prism 0.19.0 → 0.24.0

data/src/prism.c

@@ -51,6 +51,7 @@ debug_context(pm_context_t context) {
         case PM_CONTEXT_IF: return "IF";
         case PM_CONTEXT_MAIN: return "MAIN";
         case PM_CONTEXT_MODULE: return "MODULE";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_NONE: return "NONE";
         case PM_CONTEXT_PARENS: return "PARENS";
         case PM_CONTEXT_POSTEXE: return "POSTEXE";
         case PM_CONTEXT_PREDICATE: return "PREDICATE";
@@ -164,7 +165,7 @@ debug_state(pm_parser_t *parser) {
 
 PRISM_ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED static void
 debug_token(pm_token_t * token) {
-    fprintf(stderr, "%s: \"%.*s\"\n", pm_token_type_to_str(token->type), (int) (token->end - token->start), token->start);
+    fprintf(stderr, "%s: \"%.*s\"\n", pm_token_type_human(token->type), (int) (token->end - token->start), token->start);
 }
 
 #endif
@@ -423,6 +424,11 @@ lex_state_beg_p(pm_parser_t *parser) {
     return lex_state_p(parser, PM_LEX_STATE_BEG_ANY) || ((parser->lex_state & (PM_LEX_STATE_ARG | PM_LEX_STATE_LABELED)) == (PM_LEX_STATE_ARG | PM_LEX_STATE_LABELED));
 }
 
+static inline bool
+lex_state_arg_labeled_p(pm_parser_t *parser) {
+    return (parser->lex_state & (PM_LEX_STATE_ARG | PM_LEX_STATE_LABELED)) == (PM_LEX_STATE_ARG | PM_LEX_STATE_LABELED);
+}
+
 static inline bool
 lex_state_arg_p(pm_parser_t *parser) {
     return lex_state_p(parser, PM_LEX_STATE_ARG_ANY);
@@ -487,7 +493,8 @@ pm_parser_err(pm_parser_t *parser, const uint8_t *start, const uint8_t *end, pm_
 /**
  * Append an error to the list of errors on the parser using a format string.
  */
-#define PM_PARSER_ERR_FORMAT(parser, start, end, diag_id, ...) pm_diagnostic_list_append_format(&parser->error_list, start, end, diag_id, __VA_ARGS__)
+#define PM_PARSER_ERR_FORMAT(parser, start, end, diag_id, ...) \
+    pm_diagnostic_list_append_format(&parser->error_list, start, end, diag_id, __VA_ARGS__)
 
 /**
  * Append an error to the list of errors on the parser using the location of the
@@ -502,7 +509,8 @@ pm_parser_err_current(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_diagnostic_id_t diag_id) {
  * Append an error to the list of errors on the parser using the given location
  * using a format string.
  */
-#define PM_PARSER_ERR_LOCATION_FORMAT(parser, location, diag_id, ...) pm_diagnostic_list_append_format(&parser->error_list, (location)->start, (location)->end, diag_id, __VA_ARGS__)
+#define PM_PARSER_ERR_LOCATION_FORMAT(parser, location, diag_id, ...) \
+    PM_PARSER_ERR_FORMAT(parser, (location)->start, (location)->end, diag_id, __VA_ARGS__)
 
 /**
  * Append an error to the list of errors on the parser using the location of the
@@ -517,7 +525,15 @@ pm_parser_err_node(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_node_t *node, pm_diagnostic_id_
  * Append an error to the list of errors on the parser using the location of the
  * given node and a format string.
  */
-#define PM_PARSER_ERR_NODE_FORMAT(parser, node, diag_id, ...) pm_diagnostic_list_append_format(&parser->error_list, node->location.start, node->location.end, diag_id, __VA_ARGS__)
+#define PM_PARSER_ERR_NODE_FORMAT(parser, node, diag_id, ...) \
+    PM_PARSER_ERR_FORMAT(parser, (node)->location.start, (node)->location.end, diag_id, __VA_ARGS__)
+
+/**
+ * Append an error to the list of errors on the parser using the location of the
+ * given node and a format string, and add on the content of the node.
+ */
+#define PM_PARSER_ERR_NODE_FORMAT_CONTENT(parser, node, diag_id) \
+    PM_PARSER_ERR_NODE_FORMAT(parser, node, diag_id, (int) ((node)->location.end - (node)->location.start), (const char *) (node)->location.start)
 
 /**
  * Append an error to the list of errors on the parser using the location of the
@@ -541,16 +557,22 @@ pm_parser_err_token(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t *token, pm_diagnostic_
  * Append an error to the list of errors on the parser using the location of the
  * given token and a format string.
  */
-#define PM_PARSER_ERR_TOKEN_FORMAT(parser, token, diag_id, ...) pm_diagnostic_list_append_format(&parser->error_list, (token).start, (token).end, diag_id, __VA_ARGS__)
+#define PM_PARSER_ERR_TOKEN_FORMAT(parser, token, diag_id, ...) \
+    PM_PARSER_ERR_FORMAT(parser, (token).start, (token).end, diag_id, __VA_ARGS__)
+
+/**
+ * Append an error to the list of errors on the parser using the location of the
+ * given token and a format string, and add on the content of the token.
+ */
+#define PM_PARSER_ERR_TOKEN_FORMAT_CONTENT(parser, token, diag_id) \
+    PM_PARSER_ERR_TOKEN_FORMAT(parser, token, diag_id, (int) ((token).end - (token).start), (const char *) (token).start)
 
 /**
  * Append a warning to the list of warnings on the parser.
  */
 static inline void
 pm_parser_warn(pm_parser_t *parser, const uint8_t *start, const uint8_t *end, pm_diagnostic_id_t diag_id) {
-    if (!parser->suppress_warnings) {
-        pm_diagnostic_list_append(&parser->warning_list, start, end, diag_id);
-    }
+    pm_diagnostic_list_append(&parser->warning_list, start, end, diag_id);
 }
 
 /**
@@ -813,6 +835,9 @@ typedef struct {
 
     /** The optional block attached to the call. */
     pm_node_t *block;
+
+    /** The flag indicating whether this arguments list has forwarding argument. */
+    bool has_forwarding;
 } pm_arguments_t;
 
 /**
@@ -864,6 +889,105 @@ pm_arguments_validate_block(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_arguments_t *arguments, pm_b
     pm_parser_err_node(parser, (pm_node_t *) block, PM_ERR_ARGUMENT_UNEXPECTED_BLOCK);
 }
 
+/******************************************************************************/
+/* Basic character checks                                                     */
+/******************************************************************************/
+
+/**
+ * This function is used extremely frequently to lex all of the identifiers in a
+ * source file, so it's important that it be as fast as possible. For this
+ * reason we have the encoding_changed boolean to check if we need to go through
+ * the function pointer or can just directly use the UTF-8 functions.
+ */
+static inline size_t
+char_is_identifier_start(const pm_parser_t *parser, const uint8_t *b) {
+    if (parser->encoding_changed) {
+        size_t width;
+        if ((width = parser->encoding->alpha_char(b, parser->end - b)) != 0) {
+            return width;
+        } else if (*b == '_') {
+            return 1;
+        } else if (*b >= 0x80) {
+            return parser->encoding->char_width(b, parser->end - b);
+        } else {
+            return 0;
+        }
+    } else if (*b < 0x80) {
+        return (pm_encoding_unicode_table[*b] & PRISM_ENCODING_ALPHABETIC_BIT ? 1 : 0) || (*b == '_');
+    } else {
+        return pm_encoding_utf_8_char_width(b, parser->end - b);
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Similar to char_is_identifier but this function assumes that the encoding
+ * has not been changed.
+ */
+static inline size_t
+char_is_identifier_utf8(const uint8_t *b, const uint8_t *end) {
+    if (*b < 0x80) {
+        return (*b == '_') || (pm_encoding_unicode_table[*b] & PRISM_ENCODING_ALPHANUMERIC_BIT ? 1 : 0);
+    } else {
+        return pm_encoding_utf_8_char_width(b, end - b);
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Like the above, this function is also used extremely frequently to lex all of
+ * the identifiers in a source file once the first character has been found. So
+ * it's important that it be as fast as possible.
+ */
+static inline size_t
+char_is_identifier(pm_parser_t *parser, const uint8_t *b) {
+    if (parser->encoding_changed) {
+        size_t width;
+        if ((width = parser->encoding->alnum_char(b, parser->end - b)) != 0) {
+            return width;
+        } else if (*b == '_') {
+            return 1;
+        } else if (*b >= 0x80) {
+            return parser->encoding->char_width(b, parser->end - b);
+        } else {
+            return 0;
+        }
+    }
+    return char_is_identifier_utf8(b, parser->end);
+}
+
+// Here we're defining a perfect hash for the characters that are allowed in
+// global names. This is used to quickly check the next character after a $ to
+// see if it's a valid character for a global name.
+#define BIT(c, idx) (((c) / 32 - 1 == idx) ? (1U << ((c) % 32)) : 0)
+#define PUNCT(idx) ( \
+                BIT('~', idx) | BIT('*', idx) | BIT('$', idx) | BIT('?', idx) | \
+                BIT('!', idx) | BIT('@', idx) | BIT('/', idx) | BIT('\\', idx) | \
+                BIT(';', idx) | BIT(',', idx) | BIT('.', idx) | BIT('=', idx) | \
+                BIT(':', idx) | BIT('<', idx) | BIT('>', idx) | BIT('\"', idx) | \
+                BIT('&', idx) | BIT('`', idx) | BIT('\'', idx) | BIT('+', idx) | \
+                BIT('0', idx))
+
+const unsigned int pm_global_name_punctuation_hash[(0x7e - 0x20 + 31) / 32] = { PUNCT(0), PUNCT(1), PUNCT(2) };
+
+#undef BIT
+#undef PUNCT
+
+static inline bool
+char_is_global_name_punctuation(const uint8_t b) {
+    const unsigned int i = (const unsigned int) b;
+    if (i <= 0x20 || 0x7e < i) return false;
+
+    return (pm_global_name_punctuation_hash[(i - 0x20) / 32] >> (i % 32)) & 1;
+}
+
+static inline bool
+token_is_setter_name(pm_token_t *token) {
+    return (
+        (token->type == PM_TOKEN_IDENTIFIER) &&
+        (token->end - token->start >= 2) &&
+        (token->end[-1] == '=')
+    );
+}
+
 /******************************************************************************/
 /* Node flag handling functions                                               */
 /******************************************************************************/
@@ -884,6 +1008,22 @@ pm_node_flag_unset(pm_node_t *node, pm_node_flags_t flag) {
     node->flags &= (pm_node_flags_t) ~flag;
 }
 
+/**
+ * Set the repeated parameter flag on the given node.
+ */
+static inline void
+pm_node_flag_set_repeated_parameter(pm_node_t *node) {
+    assert(PM_NODE_TYPE(node) == PM_BLOCK_LOCAL_VARIABLE_NODE ||
+            PM_NODE_TYPE(node) == PM_BLOCK_PARAMETER_NODE ||
+            PM_NODE_TYPE(node) == PM_KEYWORD_REST_PARAMETER_NODE ||
+            PM_NODE_TYPE(node) == PM_OPTIONAL_KEYWORD_PARAMETER_NODE ||
+            PM_NODE_TYPE(node) == PM_OPTIONAL_PARAMETER_NODE ||
+            PM_NODE_TYPE(node) == PM_REQUIRED_KEYWORD_PARAMETER_NODE ||
+            PM_NODE_TYPE(node) == PM_REQUIRED_PARAMETER_NODE ||
+            PM_NODE_TYPE(node) == PM_REST_PARAMETER_NODE);
+
+    pm_node_flag_set(node, PM_PARAMETER_FLAGS_REPEATED_PARAMETER);
+}
 
 /******************************************************************************/
 /* Node creation functions                                                    */
@@ -977,7 +1117,7 @@ static inline void *
 pm_alloc_node(PRISM_ATTRIBUTE_UNUSED pm_parser_t *parser, size_t size) {
     void *memory = calloc(1, size);
     if (memory == NULL) {
-        fprintf(stderr, "Failed to allocate %zu bytes\n", size);
+        fprintf(stderr, "Failed to allocate %d bytes\n", (int) size);
         abort();
     }
     return memory;
@@ -1325,7 +1465,7 @@ pm_assoc_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *key, const pm_token_t *oper
     pm_assoc_node_t *node = PM_ALLOC_NODE(parser, pm_assoc_node_t);
     const uint8_t *end;
 
-    if (value != NULL) {
+    if (value != NULL && value->location.end > key->location.end) {
         end = value->location.end;
     } else if (operator->type != PM_TOKEN_NOT_PROVIDED) {
         end = operator->end;
@@ -1333,6 +1473,13 @@ pm_assoc_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *key, const pm_token_t *oper
         end = key->location.end;
     }
 
+    // Hash string keys will be frozen, so we can mark them as frozen here so
+    // that the compiler picks them up and also when we check for static literal
+    // on the keys it gets factored in.
+    if (PM_NODE_TYPE_P(key, PM_STRING_NODE)) {
+        key->flags |= PM_STRING_FLAGS_FROZEN | PM_NODE_FLAG_STATIC_LITERAL;
+    }
+
     // If the key and value of this assoc node are both static literals, then
     // we can mark this node as a static literal.
     pm_node_flags_t flags = 0;
@@ -1490,7 +1637,7 @@ pm_block_argument_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t *operator, p
  * Allocate and initialize a new BlockNode node.
  */
 static pm_block_node_t *
-pm_block_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_constant_id_list_t *locals, uint32_t locals_body_index, const pm_token_t *opening, pm_node_t *parameters, pm_node_t *body, const pm_token_t *closing) {
+pm_block_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_constant_id_list_t *locals, const pm_token_t *opening, pm_node_t *parameters, pm_node_t *body, const pm_token_t *closing) {
     pm_block_node_t *node = PM_ALLOC_NODE(parser, pm_block_node_t);
 
