the [associations](association_basics.html) defined on the model as a shortcut for specifying `JOIN` clauses for those associations when using the `joins` method.
 
-For example, consider the following `Category`, `Post`, `Comment`, `Guest` and `Tag` models:
+For example, consider the following `Category`, `Article`, `Comment`, `Guest` and `Tag` models:
 
 ```ruby
 class Category < ActiveRecord::Base
-  has_many :posts
+  has_many :articles
 end
 
-class Post < ActiveRecord::Base
+class Article < ActiveRecord::Base
   belongs_to :category
   has_many :comments
   has_many :tags
 end
 
 class Comment < ActiveRecord::Base
-  belongs_to :post
+  belongs_to :article
   has_one :guest
 end
 
@@ -988,7 +959,7 @@ class Guest < ActiveRecord::Base
 end
 
 class Tag < ActiveRecord::Base
-  belongs_to :post
+  belongs_to :article
 end
 ```
 
@@ -997,64 +968,64 @@ Now all of the following will produce the expected join queries using `INNER JOI
 #### Joining a Single Association
 
 ```ruby
-Category.joins(:posts)
+Category.joins(:articles)
 ```
 
 This produces:
 
 ```sql
 SELECT categories.* FROM categories
-  INNER JOIN posts ON posts.category_id = categories.id
+  INNER JOIN articles ON articles.category_id = categories.id
 ```
 
-Or, in English: "return a Category object for all categories with posts". Note that you will see duplicate categories if more than one post has the same category. If you want unique categories, you can use `Category.joins(:posts).uniq`.
+Or, in English: "return a Category object for all categories with articles". Note that you will see duplicate categories if more than one article has the same category. If you want unique categories, you can use `Category.joins(:articles).uniq`.
 
 #### Joining Multiple Associations
 
 ```ruby
-Post.joins(:category, :comments)
+Article.joins(:category, :comments)
 ```
 
 This produces:
 
 ```sql
-SELECT posts.* FROM posts
-  INNER JOIN categories ON posts.category_id = categories.id
-  INNER JOIN comments ON comments.post_id = posts.id
+SELECT articles.* FROM articles
+  INNER JOIN categories ON articles.category_id = categories.id
+  INNER JOIN comments ON comments.article_id = articles.id
 ```
 
-Or, in English: "return all posts that have a category and at least one comment". Note again that posts with multiple comments will show up multiple times.
+Or, in English: "return all articles that have a category and at least one comment". Note again that articles with multiple comments will show up multiple times.
 
 #### Joining Nested Associations (Single Level)
 
 ```ruby
-Post.joins(comments: :guest)
+Article.joins(comments: :guest)
 ```
 
 This produces:
 
 ```sql
-SELECT posts.* FROM posts
-  INNER JOIN comments ON comments.post_id = posts.id
+SELECT articles.* FROM articles
+  INNER JOIN comments ON comments.article_id = articles.id
   INNER JOIN guests ON guests.comment_id = comments.id
 ```
 
-Or, in English: "return all posts that have a comment made by a guest."
+Or, in English: "return all articles that have a comment made by a guest."
 
 #### Joining Nested Associations (Multiple Level)
 
 ```ruby
-Category.joins(posts: [{ comments: :guest }, :tags])
+Category.joins(articles: [{ comments: :guest }, :tags])
 ```
 
 This produces:
 
 ```sql
 SELECT categories.* FROM categories
-  INNER JOIN posts ON posts.category_id = categories.id
-  INNER JOIN comments ON comments.post_id = posts.id
+  INNER JOIN articles ON articles.category_id = categories.id
+  INNER JOIN comments ON comments.article_id = articles.id
   INNER JOIN guests ON guests.comment_id = comments.id
-  INNER JOIN tags ON tags.post_id = posts.id
+  INNER JOIN tags ON tags.article_id = articles.id
 ```
 
 ### Specifying Conditions on the Joined Tables
@@ -1123,18 +1094,18 @@ Active Record lets you eager load any number of associations with a single `Mode
 #### Array of Multiple Associations
 
 ```ruby
-Post.includes(:category, :comments)
+Article.includes(:category, :comments)
 ```
 
-This loads all the posts and the associated category and comments for each post.
+This loads all the articles and the associated category and comments for each article.
 
 #### Nested Associations Hash
 
 ```ruby
-Category.includes(posts: [{ comments: :guest }, :tags]).find(1)
+Category.includes(articles: [{ comments: :guest }, :tags]).find(1)
 ```
 
-This will find the category with id 1 and eager load all of the associated posts, the associated posts' tags and comments, and every comment's guest association.
+This will find the category with id 1 and eager load all of the associated articles, the associated articles' tags and comments, and every comment's guest association.
 