     *node = (pm_block_node_t) {
@@ -1499,7 +1646,6 @@ pm_block_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_constant_id_list_t *locals, uint32_
             .location = { .start = opening->start, .end = closing->end },
         },
         .locals = *locals,
-        .locals_body_index = locals_body_index,
         .parameters = parameters,
         .body = body,
         .opening_loc = PM_LOCATION_TOKEN_VALUE(opening),
@@ -1645,12 +1791,13 @@ pm_break_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t *keyword, pm_argument
  * in the various specializations of this function.
  */
 static pm_call_node_t *
-pm_call_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser) {
+pm_call_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_flags_t flags) {
     pm_call_node_t *node = PM_ALLOC_NODE(parser, pm_call_node_t);
 
     *node = (pm_call_node_t) {
         {
             .type = PM_CALL_NODE,
+            .flags = flags,
             .location = PM_LOCATION_NULL_VALUE(parser),
         },
         .receiver = NULL,
@@ -1666,6 +1813,15 @@ pm_call_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser) {
     return node;
 }
 
+/**
+ * Returns the value that the ignore visibility flag should be set to for the
+ * given receiver.
+ */
+static inline pm_node_flags_t
+pm_call_node_ignore_visibility_flag(const pm_node_t *receiver) {
+    return PM_NODE_TYPE_P(receiver, PM_SELF_NODE) ? PM_CALL_NODE_FLAGS_IGNORE_VISIBILITY : 0;
+}
+
 /**
  * Allocate and initialize a new CallNode node from an aref or an aset
  * expression.
@@ -1674,7 +1830,7 @@ static pm_call_node_t *
 pm_call_node_aref_create(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *receiver, pm_arguments_t *arguments) {
     pm_assert_value_expression(parser, receiver);
 
-    pm_call_node_t *node = pm_call_node_create(parser);
+    pm_call_node_t *node = pm_call_node_create(parser, pm_call_node_ignore_visibility_flag(receiver));
 
     node->base.location.start = receiver->location.start;
     node->base.location.end = pm_arguments_end(arguments);
@@ -1700,7 +1856,7 @@ pm_call_node_binary_create(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *receiver, pm_token_t
     pm_assert_value_expression(parser, receiver);
     pm_assert_value_expression(parser, argument);
 
-    pm_call_node_t *node = pm_call_node_create(parser);
+    pm_call_node_t *node = pm_call_node_create(parser, pm_call_node_ignore_visibility_flag(receiver));
 
     node->base.location.start = MIN(receiver->location.start, argument->location.start);
     node->base.location.end = MAX(receiver->location.end, argument->location.end);
@@ -1723,7 +1879,7 @@ static pm_call_node_t *
 pm_call_node_call_create(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *receiver, pm_token_t *operator, pm_token_t *message, pm_arguments_t *arguments) {
     pm_assert_value_expression(parser, receiver);
 
-    pm_call_node_t *node = pm_call_node_create(parser);
+    pm_call_node_t *node = pm_call_node_create(parser, pm_call_node_ignore_visibility_flag(receiver));
 
     node->base.location.start = receiver->location.start;
     const uint8_t *end = pm_arguments_end(arguments);
@@ -1754,7 +1910,7 @@ pm_call_node_call_create(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *receiver, pm_token_t *o
  */
 static pm_call_node_t *
 pm_call_node_fcall_create(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_token_t *message, pm_arguments_t *arguments) {
-    pm_call_node_t *node = pm_call_node_create(parser);
+    pm_call_node_t *node = pm_call_node_create(parser, PM_CALL_NODE_FLAGS_IGNORE_VISIBILITY);
 
     node->base.location.start = message->start;
     node->base.location.end = pm_arguments_end(arguments);
@@ -1776,7 +1932,7 @@ static pm_call_node_t *
 pm_call_node_not_create(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *receiver, pm_token_t *message, pm_arguments_t *arguments) {
     pm_assert_value_expression(parser, receiver);
 
-    pm_call_node_t *node = pm_call_node_create(parser);
+    pm_call_node_t *node = pm_call_node_create(parser, receiver == NULL ? 0 : pm_call_node_ignore_visibility_flag(receiver));
 
     node->base.location.start = message->start;
     if (arguments->closing_loc.start != NULL) {
@@ -1802,7 +1958,7 @@ static pm_call_node_t *
 pm_call_node_shorthand_create(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *receiver, pm_token_t *operator, pm_arguments_t *arguments) {
     pm_assert_value_expression(parser, receiver);
 
-    pm_call_node_t *node = pm_call_node_create(parser);
+    pm_call_node_t *node = pm_call_node_create(parser, pm_call_node_ignore_visibility_flag(receiver));
 
     node->base.location.start = receiver->location.start;
     node->base.location.end = pm_arguments_end(arguments);
@@ -1829,7 +1985,7 @@ static pm_call_node_t *
 pm_call_node_unary_create(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_token_t *operator, pm_node_t *receiver, const char *name) {
     pm_assert_value_expression(parser, receiver);
 
-    pm_call_node_t *node = pm_call_node_create(parser);
+    pm_call_node_t *node = pm_call_node_create(parser, pm_call_node_ignore_visibility_flag(receiver));
 
     node->base.location.start = operator->start;
     node->base.location.end = receiver->location.end;
@@ -1847,7 +2003,7 @@ pm_call_node_unary_create(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_token_t *operator, pm_node_t *
  */
 static pm_call_node_t *
 pm_call_node_variable_call_create(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_token_t *message) {
-    pm_call_node_t *node = pm_call_node_create(parser);
+    pm_call_node_t *node = pm_call_node_create(parser, PM_CALL_NODE_FLAGS_IGNORE_VISIBILITY);
 
     node->base.location = PM_LOCATION_TOKEN_VALUE(message);
     node->message_loc = PM_OPTIONAL_LOCATION_TOKEN_VALUE(message);
@@ -1885,11 +2041,12 @@ pm_call_node_index_p(pm_call_node_t *node) {
  * operator assignment.
  */
 static inline bool
-pm_call_node_writable_p(pm_call_node_t *node) {
+pm_call_node_writable_p(const pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_call_node_t *node) {
     return (
         (node->message_loc.start != NULL) &&
         (node->message_loc.end[-1] != '!') &&
         (node->message_loc.end[-1] != '?') &&
+        char_is_identifier_start(parser, node->message_loc.start) &&
         (node->opening_loc.start == NULL) &&
         (node->arguments == NULL) &&
         (node->block == NULL)
@@ -2167,11 +2324,12 @@ pm_call_target_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_call_node_t *target) {
 static pm_index_target_node_t *
 pm_index_target_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_call_node_t *target) {
     pm_index_target_node_t *node = PM_ALLOC_NODE(parser, pm_index_target_node_t);
+    pm_node_flags_t flags = target->base.flags;
 
     *node = (pm_index_target_node_t) {
         {
             .type = PM_INDEX_TARGET_NODE,
-            .flags = target->base.flags,
+            .flags = flags | PM_CALL_NODE_FLAGS_ATTRIBUTE_WRITE,
             .location = target->base.location
         },
         .receiver = target->receiver,
@@ -2701,18 +2859,62 @@ pm_constant_write_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_constant_read_node_t *targ
     return node;
 }
 
+/**
+ * Check if the receiver of a `def` node is allowed.
+ */
+static void
+pm_def_node_receiver_check(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_node_t *node) {
+    switch (PM_NODE_TYPE(node)) {
+        case PM_BEGIN_NODE: {
+            const pm_begin_node_t *cast = (pm_begin_node_t *) node;
+            if (cast->statements != NULL) pm_def_node_receiver_check(parser, (pm_node_t *) cast->statements);
+            break;
+        }
+        case PM_PARENTHESES_NODE: {
+            const pm_parentheses_node_t *cast = (const pm_parentheses_node_t *) node;
+            if (cast->body != NULL) pm_def_node_receiver_check(parser, cast->body);
+            break;
+        }
+        case PM_STATEMENTS_NODE: {
+            const pm_statements_node_t *cast = (const pm_statements_node_t *) node;
+            pm_def_node_receiver_check(parser, cast->body.nodes[cast->body.size - 1]);
+            break;
+        }
+        case PM_ARRAY_NODE:
+        case PM_FLOAT_NODE:
+        case PM_IMAGINARY_NODE:
+        case PM_INTEGER_NODE:
+        case PM_INTERPOLATED_REGULAR_EXPRESSION_NODE:
+        case PM_INTERPOLATED_STRING_NODE:
+        case PM_INTERPOLATED_SYMBOL_NODE:
+        case PM_INTERPOLATED_X_STRING_NODE:
+        case PM_RATIONAL_NODE:
+        case PM_REGULAR_EXPRESSION_NODE:
+        case PM_SOURCE_ENCODING_NODE:
+        case PM_SOURCE_FILE_NODE:
+        case PM_SOURCE_LINE_NODE:
+        case PM_STRING_NODE:
+        case PM_SYMBOL_NODE:
+        case PM_X_STRING_NODE:
+            pm_parser_err_node(parser, node, PM_ERR_SINGLETON_FOR_LITERALS);
+            break;
+        default:
+            break;
+    }
+}
+
 /**
  * Allocate and initialize a new DefNode node.
  */
 static pm_def_node_t *
 pm_def_node_create(
     pm_parser_t *parser,
-    const pm_token_t *name,
+    pm_constant_id_t name,
+    const pm_token_t *name_loc,
     pm_node_t *receiver,
     pm_parameters_node_t *parameters,
     pm_node_t *body,
     pm_constant_id_list_t *locals,
-    uint32_t locals_body_index,
     const pm_token_t *def_keyword,
     const pm_token_t *operator,
     const pm_token_t *lparen,
@@ -2729,18 +2931,21 @@ pm_def_node_create(
         end = end_keyword->end;
     }
 
+    if ((receiver != NULL) && PM_NODE_TYPE_P(receiver, PM_PARENTHESES_NODE)) {
+        pm_def_node_receiver_check(parser, receiver);
+    }
+
     *node = (pm_def_node_t) {
         {
             .type = PM_DEF_NODE,
             .location = { .start = def_keyword->start, .end = end },
         },
-        .name = pm_parser_constant_id_token(parser, name),
-        .name_loc = PM_LOCATION_TOKEN_VALUE(name),
+        .name = name,
+        .name_loc = PM_LOCATION_TOKEN_VALUE(name_loc),
         .receiver = receiver,
         .parameters = parameters,
         .body = body,
         .locals = *locals,
-        .locals_body_index = locals_body_index,
         .def_keyword_loc = PM_LOCATION_TOKEN_VALUE(def_keyword),
         .operator_loc = PM_OPTIONAL_LOCATION_TOKEN_VALUE(operator),
         .lparen_loc = PM_OPTIONAL_LOCATION_TOKEN_VALUE(lparen),
@@ -3962,9 +4167,8 @@ pm_keyword_hash_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser) {
  */
 static void
 pm_keyword_hash_node_elements_append(pm_keyword_hash_node_t *hash, pm_node_t *element) {
-    // If the element being added is not an AssocNode or does not have a symbol key, then
-    // we want to turn the STATIC_KEYS flag off.
-    // TODO: Rename the flag to SYMBOL_KEYS instead.
+    // If the element being added is not an AssocNode or does not have a symbol
+    // key, then we want to turn the SYMBOL_KEYS flag off.
     if (!PM_NODE_TYPE_P(element, PM_ASSOC_NODE) || !PM_NODE_TYPE_P(((pm_assoc_node_t *) element)->key, PM_SYMBOL_NODE)) {
         pm_node_flag_unset((pm_node_t *)hash, PM_KEYWORD_HASH_NODE_FLAGS_SYMBOL_KEYS);
     }
@@ -4051,7 +4255,6 @@ static pm_lambda_node_t *
 pm_lambda_node_create(
     pm_parser_t *parser,
     pm_constant_id_list_t *locals,
-    uint32_t locals_body_index,
     const pm_token_t *operator,
     const pm_token_t *opening,
     const pm_token_t *closing,
@@ -4069,7 +4272,6 @@ pm_lambda_node_create(
             },
         },
         .locals = *locals,
-        .locals_body_index = locals_body_index,
         .operator_loc = PM_LOCATION_TOKEN_VALUE(operator),
         .opening_loc = PM_LOCATION_TOKEN_VALUE(opening),
         .closing_loc = PM_LOCATION_TOKEN_VALUE(closing),
@@ -4161,12 +4363,10 @@ pm_local_variable_or_write_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *target, c
 }
 
 /**
- * Allocate a new LocalVariableReadNode node.
+ * Allocate a new LocalVariableReadNode node with constant_id.
  */
 static pm_local_variable_read_node_t *
-pm_local_variable_read_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t *name, uint32_t depth) {
-    pm_constant_id_t name_id = pm_parser_constant_id_token(parser, name);
-
+pm_local_variable_read_node_create_constant_id(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t *name, pm_constant_id_t name_id, uint32_t depth) {
     if (parser->current_param_name == name_id) {
         pm_parser_err_token(parser, name, PM_ERR_PARAMETER_CIRCULAR);
     }
@@ -4185,6 +4385,15 @@ pm_local_variable_read_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t *name,
     return node;
 }
 
+/**
+ * Allocate a new LocalVariableReadNode node.
+ */
+static pm_local_variable_read_node_t *
+pm_local_variable_read_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t *name, uint32_t depth) {
+    pm_constant_id_t name_id = pm_parser_constant_id_token(parser, name);
+    return pm_local_variable_read_node_create_constant_id(parser, name, name_id, depth);
+}
+
 /**
  * Allocate and initialize a new LocalVariableWriteNode node.
  */
@@ -4210,6 +4419,57 @@ pm_local_variable_write_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_constant_id_t name,
     return node;
 }
 
+/**
+ * Returns true if the given bounds comprise `it`.
+ */
+static inline bool
+pm_token_is_it(const uint8_t *start, const uint8_t *end) {
+    return (end - start == 2) && (start[0] == 'i') && (start[1] == 't');
+}
+
+/**
+ * Returns true if the given node is `it` default parameter.
+ */
+static inline bool
+pm_node_is_it(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *node) {
+    // Check if it's a local variable reference
+    if (node->type != PM_CALL_NODE) {
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    // Check if it's a variable call
+    pm_call_node_t *call_node = (pm_call_node_t *) node;
+    if (!pm_call_node_variable_call_p(call_node)) {
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    // Check if it's called `it`
+    pm_constant_id_t id = ((pm_call_node_t *)node)->name;
+    pm_constant_t *constant = pm_constant_pool_id_to_constant(&parser->constant_pool, id);
+    return pm_token_is_it(constant->start, constant->start + constant->length);
+}
+
+/**
+ * Convert a `it` variable call node to a node for `it` default parameter.
+ */
+static pm_node_t *
+pm_node_check_it(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *node) {
+    if (
+        (parser->version != PM_OPTIONS_VERSION_CRUBY_3_3_0) &&
+        !parser->current_scope->closed &&
+        pm_node_is_it(parser, node)
+    ) {
+        if (parser->current_scope->explicit_params) {
+            pm_parser_err_previous(parser, PM_ERR_IT_NOT_ALLOWED);
+        } else {
+            pm_node_destroy(parser, node);
+            pm_constant_id_t name_id = pm_parser_constant_id_constant(parser, "0it", 3);
+            node = (pm_node_t *) pm_local_variable_read_node_create_constant_id(parser, &parser->previous, name_id, 0);
+        }
+    }
+    return node;
+}
+
 /**
  * Returns true if the given bounds comprise a numbered parameter (i.e., they
  * are of the form /^_\d$/).
@@ -4402,13 +4662,20 @@ pm_multi_target_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser) {
  */
 static void
 pm_multi_target_node_targets_append(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_multi_target_node_t *node, pm_node_t *target) {
-    if (PM_NODE_TYPE_P(target, PM_SPLAT_NODE) || PM_NODE_TYPE_P(target, PM_IMPLICIT_REST_NODE)) {
+    if (PM_NODE_TYPE_P(target, PM_SPLAT_NODE)) {
         if (node->rest == NULL) {
             node->rest = target;
         } else {
             pm_parser_err_node(parser, target, PM_ERR_MULTI_ASSIGN_MULTI_SPLATS);
             pm_node_list_append(&node->rights, target);
         }
+    } else if (PM_NODE_TYPE_P(target, PM_IMPLICIT_REST_NODE)) {
+        if (node->rest == NULL) {
+            node->rest = target;
+        } else {
+            PM_PARSER_ERR_TOKEN_FORMAT_CONTENT(parser, parser->current, PM_ERR_MULTI_ASSIGN_UNEXPECTED_REST);
+            pm_node_list_append(&node->rights, target);
+        }
     } else if (node->rest == NULL) {
         pm_node_list_append(&node->lefts, target);
     } else {
@@ -5195,7 +5462,7 @@ pm_source_file_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t *file_keyword)
             .flags = PM_NODE_FLAG_STATIC_LITERAL,
             .location = PM_LOCATION_TOKEN_VALUE(file_keyword),
         },
-        .filepath = parser->filepath_string,
+        .filepath = parser->filepath
     };
 
     return node;
@@ -5372,18 +5639,59 @@ pm_super_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t *keyword, pm_argument
     return node;
 }
 
+/**
+ * Read through the contents of a string and check if it consists solely of US ASCII code points.
+ */
+static bool
+pm_ascii_only_p(const pm_string_t *contents) {
+    const size_t length = pm_string_length(contents);
+    const uint8_t *source = pm_string_source(contents);
+
+    for (size_t index = 0; index < length; index++) {
+        if (source[index] & 0x80) return false;
+    }
+
+    return true;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Ruby "downgrades" the encoding of Symbols to US-ASCII if the associated
+ * encoding is ASCII-compatible and the Symbol consists only of US-ASCII code
+ * points. Otherwise, the encoding may be explicitly set with an escape
+ * sequence.
+ */
+static inline pm_node_flags_t
+parse_symbol_encoding(const pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_string_t *contents) {
+    if (parser->explicit_encoding != NULL) {
+        // A Symbol may optionally have its encoding explicitly set. This will
+        // happen if an escape sequence results in a non-ASCII code point.
+        if (parser->explicit_encoding == PM_ENCODING_UTF_8_ENTRY) {
+            return PM_SYMBOL_FLAGS_FORCED_UTF8_ENCODING;
+        } else if (parser->encoding == PM_ENCODING_US_ASCII_ENTRY) {
+            return PM_SYMBOL_FLAGS_FORCED_BINARY_ENCODING;
+        }
+    } else if (pm_ascii_only_p(contents)) {
+        // Ruby stipulates that all source files must use an ASCII-compatible
+        // encoding. Thus, all symbols appearing in source are eligible for
+        // "downgrading" to US-ASCII.
+        return PM_SYMBOL_FLAGS_FORCED_US_ASCII_ENCODING;
+    }
+
+    return 0;
+}
+
 /**
  * Allocate and initialize a new SymbolNode node with the given unescaped
  * string.
  */
 static pm_symbol_node_t *
-pm_symbol_node_create_unescaped(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t *opening, const pm_token_t *value, const pm_token_t *closing, const pm_string_t *unescaped) {
+pm_symbol_node_create_unescaped(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t *opening, const pm_token_t *value, const pm_token_t *closing, const pm_string_t *unescaped, pm_node_flags_t flags) {
     pm_symbol_node_t *node = PM_ALLOC_NODE(parser, pm_symbol_node_t);
 
     *node = (pm_symbol_node_t) {
         {
             .type = PM_SYMBOL_NODE,
-            .flags = PM_NODE_FLAG_STATIC_LITERAL,
+            .flags = PM_NODE_FLAG_STATIC_LITERAL | flags,
             .location = {
                 .start = (opening->type == PM_TOKEN_NOT_PROVIDED ? value->start : opening->start),
                 .end = (closing->type == PM_TOKEN_NOT_PROVIDED ? value->end : closing->end)
@@ -5403,7 +5711,7 @@ pm_symbol_node_create_unescaped(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t *opening,
  */
 static inline pm_symbol_node_t *
 pm_symbol_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t *opening, const pm_token_t *value, const pm_token_t *closing) {
-    return pm_symbol_node_create_unescaped(parser, opening, value, closing, &PM_STRING_EMPTY);
+    return pm_symbol_node_create_unescaped(parser, opening, value, closing, &PM_STRING_EMPTY, 0);
 }
 
 /**
@@ -5411,7 +5719,7 @@ pm_symbol_node_create(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t *opening, const pm_t
  */
 static pm_symbol_node_t *
 pm_symbol_node_create_current_string(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t *opening, const pm_token_t *value, const pm_token_t *closing) {
-    pm_symbol_node_t *node = pm_symbol_node_create_unescaped(parser, opening, value, closing, &parser->current_string);
+    pm_symbol_node_t *node = pm_symbol_node_create_unescaped(parser, opening, value, closing, &parser->current_string, parse_symbol_encoding(parser, &parser->current_string));
     parser->current_string = PM_STRING_EMPTY;
     return node;
 }
@@ -5433,6 +5741,8 @@ pm_symbol_node_label_create(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t *token) {
 
             assert((label.end - label.start) >= 0);
             pm_string_shared_init(&node->unescaped, label.start, label.end);
+            pm_node_flag_set((pm_node_t *) node, parse_symbol_encoding(parser, &node->unescaped));
+
             break;
         }
         case PM_TOKEN_MISSING: {
@@ -5495,6 +5805,8 @@ pm_string_node_to_symbol_node(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_string_node_t *node, const
         .unescaped = node->unescaped
     };
 
+    pm_node_flag_set((pm_node_t *)new_node, parse_symbol_encoding(parser, &node->unescaped));
+
     // We are explicitly _not_ using pm_node_destroy here because we don't want
     // to trash the unescaped string. We could instead copy the string if we
     // know that it is owned, but we're taking the fast path for now.
@@ -5885,6 +6197,7 @@ pm_parser_scope_push(pm_parser_t *parser, bool closed) {
         .closed = closed,
         .explicit_params = false,
         .numbered_parameters = 0,
+        .forwarding_params = 0,
     };
 
     pm_constant_id_list_init(&scope->locals);
@@ -5893,6 +6206,76 @@ pm_parser_scope_push(pm_parser_t *parser, bool closed) {
     return true;
 }
 
+static void
+pm_parser_scope_forwarding_param_check(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t * token, const uint8_t mask, pm_diagnostic_id_t diag)
+{
+    pm_scope_t *scope = parser->current_scope;
+    while (scope) {
+        if (scope->forwarding_params & mask) {
+            if (!scope->closed) {
+                pm_parser_err_token(parser, token, diag);
+                return;
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+        if (scope->closed) break;
+        scope = scope->previous;
+    }
+
+    pm_parser_err_token(parser, token, diag);
+}
+
+static inline void
+pm_parser_scope_forwarding_block_check(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t * token)
+{
+    pm_parser_scope_forwarding_param_check(parser, token, PM_FORWARDING_BLOCK, PM_ERR_ARGUMENT_NO_FORWARDING_AMP);
+}
+
+static void
+pm_parser_scope_forwarding_positionals_check(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t * token)
+{
+    pm_parser_scope_forwarding_param_check(parser, token, PM_FORWARDING_POSITIONALS, PM_ERR_ARGUMENT_NO_FORWARDING_STAR);
+}
+
+static inline void
+pm_parser_scope_forwarding_all_check(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t * token)
+{
+    pm_parser_scope_forwarding_param_check(parser, token, PM_FORWARDING_ALL, PM_ERR_ARGUMENT_NO_FORWARDING_ELLIPSES);
+}
+
+static inline void
+pm_parser_scope_forwarding_keywords_check(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t * token)
+{
+    pm_parser_scope_forwarding_param_check(parser, token, PM_FORWARDING_KEYWORDS, PM_ERR_EXPECT_EXPRESSION_AFTER_SPLAT_HASH);
+}
+
+/**
+ * Save the current param name as the return value and set it to the given
+ * constant id.
+ */
+static inline pm_constant_id_t
+pm_parser_current_param_name_set(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_constant_id_t current_param_name) {
+    pm_constant_id_t saved_param_name = parser->current_param_name;
+    parser->current_param_name = current_param_name;
+    return saved_param_name;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Save the current param name as the return value and clear it.
+ */
+static inline pm_constant_id_t
+pm_parser_current_param_name_unset(pm_parser_t *parser) {
+    return pm_parser_current_param_name_set(parser, PM_CONSTANT_ID_UNSET);
+}
+
+/**
+ * Restore the current param name from the given value.
+ */
+static inline void
+pm_parser_current_param_name_restore(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_constant_id_t saved_param_name) {
+    parser->current_param_name = saved_param_name;
+}
+
 /**
  * Check if any of the currently visible scopes contain a local variable
  * described by the given constant id.
@@ -5969,26 +6352,41 @@ pm_parser_local_add_owned(pm_parser_t *parser, const uint8_t *start, size_t leng
     return constant_id;
 }
 
+/**
+ * Add a local variable from a constant string to the current scope.
+ */
+static pm_constant_id_t
+pm_parser_local_add_constant(pm_parser_t *parser, const char *start, size_t length) {
+    pm_constant_id_t constant_id = pm_parser_constant_id_constant(parser, start, length);
+    if (constant_id != 0) pm_parser_local_add(parser, constant_id);
+    return constant_id;
+}
+
 /**
  * Add a parameter name to the current scope and check whether the name of the
  * parameter is unique or not.
+ *
+ * Returns `true` if this is a duplicate parameter name, otherwise returns
+ * false.
  */
-static void
+static bool
 pm_parser_parameter_name_check(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t *name) {
     // We want to check whether the parameter name is a numbered parameter or
     // not.
     pm_refute_numbered_parameter(parser, name->start, name->end);
 
-    // We want to ignore any parameter name that starts with an underscore.
-    if ((name->start < name->end) && (*name->start == '_')) return;
-
     // Otherwise we'll fetch the constant id for the parameter name and check
     // whether it's already in the current scope.
     pm_constant_id_t constant_id = pm_parser_constant_id_token(parser, name);
 
     if (pm_constant_id_list_includes(&parser->current_scope->locals, constant_id)) {
-        pm_parser_err_token(parser, name, PM_ERR_PARAMETER_NAME_REPEAT);
+        // Add an error if the parameter doesn't start with _ and has been seen before
+        if ((name->start < name->end) && (*name->start != '_')) {
+            pm_parser_err_token(parser, name, PM_ERR_PARAMETER_NAME_REPEAT);
+        }
+        return true;
     }
+    return false;
 }
 
 /**
@@ -6003,105 +6401,6 @@ pm_parser_scope_pop(pm_parser_t *parser) {
     free(scope);
 }
 