 ### Specifying Conditions on Eager Loaded Associations
 
@@ -1143,29 +1114,30 @@ Even though Active Record lets you specify conditions on the eager loaded associ
 However if you must do this, you may use `where` as you would normally.
 
 ```ruby
-Post.includes(:comments).where(comments: { visible: true })
+Article.includes(:comments).where(comments: { visible: true })
 ```
 
 This would generate a query which contains a `LEFT OUTER JOIN` whereas the
 `joins` method would generate one using the `INNER JOIN` function instead.
 
 ```ruby
-  SELECT "posts"."id" AS t0_r0, ... "comments"."updated_at" AS t1_r5 FROM "posts" LEFT OUTER JOIN "comments" ON "comments"."post_id" = "posts"."id" WHERE (comments.visible = 1)
+  SELECT "articles"."id" AS t0_r0, ... "comments"."updated_at" AS t1_r5 FROM "articles" LEFT OUTER JOIN "comments" ON "comments"."article_id" = "articles"."id" WHERE (comments.visible = 1)
 ```
 
-If there was no `where` condition, this would generate the normal set of two
-queries.
+If there was no `where` condition, this would generate the normal set of two queries.
 
 NOTE: Using `where` like this will only work when you pass it a Hash. For
 SQL-fragments you need use `references` to force joined tables:
 
 ```ruby
-Post.includes(:comments).where("comments.visible = true").references(:comments)
+Article.includes(:comments).where("comments.visible = true").references(:comments)
 ```
 
-If, in the case of this `includes` query, there were no comments for any posts,
-all the posts would still be loaded. By using `joins` (an INNER JOIN), the join
-conditions **must** match, otherwise no records will be returned.
+If, in the case of this `includes` query, there were no comments for any
+articles, all the articles would still be loaded. By using `joins` (an INNER
+JOIN), the join conditions **must** match, otherwise no records will be
+returned.
+
 
 
 Scopes
@@ -1176,7 +1148,7 @@ Scoping allows you to specify commonly-used queries which can be referenced as m
 To define a simple scope, we use the `scope` method inside the class, passing the query that we'd like to run when this scope is called:
 
 ```ruby
-class Post < ActiveRecord::Base
+class Article < ActiveRecord::Base
   scope :published, -> { where(published: true) }
 end
 ```
@@ -1184,7 +1156,7 @@ end
 This is exactly the same as defining a class method, and which you use is a matter of personal preference:
 
 ```ruby
-class Post < ActiveRecord::Base
+class Article < ActiveRecord::Base
   def self.published
     where(published: true)
   end
@@ -1194,7 +1166,7 @@ end
 Scopes are also chainable within scopes:
 
 ```ruby
-class Post < ActiveRecord::Base
+class Article < ActiveRecord::Base
   scope :published,               -> { where(published: true) }
   scope :published_and_commented, -> { published.where("comments_count > 0") }
 end
@@ -1203,14 +1175,14 @@ end
 To call this `published` scope we can call it on either the class:
 
 ```ruby
-Post.published # => [published posts]
+Article.published # => [published articles]
 ```
 
-Or on an association consisting of `Post` objects:
+Or on an association consisting of `Article` objects:
 
 ```ruby
 category = Category.first
-category.posts.published # => [published posts belonging to this category]
+category.articles.published # => [published articles belonging to this category]
 ```
 
 ### Passing in arguments
@@ -1218,7 +1190,7 @@ category.posts.published # => [published posts belonging to this category]
 Your scope can take arguments:
 
 ```ruby
-class Post < ActiveRecord::Base
+class Article < ActiveRecord::Base
   scope :created_before, ->(time) { where("created_at < ?", time) }
 end
 ```
@@ -1226,13 +1198,13 @@ end
 Call the scope as if it were a class method:
 
 ```ruby
-Post.created_before(Time.zone.now)
+Article.created_before(Time.zone.now)
 ```
 
 However, this is just duplicating the functionality that would be provided to you by a class method.
 
 ```ruby
-class Post < ActiveRecord::Base
+class Article < ActiveRecord::Base
   def self.created_before(time)
     where("created_at < ?", time)
   end
@@ -1242,7 +1214,36 @@ end
 Using a class method is the preferred way to accept arguments for scopes. These methods will still be accessible on the association objects:
 