-/******************************************************************************/
-/* Basic character checks                                                     */
-/******************************************************************************/
-
-/**
- * This function is used extremely frequently to lex all of the identifiers in a
- * source file, so it's important that it be as fast as possible. For this
- * reason we have the encoding_changed boolean to check if we need to go through
- * the function pointer or can just directly use the UTF-8 functions.
- */
-static inline size_t
-char_is_identifier_start(pm_parser_t *parser, const uint8_t *b) {
-    if (parser->encoding_changed) {
-        size_t width;
-        if ((width = parser->encoding->alpha_char(b, parser->end - b)) != 0) {
-            return width;
-        } else if (*b == '_') {
-            return 1;
-        } else if (*b >= 0x80) {
-            return parser->encoding->char_width(b, parser->end - b);
-        } else {
-            return 0;
-        }
-    } else if (*b < 0x80) {
-        return (pm_encoding_unicode_table[*b] & PRISM_ENCODING_ALPHABETIC_BIT ? 1 : 0) || (*b == '_');
-    } else {
-        return (size_t) (pm_encoding_utf_8_alpha_char(b, parser->end - b) || 1u);
-    }
-}
-
-/**
- * Similar to char_is_identifier but this function assumes that the encoding
- * has not been changed.
- */
-static inline size_t
-char_is_identifier_utf8(const uint8_t *b, const uint8_t *end) {
-    if (*b < 0x80) {
-        return (*b == '_') || (pm_encoding_unicode_table[*b] & PRISM_ENCODING_ALPHANUMERIC_BIT ? 1 : 0);
-    } else {
-        return (size_t) (pm_encoding_utf_8_alnum_char(b, end - b) || 1u);
-    }
-}
-
-/**
- * Like the above, this function is also used extremely frequently to lex all of
- * the identifiers in a source file once the first character has been found. So
- * it's important that it be as fast as possible.
- */
-static inline size_t
-char_is_identifier(pm_parser_t *parser, const uint8_t *b) {
-    if (parser->encoding_changed) {
-        size_t width;
-        if ((width = parser->encoding->alnum_char(b, parser->end - b)) != 0) {
-            return width;
-        } else if (*b == '_') {
-            return 1;
-        } else if (*b >= 0x80) {
-            return parser->encoding->char_width(b, parser->end - b);
-        } else {
-            return 0;
-        }
-    }
-    return char_is_identifier_utf8(b, parser->end);
-}
-
-// Here we're defining a perfect hash for the characters that are allowed in
-// global names. This is used to quickly check the next character after a $ to
-// see if it's a valid character for a global name.
-#define BIT(c, idx) (((c) / 32 - 1 == idx) ? (1U << ((c) % 32)) : 0)
-#define PUNCT(idx) ( \
-                BIT('~', idx) | BIT('*', idx) | BIT('$', idx) | BIT('?', idx) | \
-                BIT('!', idx) | BIT('@', idx) | BIT('/', idx) | BIT('\\', idx) | \
-                BIT(';', idx) | BIT(',', idx) | BIT('.', idx) | BIT('=', idx) | \
-                BIT(':', idx) | BIT('<', idx) | BIT('>', idx) | BIT('\"', idx) | \
-                BIT('&', idx) | BIT('`', idx) | BIT('\'', idx) | BIT('+', idx) | \
-                BIT('0', idx))
-
-const unsigned int pm_global_name_punctuation_hash[(0x7e - 0x20 + 31) / 32] = { PUNCT(0), PUNCT(1), PUNCT(2) };
-
-#undef BIT
-#undef PUNCT
-
-static inline bool
-char_is_global_name_punctuation(const uint8_t b) {
-    const unsigned int i = (const unsigned int) b;
-    if (i <= 0x20 || 0x7e < i) return false;
-
-    return (pm_global_name_punctuation_hash[(i - 0x20) / 32] >> (i % 32)) & 1;
-}
-
-static inline bool
-token_is_setter_name(pm_token_t *token) {
-    return (
-        (token->type == PM_TOKEN_IDENTIFIER) &&
-        (token->end - token->start >= 2) &&
-        (token->end[-1] == '=')
-    );
-}
-
 /******************************************************************************/
 /* Stack helpers                                                              */
 /******************************************************************************/
@@ -6317,8 +6616,10 @@ parser_lex_magic_comment_encoding(pm_parser_t *parser) {
  */
 static void
 parser_lex_magic_comment_frozen_string_literal_value(pm_parser_t *parser, const uint8_t *start, const uint8_t *end) {
-    if (start + 4 <= end && pm_strncasecmp(start, (const uint8_t *) "true", 4) == 0) {
+    if ((start + 4 <= end) && pm_strncasecmp(start, (const uint8_t *) "true", 4) == 0) {
         parser->frozen_string_literal = true;
+    } else if ((start + 5 <= end) && pm_strncasecmp(start, (const uint8_t *) "false", 5) == 0) {
+        parser->frozen_string_literal = false;
     }
 }
 
@@ -6541,21 +6842,27 @@ context_terminator(pm_context_t context, pm_token_t *token) {
             return token->type == PM_TOKEN_BRACE_RIGHT;
         case PM_CONTEXT_PREDICATE:
             return token->type == PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_THEN || token->type == PM_TOKEN_NEWLINE || token->type == PM_TOKEN_SEMICOLON;
+        case PM_CONTEXT_NONE:
+            return false;
     }
 
     return false;
 }
 
-static bool
-context_recoverable(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_token_t *token) {
+/**
+ * Returns the context that the given token is found to be terminating, or
+ * returns PM_CONTEXT_NONE.
+ */
+static pm_context_t
+context_recoverable(const pm_parser_t *parser, pm_token_t *token) {
     pm_context_node_t *context_node = parser->current_context;
 
     while (context_node != NULL) {
-        if (context_terminator(context_node->context, token)) return true;
+        if (context_terminator(context_node->context, token)) return context_node->context;
         context_node = context_node->prev;
     }
 
-    return false;
+    return PM_CONTEXT_NONE;
 }
 
 static bool
@@ -6583,7 +6890,7 @@ context_pop(pm_parser_t *parser) {
 }
 
 static bool
-context_p(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_context_t context) {
+context_p(const pm_parser_t *parser, pm_context_t context) {
     pm_context_node_t *context_node = parser->current_context;
 
     while (context_node != NULL) {
@@ -6595,7 +6902,7 @@ context_p(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_context_t context) {
 }
 
 static bool
-context_def_p(pm_parser_t *parser) {
+context_def_p(const pm_parser_t *parser) {
     pm_context_node_t *context_node = parser->current_context;
 
     while (context_node != NULL) {
@@ -6618,6 +6925,55 @@ context_def_p(pm_parser_t *parser) {
     return false;
 }
 
+/**
+ * Returns a human readable string for the given context, used in error
+ * messages.
+ */
+static const char *
+context_human(pm_context_t context) {
+    switch (context) {
+        case PM_CONTEXT_NONE:
+            assert(false && "unreachable");
+            return "";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_BEGIN: return "begin statement";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_BLOCK_BRACES: return "'{'..'}' block";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_BLOCK_KEYWORDS: return "'do'..'end' block";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_CASE_WHEN: return "'when' clause";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_CASE_IN: return "'in' clause";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_CLASS: return "class definition";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_DEF: return "method definition";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_DEF_PARAMS: return "method parameters";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_DEFAULT_PARAMS: return "parameter default value";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_ELSE: return "'else' clause";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_ELSIF: return "'elsif' clause";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_EMBEXPR: return "embedded expression";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_ENSURE: return "'ensure' clause";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_ENSURE_DEF: return "'ensure' clause";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_FOR: return "for loop";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_FOR_INDEX: return "for loop index";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_IF: return "if statement";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_LAMBDA_BRACES: return "'{'..'}' lambda block";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_LAMBDA_DO_END: return "'do'..'end' lambda block";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_MAIN: return "top level context";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_MODULE: return "module definition";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_PARENS: return "parentheses";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_POSTEXE: return "'END' block";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_PREDICATE: return "predicate";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_PREEXE: return "'BEGIN' block";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_RESCUE_ELSE: return "'else' clause";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_RESCUE_ELSE_DEF: return "'else' clause";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_RESCUE: return "'rescue' clause";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_RESCUE_DEF: return "'rescue' clause";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_SCLASS: return "singleton class definition";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_UNLESS: return "unless statement";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_UNTIL: return "until statement";
+        case PM_CONTEXT_WHILE: return "while statement";
+    }
+
+    assert(false && "unreachable");
+    return "";
+}
+
 /******************************************************************************/
 /* Specific token lexers                                                      */
 /******************************************************************************/
@@ -6843,7 +7199,7 @@ lex_numeric(pm_parser_t *parser) {
 static pm_token_type_t
 lex_global_variable(pm_parser_t *parser) {
     if (parser->current.end >= parser->end) {
-        pm_parser_err_current(parser, PM_ERR_INVALID_VARIABLE_GLOBAL);
+        PM_PARSER_ERR_TOKEN_FORMAT_CONTENT(parser, parser->current, PM_ERR_INVALID_VARIABLE_GLOBAL);
         return PM_TOKEN_GLOBAL_VARIABLE;
     }
 
@@ -6884,7 +7240,7 @@ lex_global_variable(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                 } while (parser->current.end < parser->end && (width = char_is_identifier(parser, parser->current.end)) > 0);
 
                 // $0 isn't allowed to be followed by anything.
-                pm_parser_err_current(parser, PM_ERR_INVALID_VARIABLE_GLOBAL);
+                PM_PARSER_ERR_TOKEN_FORMAT_CONTENT(parser, parser->current, PM_ERR_INVALID_VARIABLE_GLOBAL);
             }
 
             return PM_TOKEN_GLOBAL_VARIABLE;
@@ -6915,7 +7271,7 @@ lex_global_variable(pm_parser_t *parser) {
             } else {
                 // If we get here, then we have a $ followed by something that isn't
                 // recognized as a global variable.
-                pm_parser_err_current(parser, PM_ERR_INVALID_VARIABLE_GLOBAL);
+                PM_PARSER_ERR_TOKEN_FORMAT_CONTENT(parser, parser->current, PM_ERR_INVALID_VARIABLE_GLOBAL);
             }
 
             return PM_TOKEN_GLOBAL_VARIABLE;
@@ -7360,6 +7716,28 @@ escape_write_byte_encoded(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_buffer_t *buffer, uint8_t byte
     pm_buffer_append_byte(buffer, byte);
 }
 
+/**
+ * Write each byte of the given escaped character into the buffer.
+ */
+static inline void
+escape_write_escape_encoded(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_buffer_t *buffer) {
+    size_t width;
+    if (parser->encoding_changed) {
+        width = parser->encoding->char_width(parser->current.end, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+    } else {
+        width = pm_encoding_utf_8_char_width(parser->current.end, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+    }
+
+    // TODO: If the character is invalid in the given encoding, then we'll just
+    // push one byte into the buffer. This should actually be an error.
+    width = (width == 0) ? 1 : width;
+
+    for (size_t index = 0; index < width; index++) {
+        escape_write_byte_encoded(parser, buffer, *parser->current.end);
+        parser->current.end++;
+    }
+}
+
 /**
  * The regular expression engine doesn't support the same escape sequences as
  * Ruby does. So first we have to read the escape sequence, and then we have to
@@ -7698,7 +8076,7 @@ escape_read(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_buffer_t *buffer, uint8_t flags) {
         /* fallthrough */
         default: {
             if (parser->current.end < parser->end) {
-                escape_write_byte_encoded(parser, buffer, *parser->current.end++);
+                escape_write_escape_encoded(parser, buffer);
             }
             return;
         }
@@ -7797,10 +8175,10 @@ lex_at_variable(pm_parser_t *parser) {
         while (parser->current.end < parser->end && (width = char_is_identifier(parser, parser->current.end)) > 0) {
             parser->current.end += width;
         }
-    } else if (type == PM_TOKEN_CLASS_VARIABLE) {
-        pm_parser_err_current(parser, PM_ERR_INCOMPLETE_VARIABLE_CLASS);
     } else {
-        pm_parser_err_current(parser, PM_ERR_INCOMPLETE_VARIABLE_INSTANCE);
+        pm_diagnostic_id_t diag_id = (type == PM_TOKEN_CLASS_VARIABLE) ? PM_ERR_INCOMPLETE_VARIABLE_CLASS : PM_ERR_INCOMPLETE_VARIABLE_INSTANCE;
+        size_t width = parser->encoding->char_width(parser->current.end, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+        PM_PARSER_ERR_TOKEN_FORMAT(parser, parser->current, diag_id, (int) ((parser->current.end + width) - parser->current.start), (const char *) parser->current.start);
     }
 
     // If we're lexing an embedded variable, then we need to pop back into the
@@ -7975,14 +8353,43 @@ typedef struct {
  * Push the given byte into the token buffer.
  */
 static inline void
-pm_token_buffer_push(pm_token_buffer_t *token_buffer, uint8_t byte) {
+pm_token_buffer_push_byte(pm_token_buffer_t *token_buffer, uint8_t byte) {
     pm_buffer_append_byte(&token_buffer->buffer, byte);
 }
 
+/**
+ * Append the given bytes into the token buffer.
+ */
+static inline void
+pm_token_buffer_push_bytes(pm_token_buffer_t *token_buffer, const uint8_t *bytes, size_t length) {
+    pm_buffer_append_bytes(&token_buffer->buffer, bytes, length);
+}
+
+/**
+ * Push an escaped character into the token buffer.
+ */
+static inline void
+pm_token_buffer_push_escaped(pm_token_buffer_t *token_buffer, pm_parser_t *parser) {
+    // First, determine the width of the character to be escaped.
+    size_t width;
+    if (parser->encoding_changed) {
+        width = parser->encoding->char_width(parser->current.end, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+    } else {
+        width = pm_encoding_utf_8_char_width(parser->current.end, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+    }
+
+    // TODO: If the character is invalid in the given encoding, then we'll just
+    // push one byte into the buffer. This should actually be an error.
+    width = (width == 0 ? 1 : width);
+
+    // Now, push the bytes into the buffer.
+    pm_token_buffer_push_bytes(token_buffer, parser->current.end, width);
+    parser->current.end += width;
+}
+
 /**
  * When we're about to return from lexing the current token and we know for sure
  * that we have found an escape sequence, this function is called to copy the
- *
  * contents of the token buffer into the current string on the parser so that it
  * can be attached to the correct node.
  */
@@ -7997,7 +8404,6 @@ pm_token_buffer_copy(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_token_buffer_t *token_buffer) {
  * string. If we haven't pushed anything into the buffer, this means that we
  * never found an escape sequence, so we can directly reference the bounds of
  * the current string. Either way, at the return of this function it is expected
- *
  * that parser->current_string is established in such a way that it can be
  * attached to a node.
  */
@@ -8016,7 +8422,6 @@ pm_token_buffer_flush(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_token_buffer_t *token_buffer) {
  * point into the buffer because we're about to provide a string that has
  * different content than a direct slice of the source.
  *
- *
  * It is expected that the parser's current token end will be pointing at one
  * byte past the backslash that starts the escape sequence.
  */
@@ -8070,6 +8475,34 @@ pm_heredoc_strspn_inline_whitespace(pm_parser_t *parser, const uint8_t **cursor,
     return whitespace;
 }
 
+/**
+ * Lex past the delimiter of a percent literal. Handle newlines and heredocs
+ * appropriately.
+ */
+static uint8_t
+pm_lex_percent_delimiter(pm_parser_t *parser) {
+    size_t eol_length = match_eol(parser);
+
+    if (eol_length) {
+        if (parser->heredoc_end) {
+            // If we have already lexed a heredoc, then the newline has already
+            // been added to the list. In this case we want to just flush the
+            // heredoc end.
+            parser_flush_heredoc_end(parser);
+        } else {
+            // Otherwise, we'll add the newline to the list of newlines.
+            pm_newline_list_append(&parser->newline_list, parser->current.end + eol_length - 1);
+        }
+
+        const uint8_t delimiter = *parser->current.end;
+        parser->current.end += eol_length;
+
+        return delimiter;
+    }
+
+    return *parser->current.end++;
+}
+
 /**
  * This is a convenience macro that will set the current token type, call the
  * lex callback, and then return from the parser_lex function.
@@ -8635,7 +9068,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                                         // this is not a valid heredoc declaration. In this case we
                                         // will add an error, but we will still return a heredoc
                                         // start.
-                                        pm_parser_err_current(parser, PM_ERR_EMBDOC_TERM);
+                                        pm_parser_err_current(parser, PM_ERR_HEREDOC_TERM);
                                         body_start = parser->end;
                                     } else {
                                         // Otherwise, we want to indicate that the body of the
@@ -8826,12 +9259,10 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                         LEX(PM_TOKEN_PLUS_EQUAL);
                     }
 
-                    bool spcarg = lex_state_spcarg_p(parser, space_seen);
-                    if (spcarg) {
-                        pm_parser_warn_token(parser, &parser->current, PM_WARN_AMBIGUOUS_FIRST_ARGUMENT_PLUS);
-                    }
-
-                    if (lex_state_beg_p(parser) || spcarg) {
+                    if (
+                        lex_state_beg_p(parser) ||
+                        (lex_state_spcarg_p(parser, space_seen) ? (pm_parser_warn_token(parser, &parser->current, PM_WARN_AMBIGUOUS_FIRST_ARGUMENT_PLUS), true) : false)
+                    ) {
                         lex_state_set(parser, PM_LEX_STATE_BEG);
 
                         if (pm_char_is_decimal_digit(peek(parser))) {
@@ -8871,11 +9302,12 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                     }
 
                     bool spcarg = lex_state_spcarg_p(parser, space_seen);
-                    if (spcarg) {
+                    bool is_beg = lex_state_beg_p(parser);
+                    if (!is_beg && spcarg) {
                         pm_parser_warn_token(parser, &parser->current, PM_WARN_AMBIGUOUS_FIRST_ARGUMENT_MINUS);
                     }
 
-                    if (lex_state_beg_p(parser) || spcarg) {
+                    if (is_beg || spcarg) {
                         lex_state_set(parser, PM_LEX_STATE_BEG);
                         LEX(pm_char_is_decimal_digit(peek(parser)) ? PM_TOKEN_UMINUS_NUM : PM_TOKEN_UMINUS);
                     }
@@ -9026,15 +9458,8 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                                 pm_parser_err_current(parser, PM_ERR_INVALID_PERCENT);
                             }
 
-                            lex_mode_push_string(parser, true, false, lex_mode_incrementor(*parser->current.end), lex_mode_terminator(*parser->current.end));
-
-                            size_t eol_length = match_eol(parser);
-                            if (eol_length) {
-                                parser->current.end += eol_length;
-                                pm_newline_list_append(&parser->newline_list, parser->current.end - 1);
-                            } else {
-                                parser->current.end++;
-                            }
+                            const uint8_t delimiter = pm_lex_percent_delimiter(parser);
+                            lex_mode_push_string(parser, true, false, lex_mode_incrementor(delimiter), lex_mode_terminator(delimiter));
 
                             if (parser->current.end < parser->end) {
                                 LEX(PM_TOKEN_STRING_BEGIN);
@@ -9054,7 +9479,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                                 parser->current.end++;
 
                                 if (parser->current.end < parser->end) {
-                                    lex_mode_push_list(parser, false, *parser->current.end++);
+                                    lex_mode_push_list(parser, false, pm_lex_percent_delimiter(parser));
                                 } else {
                                     lex_mode_push_list_eof(parser);
                                 }
@@ -9065,7 +9490,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                                 parser->current.end++;
 
                                 if (parser->current.end < parser->end) {
-                                    lex_mode_push_list(parser, true, *parser->current.end++);
+                                    lex_mode_push_list(parser, true, pm_lex_percent_delimiter(parser));
                                 } else {
                                     lex_mode_push_list_eof(parser);
                                 }
@@ -9076,9 +9501,8 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                                 parser->current.end++;
 
                                 if (parser->current.end < parser->end) {
-                                    lex_mode_push_regexp(parser, lex_mode_incrementor(*parser->current.end), lex_mode_terminator(*parser->current.end));
-                                    pm_newline_list_check_append(&parser->newline_list, parser->current.end);
-                                    parser->current.end++;
+                                    const uint8_t delimiter = pm_lex_percent_delimiter(parser);
+                                    lex_mode_push_regexp(parser, lex_mode_incrementor(delimiter), lex_mode_terminator(delimiter));
                                 } else {
                                     lex_mode_push_regexp(parser, '\0', '\0');
                                 }
@@ -9089,9 +9513,8 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                                 parser->current.end++;
 
                                 if (parser->current.end < parser->end) {
-                                    lex_mode_push_string(parser, false, false, lex_mode_incrementor(*parser->current.end), lex_mode_terminator(*parser->current.end));
-                                    pm_newline_list_check_append(&parser->newline_list, parser->current.end);
-                                    parser->current.end++;
+                                    const uint8_t delimiter = pm_lex_percent_delimiter(parser);
+                                    lex_mode_push_string(parser, false, false, lex_mode_incrementor(delimiter), lex_mode_terminator(delimiter));
                                 } else {
                                     lex_mode_push_string_eof(parser);
                                 }
@@ -9102,9 +9525,8 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                                 parser->current.end++;
 
                                 if (parser->current.end < parser->end) {
-                                    lex_mode_push_string(parser, true, false, lex_mode_incrementor(*parser->current.end), lex_mode_terminator(*parser->current.end));
-                                    pm_newline_list_check_append(&parser->newline_list, parser->current.end);
-                                    parser->current.end++;
+                                    const uint8_t delimiter = pm_lex_percent_delimiter(parser);
+                                    lex_mode_push_string(parser, true, false, lex_mode_incrementor(delimiter), lex_mode_terminator(delimiter));
                                 } else {
                                     lex_mode_push_string_eof(parser);
                                 }
@@ -9115,9 +9537,9 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                                 parser->current.end++;
 
                                 if (parser->current.end < parser->end) {
-                                    lex_mode_push_string(parser, false, false, lex_mode_incrementor(*parser->current.end), lex_mode_terminator(*parser->current.end));
+                                    const uint8_t delimiter = pm_lex_percent_delimiter(parser);
+                                    lex_mode_push_string(parser, false, false, lex_mode_incrementor(delimiter), lex_mode_terminator(delimiter));
                                     lex_state_set(parser, PM_LEX_STATE_FNAME | PM_LEX_STATE_FITEM);
-                                    parser->current.end++;
                                 } else {
                                     lex_mode_push_string_eof(parser);
                                 }
@@ -9128,7 +9550,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                                 parser->current.end++;
 
                                 if (parser->current.end < parser->end) {
-                                    lex_mode_push_list(parser, false, *parser->current.end++);
+                                    lex_mode_push_list(parser, false, pm_lex_percent_delimiter(parser));
                                 } else {
                                     lex_mode_push_list_eof(parser);
                                 }
@@ -9139,7 +9561,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                                 parser->current.end++;
 
                                 if (parser->current.end < parser->end) {
-                                    lex_mode_push_list(parser, true, *parser->current.end++);
+                                    lex_mode_push_list(parser, true, pm_lex_percent_delimiter(parser));
                                 } else {
                                     lex_mode_push_list_eof(parser);
                                 }
@@ -9150,8 +9572,8 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                                 parser->current.end++;
 
                                 if (parser->current.end < parser->end) {
-                                    lex_mode_push_string(parser, true, false, lex_mode_incrementor(*parser->current.end), lex_mode_terminator(*parser->current.end));
-                                    parser->current.end++;
+                                    const uint8_t delimiter = pm_lex_percent_delimiter(parser);
+                                    lex_mode_push_string(parser, true, false, lex_mode_incrementor(delimiter), lex_mode_terminator(delimiter));
                                 } else {
                                     lex_mode_push_string_eof(parser);
                                 }
@@ -9195,11 +9617,21 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                     if (*parser->current.start != '_') {
                         size_t width = char_is_identifier_start(parser, parser->current.start);
 
-                        // If this isn't the beginning of an identifier, then it's an invalid
-                        // token as we've exhausted all of the other options. We'll skip past
-                        // it and return the next token.
+                        // If this isn't the beginning of an identifier, then
+                        // it's an invalid token as we've exhausted all of the
+                        // other options. We'll skip past it and return the next
+                        // token after adding an appropriate error message.
                         if (!width) {
-                            pm_parser_err_current(parser, PM_ERR_INVALID_TOKEN);
+                            pm_diagnostic_id_t diag_id;
+                            if (*parser->current.start >= 0x80) {
+                                diag_id = PM_ERR_INVALID_MULTIBYTE_CHARACTER;
+                            } else if (char_is_ascii_printable(*parser->current.start) || (*parser->current.start == '\\')) {
+                                diag_id = PM_ERR_INVALID_PRINTABLE_CHARACTER;
+                            } else {
+                                diag_id = PM_ERR_INVALID_CHARACTER;
+                            }
+
+                            PM_PARSER_ERR_TOKEN_FORMAT(parser, parser->current, diag_id, *parser->current.start);
                             goto lex_next_token;
                         }
 
@@ -9306,7 +9738,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
             // and then find the first one.
             pm_lex_mode_t *lex_mode = parser->lex_modes.current;
             const uint8_t *breakpoints = lex_mode->as.list.breakpoints;
-            const uint8_t *breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+            const uint8_t *breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, true);
 
             // If we haven't found an escape yet, then this buffer will be
             // unallocated since we can refer directly to the source string.
@@ -9315,7 +9747,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
             while (breakpoint != NULL) {
                 // If we hit a null byte, skip directly past it.
                 if (*breakpoint == '\0') {
-                    breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, breakpoint + 1, breakpoints, parser->end - (breakpoint + 1));
+                    breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, breakpoint + 1, breakpoints, parser->end - (breakpoint + 1), true);
                     continue;
                 }
 
@@ -9334,7 +9766,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                     // we need to continue on past it.
                     if (lex_mode->as.list.nesting > 0) {
                         parser->current.end = breakpoint + 1;
-                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, true);
                         lex_mode->as.list.nesting--;
                         continue;
                     }
@@ -9377,18 +9809,18 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                         case '\t':
                         case '\v':
                         case '\\':
-                            pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, peeked);
+                            pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, peeked);
                             parser->current.end++;
                             break;
                         case '\r':
                             parser->current.end++;
                             if (peek(parser) != '\n') {
-                                pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, '\r');
+                                pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, '\r');
                                 break;
                             }
                         /* fallthrough */
                         case '\n':
-                            pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, '\n');
+                            pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, '\n');
 
                             if (parser->heredoc_end) {
                                 // ... if we are on the same line as a heredoc,
@@ -9406,21 +9838,20 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                             break;
                         default:
                             if (peeked == lex_mode->as.list.incrementor || peeked == lex_mode->as.list.terminator) {
-                                pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, peeked);
+                                pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, peeked);
                                 parser->current.end++;
                             } else if (lex_mode->as.list.interpolation) {
                                 escape_read(parser, &token_buffer.buffer, PM_ESCAPE_FLAG_NONE);
                             } else {
-                                pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, '\\');
-                                pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, peeked);
-                                parser->current.end++;
+                                pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, '\\');
+                                pm_token_buffer_push_escaped(&token_buffer, parser);
                             }
 