 ```ruby
-category.posts.created_before(time)
+category.articles.created_before(time)
+```
+
+### Applying a default scope
+
+If we wish for a scope to be applied across all queries to the model we can use the
+`default_scope` method within the model itself.
+
+```ruby
+class Client < ActiveRecord::Base
+  default_scope { where("removed_at IS NULL") }
+end
+```
+
+When queries are executed on this model, the SQL query will now look something like
+this:
+
+```sql
+SELECT * FROM clients WHERE removed_at IS NULL
+```
+
+If you need to do more complex things with a default scope, you can alternatively
+define it as a class method:
+
+```ruby
+class Client < ActiveRecord::Base
+  def self.default_scope
+    # Should return an ActiveRecord::Relation.
+  end
+end
 ```
 
 ### Merging of scopes
@@ -1298,36 +1299,6 @@ User.where(state: 'inactive')
 As you can see above the `default_scope` is being merged in both
 `scope` and `where` conditions.
 
-
-### Applying a default scope
-
-If we wish for a scope to be applied across all queries to the model we can use the
-`default_scope` method within the model itself.
-
-```ruby
-class Client < ActiveRecord::Base
-  default_scope { where("removed_at IS NULL") }
-end
-```
-
-When queries are executed on this model, the SQL query will now look something like
-this:
-
-```sql
-SELECT * FROM clients WHERE removed_at IS NULL
-```
-
-If you need to do more complex things with a default scope, you can alternatively
-define it as a class method:
-
-```ruby
-class Client < ActiveRecord::Base
-  def self.default_scope
-    # Should return an ActiveRecord::Relation.
-  end
-end
-```
-
 ### Removing All Scoping
 
 If we wish to remove scoping for any reason we can use the `unscoped` method. This is
@@ -1470,6 +1441,11 @@ If you'd like to use your own SQL to find records in a table you can use `find_b
 Client.find_by_sql("SELECT * FROM clients
   INNER JOIN orders ON clients.id = orders.client_id
   ORDER BY clients.created_at desc")
+# =>  [
+  #<Client id: 1, first_name: "Lucas" >,
+  #<Client id: 2, first_name: "Jan" >,
+  # ...
+]
 ```
 
 `find_by_sql` provides you with a simple way of making custom calls to the database and retrieving instantiated objects.
@@ -1479,12 +1455,16 @@ Client.find_by_sql("SELECT * FROM clients
 `find_by_sql` has a close relative called `connection#select_all`. `select_all` will retrieve objects from the database using custom SQL just like `find_by_sql` but will not instantiate them. Instead, you will get an array of hashes where each hash indicates a record.
 
 ```ruby
-Client.connection.select_all("SELECT * FROM clients WHERE id = '1'")
+Client.connection.select_all("SELECT first_name, created_at FROM clients WHERE id = '1'")
+# => [
+  {"first_name"=>"Rafael", "created_at"=>"2012-11-10 23:23:45.281189"},
+  {"first_name"=>"Eileen", "created_at"=>"2013-12-09 11:22:35.221282"}
+]
 ```
 
 ### `pluck`
 
-`pluck` can be used to query a single or multiple columns from the underlying table of a model. It accepts a list of column names as argument and returns an array of values of the specified columns with the corresponding data type.
+`pluck` can be used to query single or multiple columns from the underlying table of a model. It accepts a list of column names as argument and returns an array of values of the specified columns with the corresponding data type.
 
 ```ruby
 Client.where(active: true).pluck(:id)
@@ -1606,20 +1586,20 @@ You can also use `any?` and `many?` to check for existence on a model or relatio
 
 ```ruby
 # via a model
-Post.any?
-Post.many?
+Article.any?
+Article.many?
 
 # via a named scope
-Post.recent.any?
-Post.recent.many?
+Article.recent.any?
+Article.recent.many?
 
 # via a relation
-Post.where(published: true).any?
-Post.where(published: true).many?
+Article.where(published: true).any?
+Article.where(published: true).many?
 
 # via an association
-Post.first.categories.any?
-Post.first.categories.many?
+Article.first.categories.any?
+Article.first.categories.many?
 ```
 
 Calculations
@@ -1709,19 +1689,26 @@ Running EXPLAIN
 You can run EXPLAIN on the queries triggered by relations. For example,
 
 ```ruby
-User.where(id: 1).joins(:posts).explain
+User.where(id: 1).joins(:articles).explain
 ```
 
 may yield
 
 ```
-EXPLAIN for: SELECT `users`.* FROM `users` INNER JOIN `posts` ON `posts`.`user_id` = `users`.`id` WHERE `users`.`id` = 1
-+----+-------------+-------+-------+---------------+---------+---------+-------+------+-------------+
-| id | select_type | table | type  | possible_keys | key     | key_len | ref   | rows | Extra       |
-+----+-------------+-------+-------+---------------+---------+---------+-------+------+-------------+
-|  1 | SIMPLE      | users | const | PRIMARY       | PRIMARY | 4       | const |    1 |             |
-|  1 | SIMPLE      | posts | ALL   | NULL          | NULL    | NULL    | NULL  |    1 | Using where |
-+----+-------------+-------+-------+---------------+---------+---------+-------+------+-------------+
+EXPLAIN for: SELECT `users`.* FROM `users` INNER JOIN `articles` ON `articles`.`user_id` = `users`.`id` WHERE `users`.`id` = 1
++----+-------------+----------+-------+---------------+
+| id | select_type | table    | type  | possible_keys |
++----+-------------+----------+-------+---------------+
+|  1 | SIMPLE      | users    | const | PRIMARY       |
+|  1 | SIMPLE      | articles | ALL   | NULL          |
++----+-------------+----------+-------+---------------+
++---------+---------+-------+------+-------------+
+| key     | key_len | ref   | rows | Extra       |
++---------+---------+-------+------+-------------+
+| PRIMARY | 4       | const |    1 |             |
+| NULL    | NULL    | NULL  |    1 | Using where |
++---------+---------+-------+------+-------------+
+
 2 rows in set (0.00 sec)
 ```
 
@@ -1731,15 +1718,15 @@ Active Record performs a pretty printing that emulates the one of the database
 shells. So, the same query running with the PostgreSQL adapter would yield instead
 
 ```
-EXPLAIN for: SELECT "users".* FROM "users" INNER JOIN "posts" ON "posts"."user_id" = "users"."id" WHERE "users"."id" = 1
+EXPLAIN for: SELECT "users".* FROM "users" INNER JOIN "articles" ON "articles"."user_id" = "users"."id" WHERE "users"."id" = 1
                                   QUERY PLAN
 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  Nested Loop Left Join  (cost=0.00..37.24 rows=8 width=0)
-   Join Filter: (posts.user_id = users.id)
+   Join Filter: (articles.user_id = users.id)
    ->  Index Scan using users_pkey on users  (cost=0.00..8.27 rows=1 width=4)
          Index Cond: (id = 1)
-   ->  Seq Scan on posts  (cost=0.00..28.88 rows=8 width=4)
-         Filter: (posts.user_id = 1)
+   ->  Seq Scan on articles  (cost=0.00..28.88 rows=8 width=4)
+         Filter: (articles.user_id = 1)
 (6 rows)
 ```
 
@@ -1748,26 +1735,39 @@ may need the results of previous ones. Because of that, `explain` actually
 executes the query, and then asks for the query plans. For example,
 
 ```ruby
-User.where(id: 1).includes(:posts).explain
+User.where(id: 1).includes(:articles).explain
 ```
 
 yields
 
 ```
 EXPLAIN for: SELECT `users`.* FROM `users`  WHERE `users`.`id` = 1
-+----+-------------+-------+-------+---------------+---------+---------+-------+------+-------+
-| id | select_type | table | type  | possible_keys | key     | key_len | ref   | rows | Extra |
-+----+-------------+-------+-------+---------------+---------+---------+-------+------+-------+
-|  1 | SIMPLE      | users | const | PRIMARY       | PRIMARY | 4       | const |    1 |       |
-+----+-------------+-------+-------+---------------+---------+---------+-------+------+-------+
++----+-------------+-------+-------+---------------+
+| id | select_type | table | type  | possible_keys |
++----+-------------+-------+-------+---------------+
+|  1 | SIMPLE      | users | const | PRIMARY       |
++----+-------------+-------+-------+---------------+
++---------+---------+-------+------+-------+
+| key     | key_len | ref   | rows | Extra |
++---------+---------+-------+------+-------+
+| PRIMARY | 4       | const |    1 |       |
++---------+---------+-------+------+-------+
+
 1 row in set (0.00 sec)
 
-EXPLAIN for: SELECT `posts`.* FROM `posts`  WHERE `posts`.`user_id` IN (1)
-+----+-------------+-------+------+---------------+------+---------+------+------+-------------+
-| id | select_type | table | type | possible_keys | key  | key_len | ref  | rows | Extra       |
-+----+-------------+-------+------+---------------+------+---------+------+------+-------------+
-|  1 | SIMPLE      | posts | ALL  | NULL          | NULL | NULL    | NULL |    1 | Using where |
-+----+-------------+-------+------+---------------+------+---------+------+------+-------------+
+EXPLAIN for: SELECT `articles`.* FROM `articles`  WHERE `articles`.`user_id` IN (1)
++----+-------------+----------+------+---------------+
+| id | select_type | table    | type | possible_keys |
++----+-------------+----------+------+---------------+
+|  1 | SIMPLE      | articles | ALL  | NULL          |
++----+-------------+----------+------+---------------+
++------+---------+------+------+-------------+
+| key  | key_len | ref  | rows | Extra       |
++------+---------+------+------+-------------+
+| NULL | NULL    | NULL |    1 | Using where |
++------+---------+------+------+-------------+
+
+
 1 row in set (0.00 sec)
 ```