                             break;
                     }
 
                     token_buffer.cursor = parser->current.end;
-                    breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+                    breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, true);
                     continue;
                 }
 
@@ -9433,7 +9864,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                         // that looked like an interpolated class or instance variable
                         // like "#@" but wasn't actually. In this case we'll just skip
                         // to the next breakpoint.
-                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, true);
                         continue;
                     }
 
@@ -9448,7 +9879,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                 // and find the next breakpoint.
                 assert(*breakpoint == lex_mode->as.list.incrementor);
                 parser->current.end = breakpoint + 1;
-                breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+                breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, true);
                 lex_mode->as.list.nesting++;
                 continue;
             }
@@ -9487,14 +9918,14 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
             // regular expression. We'll use strpbrk to find the first of these
             // characters.
             const uint8_t *breakpoints = lex_mode->as.regexp.breakpoints;
-            const uint8_t *breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+            const uint8_t *breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, false);
             pm_token_buffer_t token_buffer = { { 0 }, 0 };
 
             while (breakpoint != NULL) {
                 // If we hit a null byte, skip directly past it.
                 if (*breakpoint == '\0') {
                     parser->current.end = breakpoint + 1;
-                    breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+                    breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, false);
                     continue;
                 }
 
@@ -9516,7 +9947,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                         // If the terminator is not a newline, then we can set
                         // the next breakpoint and continue.
                         parser->current.end = breakpoint + 1;
-                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, false);
                         continue;
                     }
                 }
@@ -9526,7 +9957,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                 if (*breakpoint == lex_mode->as.regexp.terminator) {
                     if (lex_mode->as.regexp.nesting > 0) {
                         parser->current.end = breakpoint + 1;
-                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, false);
                         lex_mode->as.regexp.nesting--;
                         continue;
                     }
@@ -9571,9 +10002,9 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                             parser->current.end++;
                             if (peek(parser) != '\n') {
                                 if (lex_mode->as.regexp.terminator != '\r') {
-                                    pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, '\\');
+                                    pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, '\\');
                                 }
-                                pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, '\r');
+                                pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, '\r');
                                 break;
                             }
                         /* fallthrough */
@@ -9608,25 +10039,24 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                                     case '$': case ')': case '*': case '+':
                                     case '.': case '>': case '?': case ']':
                                     case '^': case '|': case '}':
-                                        pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, '\\');
+                                        pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, '\\');
                                         break;
                                     default:
                                         break;
                                 }
 
-                                pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, peeked);
+                                pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, peeked);
                                 parser->current.end++;
                                 break;
                             }
 
-                            if (peeked < 0x80) pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, '\\');
-                            pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, peeked);
-                            parser->current.end++;
+                            if (peeked < 0x80) pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, '\\');
+                            pm_token_buffer_push_escaped(&token_buffer, parser);
                             break;
                     }
 
                     token_buffer.cursor = parser->current.end;
-                    breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+                    breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, false);
                     continue;
                 }
 
@@ -9639,7 +10069,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                         // something that looked like an interpolated class or
                         // instance variable like "#@" but wasn't actually. In
                         // this case we'll just skip to the next breakpoint.
-                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, false);
                         continue;
                     }
 
@@ -9654,7 +10084,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                 // and find the next breakpoint.
                 assert(*breakpoint == lex_mode->as.regexp.incrementor);
                 parser->current.end = breakpoint + 1;
-                breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+                breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, false);
                 lex_mode->as.regexp.nesting++;
                 continue;
             }
@@ -9690,7 +10120,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
             // string. We'll use strpbrk to find the first of these characters.
             pm_lex_mode_t *lex_mode = parser->lex_modes.current;
             const uint8_t *breakpoints = lex_mode->as.string.breakpoints;
-            const uint8_t *breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+            const uint8_t *breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, true);
 
             // If we haven't found an escape yet, then this buffer will be
             // unallocated since we can refer directly to the source string.
@@ -9702,7 +10132,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                 if (lex_mode->as.string.incrementor != '\0' && *breakpoint == lex_mode->as.string.incrementor) {
                     lex_mode->as.string.nesting++;
                     parser->current.end = breakpoint + 1;
-                    breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+                    breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, true);
                     continue;
                 }
 
@@ -9714,7 +10144,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                     // to continue on past it.
                     if (lex_mode->as.string.nesting > 0) {
                         parser->current.end = breakpoint + 1;
-                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, true);
                         lex_mode->as.string.nesting--;
                         continue;
                     }
@@ -9756,7 +10186,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                     if (parser->heredoc_end == NULL) {
                         pm_newline_list_append(&parser->newline_list, breakpoint);
                         parser->current.end = breakpoint + 1;
-                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, true);
                         continue;
                     } else {
                         parser->current.end = breakpoint + 1;
@@ -9770,7 +10200,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                     case '\0':
                         // Skip directly past the null character.
                         parser->current.end = breakpoint + 1;
-                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, true);
                         break;
                     case '\\': {
                         // Here we hit escapes.
@@ -9788,23 +10218,23 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
 
                         switch (peeked) {
                             case '\\':
-                                pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, '\\');
+                                pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, '\\');
                                 parser->current.end++;
                                 break;
                             case '\r':
                                 parser->current.end++;
                                 if (peek(parser) != '\n') {
                                     if (!lex_mode->as.string.interpolation) {
-                                        pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, '\\');
+                                        pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, '\\');
                                     }
-                                    pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, '\r');
+                                    pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, '\r');
                                     break;
                                 }
                             /* fallthrough */
                             case '\n':
                                 if (!lex_mode->as.string.interpolation) {
-                                    pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, '\\');
-                                    pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, '\n');
+                                    pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, '\\');
+                                    pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, '\n');
                                 }
 
                                 if (parser->heredoc_end) {
@@ -9823,24 +10253,23 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                                 break;
                             default:
                                 if (lex_mode->as.string.incrementor != '\0' && peeked == lex_mode->as.string.incrementor) {
-                                    pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, peeked);
+                                    pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, peeked);
                                     parser->current.end++;
                                 } else if (lex_mode->as.string.terminator != '\0' && peeked == lex_mode->as.string.terminator) {
-                                    pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, peeked);
+                                    pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, peeked);
                                     parser->current.end++;
                                 } else if (lex_mode->as.string.interpolation) {
                                     escape_read(parser, &token_buffer.buffer, PM_ESCAPE_FLAG_NONE);
                                 } else {
-                                    pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, '\\');
-                                    pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, peeked);
-                                    parser->current.end++;
+                                    pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, '\\');
+                                    pm_token_buffer_push_escaped(&token_buffer, parser);
                                 }
 
                                 break;
                         }
 
                         token_buffer.cursor = parser->current.end;
-                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, true);
                         break;
                     }
                     case '#': {
@@ -9851,7 +10280,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                             // looked like an interpolated class or instance variable like "#@"
                             // but wasn't actually. In this case we'll just skip to the next
                             // breakpoint.
-                            breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+                            breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, true);
                             break;
                         }
 
@@ -9888,15 +10317,22 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                 parser->next_start = NULL;
             }
 
-            // We'll check if we're at the end of the file. If we are, then we need to
-            // return the EOF token.
+            // Now let's grab the information about the identifier off of the
+            // current lex mode.
+            pm_lex_mode_t *lex_mode = parser->lex_modes.current;
+
+            // We'll check if we're at the end of the file. If we are, then we
+            // will add an error (because we weren't able to find the
+            // terminator) but still continue parsing so that content after the
+            // declaration of the heredoc can be parsed.
             if (parser->current.end >= parser->end) {
-                LEX(PM_TOKEN_EOF);
+                pm_parser_err_current(parser, PM_ERR_HEREDOC_TERM);
+                parser->next_start = lex_mode->as.heredoc.next_start;
+                parser->heredoc_end = parser->current.end;
+                lex_state_set(parser, PM_LEX_STATE_END);
+                LEX(PM_TOKEN_HEREDOC_END);
             }
 
-            // Now let's grab the information about the identifier off of the current
-            // lex mode.
-            pm_lex_mode_t *lex_mode = parser->lex_modes.current;
             const uint8_t *ident_start = lex_mode->as.heredoc.ident_start;
             size_t ident_length = lex_mode->as.heredoc.ident_length;
 
@@ -9972,7 +10408,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                 breakpoints[2] = '\0';
             }
 
-            const uint8_t *breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+            const uint8_t *breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, true);
             pm_token_buffer_t token_buffer = { { 0 }, 0 };
             bool was_escaped_newline = false;
 
@@ -9981,7 +10417,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                     case '\0':
                         // Skip directly past the null character.
                         parser->current.end = breakpoint + 1;
-                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, true);
                         break;
                     case '\n': {
                         if (parser->heredoc_end != NULL && (parser->heredoc_end > breakpoint)) {
@@ -10056,7 +10492,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                         // Otherwise we hit a newline and it wasn't followed by
                         // a terminator, so we can continue parsing.
                         parser->current.end = breakpoint + 1;
-                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, true);
                         break;
                     }
                     case '\\': {
@@ -10083,21 +10519,20 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                                 case '\r':
                                     parser->current.end++;
                                     if (peek(parser) != '\n') {
-                                        pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, '\\');
-                                        pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, '\r');
+                                        pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, '\\');
+                                        pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, '\r');
                                         break;
                                     }
                                 /* fallthrough */
                                 case '\n':
-                                    pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, '\\');
-                                    pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, '\n');
+                                    pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, '\\');
+                                    pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, '\n');
                                     token_buffer.cursor = parser->current.end + 1;
                                     breakpoint = parser->current.end;
                                     continue;
                                 default:
-                                    parser->current.end++;
-                                    pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, '\\');
-                                    pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, peeked);
+                                    pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, '\\');
+                                    pm_token_buffer_push_escaped(&token_buffer, parser);
                                     break;
                             }
                         } else {
@@ -10105,7 +10540,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                                 case '\r':
                                     parser->current.end++;
                                     if (peek(parser) != '\n') {
-                                        pm_token_buffer_push(&token_buffer, '\r');
+                                        pm_token_buffer_push_byte(&token_buffer, '\r');
                                         break;
                                     }
                                 /* fallthrough */
@@ -10121,7 +10556,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                         }
 
                         token_buffer.cursor = parser->current.end;
-                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+                        breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, true);
                         break;
                     }
                     case '#': {
@@ -10133,7 +10568,7 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
                             // or instance variable like "#@" but wasn't
                             // actually. In this case we'll just skip to the
                             // next breakpoint.
-                            breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end);
+                            breakpoint = pm_strpbrk(parser, parser->current.end, breakpoints, parser->end - parser->current.end, true);
                             break;
                         }
 
@@ -10184,8 +10619,8 @@ parser_lex(pm_parser_t *parser) {
 typedef enum {
     PM_BINDING_POWER_UNSET =             0, // used to indicate this token cannot be used as an infix operator
     PM_BINDING_POWER_STATEMENT =         2,
-    PM_BINDING_POWER_MODIFIER =          4, // if unless until while
-    PM_BINDING_POWER_MODIFIER_RESCUE =   6, // rescue
+    PM_BINDING_POWER_MODIFIER_RESCUE =   4, // rescue
+    PM_BINDING_POWER_MODIFIER =          6, // if unless until while
     PM_BINDING_POWER_COMPOSITION =       8, // and or
     PM_BINDING_POWER_NOT =              10, // not
     PM_BINDING_POWER_MATCH =            12, // => in
@@ -10239,15 +10674,15 @@ typedef struct {
 #define RIGHT_ASSOCIATIVE_UNARY(precedence) { precedence, precedence, false, false }
 
 pm_binding_powers_t pm_binding_powers[PM_TOKEN_MAXIMUM] = {
+    // rescue
+    [PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_RESCUE_MODIFIER] = LEFT_ASSOCIATIVE(PM_BINDING_POWER_MODIFIER_RESCUE),
+
     // if unless until while
     [PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_IF_MODIFIER] = LEFT_ASSOCIATIVE(PM_BINDING_POWER_MODIFIER),
     [PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_UNLESS_MODIFIER] = LEFT_ASSOCIATIVE(PM_BINDING_POWER_MODIFIER),
     [PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_UNTIL_MODIFIER] = LEFT_ASSOCIATIVE(PM_BINDING_POWER_MODIFIER),
     [PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_WHILE_MODIFIER] = LEFT_ASSOCIATIVE(PM_BINDING_POWER_MODIFIER),
 
-    // rescue
-    [PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_RESCUE_MODIFIER] = LEFT_ASSOCIATIVE(PM_BINDING_POWER_MODIFIER_RESCUE),
-
     // and or
     [PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_AND] = LEFT_ASSOCIATIVE(PM_BINDING_POWER_COMPOSITION),
     [PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_OR] = LEFT_ASSOCIATIVE(PM_BINDING_POWER_COMPOSITION),
@@ -10381,14 +10816,6 @@ match4(const pm_parser_t *parser, pm_token_type_t type1, pm_token_type_t type2,
     return match1(parser, type1) || match1(parser, type2) || match1(parser, type3) || match1(parser, type4);
 }
 
-/**
- * Returns true if the current token is any of the five given types.
- */
-static inline bool
-match5(const pm_parser_t *parser, pm_token_type_t type1, pm_token_type_t type2, pm_token_type_t type3, pm_token_type_t type4, pm_token_type_t type5) {
-    return match1(parser, type1) || match1(parser, type2) || match1(parser, type3) || match1(parser, type4) || match1(parser, type5);
-}
-
 /**
  * Returns true if the current token is any of the six given types.
  */
@@ -10654,7 +11081,7 @@ parse_target(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *target) {
             return target;
         case PM_BACK_REFERENCE_READ_NODE:
         case PM_NUMBERED_REFERENCE_READ_NODE:
-            pm_parser_err_node(parser, target, PM_ERR_WRITE_TARGET_READONLY);
+            PM_PARSER_ERR_NODE_FORMAT_CONTENT(parser, target, PM_ERR_WRITE_TARGET_READONLY);
             return target;
         case PM_GLOBAL_VARIABLE_READ_NODE:
             assert(sizeof(pm_global_variable_target_node_t) == sizeof(pm_global_variable_read_node_t));
@@ -10792,7 +11219,7 @@ parse_write(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *target, pm_token_t *operator, pm_nod
         }
         case PM_BACK_REFERENCE_READ_NODE:
         case PM_NUMBERED_REFERENCE_READ_NODE:
-            pm_parser_err_node(parser, target, PM_ERR_WRITE_TARGET_READONLY);
+            PM_PARSER_ERR_NODE_FORMAT_CONTENT(parser, target, PM_ERR_WRITE_TARGET_READONLY);
             /* fallthrough */
         case PM_GLOBAL_VARIABLE_READ_NODE: {
             pm_global_variable_write_node_t *node = pm_global_variable_write_node_create(parser, target, operator, value);
@@ -10866,7 +11293,7 @@ parse_write(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *target, pm_token_t *operator, pm_nod
                     return target;
                 }
 
-                if (*call->message_loc.start == '_' || parser->encoding->alnum_char(call->message_loc.start, call->message_loc.end - call->message_loc.start)) {
+                if (char_is_identifier_start(parser, call->message_loc.start)) {
                     // When we get here, we have a method call, because it was
                     // previously marked as a method call but now we have an =. This
                     // looks like:
@@ -10967,7 +11394,7 @@ parse_targets(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *first_target, pm_binding_power_t b
             pm_multi_target_node_targets_append(parser, result, target);
         } else if (!match1(parser, PM_TOKEN_EOF)) {
             // If we get here, then we have a trailing , in a multi target node.
-            // We'll set the implicit rest flag to indicate this.
+            // We'll add an implicit rest node to represent this.
             pm_node_t *rest = (pm_node_t *) pm_implicit_rest_node_create(parser, &parser->previous);
             pm_multi_target_node_targets_append(parser, result, rest);
             break;
@@ -10984,6 +11411,7 @@ parse_targets(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *first_target, pm_binding_power_t b
 static pm_node_t *
 parse_targets_validate(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *first_target, pm_binding_power_t binding_power) {
     pm_node_t *result = parse_targets(parser, first_target, binding_power);
+    accept1(parser, PM_TOKEN_NEWLINE);
 
     // Ensure that we have either an = or a ) after the targets.
     if (!match2(parser, PM_TOKEN_EQUAL, PM_TOKEN_PARENTHESIS_RIGHT)) {
@@ -11024,7 +11452,7 @@ parse_statements(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_context_t context) {
             break;
         }
 
-        // If we have a terminator, then we will parse all consequtive terminators
+        // If we have a terminator, then we will parse all consecutive terminators
         // and then continue parsing the statements list.
         if (accept2(parser, PM_TOKEN_NEWLINE, PM_TOKEN_SEMICOLON)) {
             // If we have a terminator, then we will continue parsing the statements
@@ -11056,8 +11484,13 @@ parse_statements(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_context_t context) {
 
             while (accept2(parser, PM_TOKEN_NEWLINE, PM_TOKEN_SEMICOLON));
             if (context_terminator(context, &parser->current)) break;
-        } else {
-            expect1(parser, PM_TOKEN_NEWLINE, PM_ERR_EXPECT_EOL_AFTER_STATEMENT);
+        } else if (!accept1(parser, PM_TOKEN_NEWLINE)) {
+            // This is an inlined version of accept1 because the error that we
+            // want to add has varargs. If this happens again, we should
+            // probably extract a helper function.
+            PM_PARSER_ERR_TOKEN_FORMAT(parser, parser->current, PM_ERR_EXPECT_EOL_AFTER_STATEMENT, pm_token_type_human(parser->current.type));
+            parser->previous.start = parser->previous.end;
+            parser->previous.type = PM_TOKEN_MISSING;
         }
     }
 
@@ -11084,8 +11517,9 @@ parse_assocs(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *node) {
 
                 if (token_begins_expression_p(parser->current.type)) {
                     value = parse_value_expression(parser, PM_BINDING_POWER_DEFINED, false, PM_ERR_EXPECT_EXPRESSION_AFTER_SPLAT_HASH);
-                } else if (pm_parser_local_depth(parser, &operator) == -1) {
-                    pm_parser_err_token(parser, &operator, PM_ERR_EXPECT_EXPRESSION_AFTER_SPLAT_HASH);
+                }
+                else {
+                    pm_parser_scope_forwarding_keywords_check(parser, &operator);
                 }
 
                 element = (pm_node_t *) pm_assoc_splat_node_create(parser, value, &operator);
@@ -11234,13 +11668,8 @@ parse_arguments(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_arguments_t *arguments, bool accepts_for
                 if (token_begins_expression_p(parser->current.type)) {
                     expression = parse_value_expression(parser, PM_BINDING_POWER_DEFINED, false, PM_ERR_EXPECT_ARGUMENT);
                 } else {
-                    if (pm_parser_local_depth(parser, &operator) == -1) {
-                        // A block forwarding in a method having `...` parameter (e.g. `def foo(...); bar(&); end`) is available.
-                        pm_constant_id_t ellipsis_id = pm_parser_constant_id_constant(parser, "...", 3);
-                        if (pm_parser_local_depth_constant_id(parser, ellipsis_id) == -1) {
-                            pm_parser_err_token(parser, &operator, PM_ERR_ARGUMENT_NO_FORWARDING_AMP);
-                        }
-                    }
+                    // A block forwarding in a method having `...` parameter (e.g. `def foo(...); bar(&); end`) is available.
+                    pm_parser_scope_forwarding_block_check(parser, &operator);
                 }
 
                 argument = (pm_node_t *) pm_block_argument_node_create(parser, &operator, expression);
@@ -11258,10 +11687,7 @@ parse_arguments(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_arguments_t *arguments, bool accepts_for
                 pm_token_t operator = parser->previous;
 
                 if (match4(parser, PM_TOKEN_PARENTHESIS_RIGHT, PM_TOKEN_COMMA, PM_TOKEN_SEMICOLON, PM_TOKEN_BRACKET_RIGHT)) {
-                    if (pm_parser_local_depth(parser, &parser->previous) == -1) {
-                        pm_parser_err_token(parser, &operator, PM_ERR_ARGUMENT_NO_FORWARDING_STAR);
-                    }
-
+                    pm_parser_scope_forwarding_positionals_check(parser, &operator);
                     argument = (pm_node_t *) pm_splat_node_create(parser, &operator, NULL);
                 } else {
                     pm_node_t *expression = parse_value_expression(parser, PM_BINDING_POWER_DEFINED, false, PM_ERR_EXPECT_EXPRESSION_AFTER_SPLAT);
@@ -11287,15 +11713,14 @@ parse_arguments(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_arguments_t *arguments, bool accepts_for
                         pm_node_t *right = parse_expression(parser, PM_BINDING_POWER_RANGE, false, PM_ERR_EXPECT_EXPRESSION_AFTER_OPERATOR);
                         argument = (pm_node_t *) pm_range_node_create(parser, NULL, &operator, right);
                     } else {
-                        if (pm_parser_local_depth(parser, &parser->previous) == -1) {
-                            pm_parser_err_previous(parser, PM_ERR_ARGUMENT_NO_FORWARDING_ELLIPSES);
-                        }
+                        pm_parser_scope_forwarding_all_check(parser, &parser->previous);
                         if (parsed_first_argument && terminator == PM_TOKEN_EOF) {
                             pm_parser_err_previous(parser, PM_ERR_ARGUMENT_FORWARDING_UNBOUND);
                         }
 
                         argument = (pm_node_t *) pm_forwarding_arguments_node_create(parser, &parser->previous);
                         parse_arguments_append(parser, arguments, argument);
+                        arguments->has_forwarding = true;
                         parsed_forwarding_arguments = true;
                         break;
                     }
@@ -11338,6 +11763,9 @@ parse_arguments(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_arguments_t *arguments, bool accepts_for
                     }
 
                     parsed_bare_hash = true;
+                } else if (accept1(parser, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_IN)) {
+                    // TODO: Could we solve this with binding powers instead?
+                    pm_parser_err_current(parser, PM_ERR_ARGUMENT_IN);
                 }
 
                 parse_arguments_append(parser, arguments, argument);
@@ -11414,7 +11842,9 @@ parse_required_destructured_parameter(pm_parser_t *parser) {
             if (accept1(parser, PM_TOKEN_IDENTIFIER)) {
                 pm_token_t name = parser->previous;
                 value = (pm_node_t *) pm_required_parameter_node_create(parser, &name);
-                pm_parser_parameter_name_check(parser, &name);
+                if (pm_parser_parameter_name_check(parser, &name)) {
+                    pm_node_flag_set_repeated_parameter(value);
+                }
                 pm_parser_local_add_token(parser, &name);
             }
 
@@ -11424,7 +11854,9 @@ parse_required_destructured_parameter(pm_parser_t *parser) {
             pm_token_t name = parser->previous;
 
             param = (pm_node_t *) pm_required_parameter_node_create(parser, &name);
-            pm_parser_parameter_name_check(parser, &name);
+            if (pm_parser_parameter_name_check(parser, &name)) {
+                pm_node_flag_set_repeated_parameter(param);
+            }
             pm_parser_local_add_token(parser, &name);
         }
 
@@ -11541,19 +11973,20 @@ parse_parameters(
                 pm_token_t operator = parser->previous;
                 pm_token_t name;
 
+                bool repeated = false;
                 if (accept1(parser, PM_TOKEN_IDENTIFIER)) {
                     name = parser->previous;
-                    pm_parser_parameter_name_check(parser, &name);
+                    repeated = pm_parser_parameter_name_check(parser, &name);
                     pm_parser_local_add_token(parser, &name);
                 } else {
                     name = not_provided(parser);
-
-                    if (allows_forwarding_parameters) {
-                        pm_parser_local_add_token(parser, &operator);
-                    }
+                    parser->current_scope->forwarding_params |= PM_FORWARDING_BLOCK;
                 }
 
                 pm_block_parameter_node_t *param = pm_block_parameter_node_create(parser, &name, &operator);
+                if (repeated) {
+                    pm_node_flag_set_repeated_parameter((pm_node_t *)param);
+                }
                 if (params->block == NULL) {
                     pm_parameters_node_block_set(params, param);
                 } else {
@@ -11572,9 +12005,8 @@ parse_parameters(
                     update_parameter_state(parser, &parser->current, &order);
                     parser_lex(parser);
 
-                    if (allows_forwarding_parameters) {
-                        pm_parser_local_add_token(parser, &parser->previous);
-                    }
+                    parser->current_scope->forwarding_params |= PM_FORWARDING_BLOCK;
+                    parser->current_scope->forwarding_params |= PM_FORWARDING_ALL;
 
                     pm_forwarding_parameter_node_t *param = pm_forwarding_parameter_node_create(parser, &parser->previous);
                     if (params->keyword_rest != NULL) {
@@ -11626,20 +12058,23 @@ parse_parameters(
                 }
 
                 pm_token_t name = parser->previous;
-                pm_parser_parameter_name_check(parser, &name);
+                bool repeated = pm_parser_parameter_name_check(parser, &name);
                 pm_parser_local_add_token(parser, &name);
 
                 if (accept1(parser, PM_TOKEN_EQUAL)) {
                     pm_token_t operator = parser->previous;
                     context_push(parser, PM_CONTEXT_DEFAULT_PARAMS);
-                    pm_constant_id_t old_param_name = parser->current_param_name;
-                    parser->current_param_name = pm_parser_constant_id_token(parser, &name);
+
+                    pm_constant_id_t saved_param_name = pm_parser_current_param_name_set(parser, pm_parser_constant_id_token(parser, &name));
                     pm_node_t *value = parse_value_expression(parser, binding_power, false, PM_ERR_PARAMETER_NO_DEFAULT);
 
                     pm_optional_parameter_node_t *param = pm_optional_parameter_node_create(parser, &name, &operator, value);
+                    if (repeated) {
+                        pm_node_flag_set_repeated_parameter((pm_node_t *)param);
+                    }
                     pm_parameters_node_optionals_append(params, param);
 
-                    parser->current_param_name = old_param_name;
+                    pm_parser_current_param_name_restore(parser, saved_param_name);
                     context_pop(parser);
 
                     // If parsing the value of the parameter resulted in error recovery,
@@ -11651,9 +12086,15 @@ parse_parameters(
                     }
                 } else if (order > PM_PARAMETERS_ORDER_AFTER_OPTIONAL) {
                     pm_required_parameter_node_t *param = pm_required_parameter_node_create(parser, &name);
+                    if (repeated) {
+                        pm_node_flag_set_repeated_parameter((pm_node_t *)param);
+                    }
                     pm_parameters_node_requireds_append(params, (pm_node_t *) param);
                 } else {
                     pm_required_parameter_node_t *param = pm_required_parameter_node_create(parser, &name);
+                    if (repeated) {
+                        pm_node_flag_set_repeated_parameter((pm_node_t *)param);
+                    }
                     pm_parameters_node_posts_append(params, (pm_node_t *) param);
                 }
 
@@ -11668,7 +12109,7 @@ parse_parameters(
                 pm_token_t local = name;
                 local.end -= 1;
 
-                pm_parser_parameter_name_check(parser, &local);
+                bool repeated = pm_parser_parameter_name_check(parser, &local);
                 pm_parser_local_add_token(parser, &local);
 
                 switch (parser->current.type) {
@@ -11676,6 +12117,9 @@ parse_parameters(
                     case PM_TOKEN_PARENTHESIS_RIGHT:
                     case PM_TOKEN_PIPE: {
                         pm_node_t *param = (pm_node_t *) pm_required_keyword_parameter_node_create(parser, &name);
+                        if (repeated) {
+                            pm_node_flag_set_repeated_parameter(param);
+                        }
                         pm_parameters_node_keywords_append(params, param);
                         break;
                     }
@@ -11687,6 +12131,9 @@ parse_parameters(
                         }
 
                         pm_node_t *param = (pm_node_t *) pm_required_keyword_parameter_node_create(parser, &name);
+                        if (repeated) {
+                            pm_node_flag_set_repeated_parameter(param);
+                        }
                         pm_parameters_node_keywords_append(params, param);
                         break;
                     }
@@ -11695,17 +12142,22 @@ parse_parameters(
 
                         if (token_begins_expression_p(parser->current.type)) {
                             context_push(parser, PM_CONTEXT_DEFAULT_PARAMS);
-                            pm_constant_id_t old_param_name = parser->current_param_name;
-                            parser->current_param_name = pm_parser_constant_id_token(parser, &local);
+
+                            pm_constant_id_t saved_param_name = pm_parser_current_param_name_set(parser, pm_parser_constant_id_token(parser, &local));
                             pm_node_t *value = parse_value_expression(parser, binding_power, false, PM_ERR_PARAMETER_NO_DEFAULT_KW);
-                            parser->current_param_name = old_param_name;
+
+                            pm_parser_current_param_name_restore(parser, saved_param_name);
                             context_pop(parser);
+
                             param = (pm_node_t *) pm_optional_keyword_parameter_node_create(parser, &name, value);
                         }
                         else {
                             param = (pm_node_t *) pm_required_keyword_parameter_node_create(parser, &name);
                         }
 
+                        if (repeated) {
+                            pm_node_flag_set_repeated_parameter(param);
+                        }
                         pm_parameters_node_keywords_append(params, param);
 
                         // If parsing the value of the parameter resulted in error recovery,
@@ -11728,20 +12180,21 @@ parse_parameters(
 
                 pm_token_t operator = parser->previous;
                 pm_token_t name;
-
+                bool repeated = false;
                 if (accept1(parser, PM_TOKEN_IDENTIFIER)) {
                     name = parser->previous;
-                    pm_parser_parameter_name_check(parser, &name);
+                    repeated = pm_parser_parameter_name_check(parser, &name);
                     pm_parser_local_add_token(parser, &name);
                 } else {
                     name = not_provided(parser);
 
-                    if (allows_forwarding_parameters) {
-                        pm_parser_local_add_token(parser, &operator);
-                    }
+                    parser->current_scope->forwarding_params |= PM_FORWARDING_POSITIONALS;
                 }
 
                 pm_node_t *param = (pm_node_t *) pm_rest_parameter_node_create(parser, &operator, &name);
+                if (repeated) {
+                    pm_node_flag_set_repeated_parameter(param);
+                }
                 if (params->rest == NULL) {
                     pm_parameters_node_rest_set(params, param);
                 } else {
@@ -11764,19 +12217,21 @@ parse_parameters(
                 } else {
                     pm_token_t name;
 
+                    bool repeated = false;
                     if (accept1(parser, PM_TOKEN_IDENTIFIER)) {
                         name = parser->previous;
-                        pm_parser_parameter_name_check(parser, &name);
+                        repeated = pm_parser_parameter_name_check(parser, &name);
                         pm_parser_local_add_token(parser, &name);
                     } else {
                         name = not_provided(parser);
 
-                        if (allows_forwarding_parameters) {
-                            pm_parser_local_add_token(parser, &operator);
-                        }
+                        parser->current_scope->forwarding_params |= PM_FORWARDING_KEYWORDS;
                     }
 
                     param = (pm_node_t *) pm_keyword_rest_parameter_node_create(parser, &operator, &name);
+                    if (repeated) {
+                        pm_node_flag_set_repeated_parameter(param);
+                    }
                 }
 
                 if (params->keyword_rest == NULL) {
@@ -11964,25 +12419,10 @@ parse_rescues(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_begin_node_t *parent_node, bool def_p) {
 }
 
 static inline pm_begin_node_t *
-parse_rescues_as_begin(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_statements_node_t *statements, bool def_p) {
+parse_rescues_as_begin(pm_parser_t *parser, const uint8_t *start, pm_statements_node_t *statements, bool def_p) {
     pm_token_t no_begin_token = not_provided(parser);
     pm_begin_node_t *begin_node = pm_begin_node_create(parser, &no_begin_token, statements);
     parse_rescues(parser, begin_node, def_p);
-
-    // All nodes within a begin node are optional, so we look
-    // for the earliest possible node that we can use to set
-    // the BeginNode's start location
-    const uint8_t *start = begin_node->base.location.start;
-    if (begin_node->statements) {
-        start = begin_node->statements->base.location.start;
-    } else if (begin_node->rescue_clause) {
-        start = begin_node->rescue_clause->base.location.start;
-    } else if (begin_node->else_clause) {
-        start = begin_node->else_clause->base.location.start;
-    } else if (begin_node->ensure_clause) {
-        start = begin_node->ensure_clause->base.location.start;
-    }
-
     begin_node->base.location.start = start;
     return begin_node;
 }
@@ -12012,10 +12452,13 @@ parse_block_parameters(
     if ((opening->type != PM_TOKEN_NOT_PROVIDED) && accept1(parser, PM_TOKEN_SEMICOLON)) {
         do {
             expect1(parser, PM_TOKEN_IDENTIFIER, PM_ERR_BLOCK_PARAM_LOCAL_VARIABLE);
-            pm_parser_parameter_name_check(parser, &parser->previous);
+            bool repeated = pm_parser_parameter_name_check(parser, &parser->previous);
             pm_parser_local_add_token(parser, &parser->previous);
 
             pm_block_local_variable_node_t *local = pm_block_local_variable_node_create(parser, &parser->previous);
+            if (repeated) {
+                pm_node_flag_set_repeated_parameter((pm_node_t *)local);
+            }
             pm_block_parameters_node_append_local(block_parameters, local);
         } while (accept1(parser, PM_TOKEN_COMMA));
     }
@@ -12031,8 +12474,10 @@ parse_block(pm_parser_t *parser) {
     pm_token_t opening = parser->previous;
     accept1(parser, PM_TOKEN_NEWLINE);
 
+    pm_constant_id_t saved_param_name = pm_parser_current_param_name_unset(parser);
     pm_accepts_block_stack_push(parser, true);
     pm_parser_scope_push(parser, false);
+
     pm_block_parameters_node_t *block_parameters = NULL;
 
     if (accept1(parser, PM_TOKEN_PIPE)) {
@@ -12053,12 +12498,6 @@ parse_block(pm_parser_t *parser) {
         pm_block_parameters_node_closing_set(block_parameters, &parser->previous);
     }
 
-    uint32_t locals_body_index = 0;
-
-    if (block_parameters) {
-        locals_body_index = (uint32_t) parser->current_scope->locals.size;
-    }
-
     accept1(parser, PM_TOKEN_NEWLINE);
     pm_node_t *statements = NULL;
 
@@ -12078,7 +12517,7 @@ parse_block(pm_parser_t *parser) {
 
             if (match2(parser, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_RESCUE, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_ENSURE)) {
                 assert(statements == NULL || PM_NODE_TYPE_P(statements, PM_STATEMENTS_NODE));
-                statements = (pm_node_t *) parse_rescues_as_begin(parser, (pm_statements_node_t *) statements, false);
+                statements = (pm_node_t *) parse_rescues_as_begin(parser, opening.start, (pm_statements_node_t *) statements, false);
             }
         }
 
@@ -12090,13 +12529,14 @@ parse_block(pm_parser_t *parser) {
 
     if (parameters == NULL && (maximum > 0)) {
         parameters = (pm_node_t *) pm_numbered_parameters_node_create(parser, &(pm_location_t) { .start = opening.start, .end = parser->previous.end }, maximum);
-        locals_body_index = maximum;
     }
 
     pm_constant_id_list_t locals = parser->current_scope->locals;
     pm_parser_scope_pop(parser);
     pm_accepts_block_stack_pop(parser);
-    return pm_block_node_create(parser, &locals, locals_body_index, &opening, parameters, statements, &parser->previous);
+    pm_parser_current_param_name_restore(parser, saved_param_name);
+
+    return pm_block_node_create(parser, &locals, &opening, parameters, statements, &parser->previous);
 }
 
 /**
@@ -12157,14 +12597,20 @@ parse_arguments_list(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_arguments_t *arguments, bool accept
         }
 
         if (block != NULL) {
-            if (arguments->block == NULL) {
+            if (arguments->block == NULL && !arguments->has_forwarding) {
                 arguments->block = (pm_node_t *) block;
             } else {
-                pm_parser_err_node(parser, (pm_node_t *) block, PM_ERR_ARGUMENT_BLOCK_MULTI);
-                if (arguments->arguments == NULL) {
-                    arguments->arguments = pm_arguments_node_create(parser);
+                if (arguments->has_forwarding) {
+                    pm_parser_err_node(parser, (pm_node_t *) block, PM_ERR_ARGUMENT_BLOCK_FORWARDING);
+                } else {
+                    pm_parser_err_node(parser, (pm_node_t *) block, PM_ERR_ARGUMENT_BLOCK_MULTI);
+                }
+                if (arguments->block != NULL) {
+                    if (arguments->arguments == NULL) {
+                        arguments->arguments = pm_arguments_node_create(parser);
+                    }
+                    pm_arguments_node_arguments_append(arguments->arguments, arguments->block);
                 }
-                pm_arguments_node_arguments_append(arguments->arguments, arguments->block);
                 arguments->block = (pm_node_t *) block;
             }
         }
@@ -12384,8 +12830,14 @@ static inline pm_node_flags_t
 parse_unescaped_encoding(const pm_parser_t *parser) {
     if (parser->explicit_encoding != NULL) {
         if (parser->explicit_encoding == PM_ENCODING_UTF_8_ENTRY) {
+            // If the there's an explicit encoding and it's using a UTF-8 escape
+            // sequence, then mark the string as UTF-8.
             return PM_STRING_FLAGS_FORCED_UTF8_ENCODING;
         } else if (parser->encoding == PM_ENCODING_US_ASCII_ENTRY) {
+            // If there's a non-UTF-8 escape sequence being used, then the
+            // string uses the source encoding, unless the source is marked as
+            // US-ASCII. In that case the string is forced as ASCII-8BIT in
+            // order to keep the string valid.
             return PM_STRING_FLAGS_FORCED_BINARY_ENCODING;
         }
     }
@@ -12509,14 +12961,54 @@ parse_string_part(pm_parser_t *parser) {
     }
 }
 
+/**
+ * When creating a symbol, unary operators that cannot be binary operators
+ * automatically drop trailing `@` characters. This happens at the parser level,
+ * such that `~@` is parsed as `~` and `!@` is parsed as `!`. We do that here.
+ */
+static const uint8_t *
+parse_operator_symbol_name(const pm_token_t *name) {
+    switch (name->type) {
+        case PM_TOKEN_TILDE:
+        case PM_TOKEN_BANG:
+            if (name->end[-1] == '@') return name->end - 1;
+        /* fallthrough */
+        default:
+            return name->end;
+    }
+}
+
+static pm_node_t *
+parse_operator_symbol(pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_token_t *opening, pm_lex_state_t next_state) {
+    pm_token_t closing = not_provided(parser);
+    pm_symbol_node_t *symbol = pm_symbol_node_create(parser, opening, &parser->current, &closing);
+
+    const uint8_t *end = parse_operator_symbol_name(&parser->current);
+
+    if (next_state != PM_LEX_STATE_NONE) lex_state_set(parser, next_state);
+    parser_lex(parser);
+
+    pm_string_shared_init(&symbol->unescaped, parser->previous.start, end);
+    pm_node_flag_set((pm_node_t *) symbol, PM_SYMBOL_FLAGS_FORCED_US_ASCII_ENCODING);
+
+    return (pm_node_t *) symbol;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Parse a symbol node. This function will get called immediately after finding
+ * a symbol opening token. This handles parsing bare symbols and interpolated
+ * symbols.
+ */
 static pm_node_t *
 parse_symbol(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_lex_mode_t *lex_mode, pm_lex_state_t next_state) {
-    pm_token_t opening = parser->previous;
+    const pm_token_t opening = parser->previous;
 
     if (lex_mode->mode != PM_LEX_STRING) {
         if (next_state != PM_LEX_STATE_NONE) lex_state_set(parser, next_state);
 
         switch (parser->current.type) {
+            case PM_CASE_OPERATOR:
+                return parse_operator_symbol(parser, &opening, next_state == PM_LEX_STATE_NONE ? PM_LEX_STATE_ENDFN : next_state);
             case PM_TOKEN_IDENTIFIER:
             case PM_TOKEN_CONSTANT:
             case PM_TOKEN_INSTANCE_VARIABLE:
@@ -12528,10 +13020,6 @@ parse_symbol(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_lex_mode_t *lex_mode, pm_lex_state_t next_s
             case PM_CASE_KEYWORD:
                 parser_lex(parser);
                 break;
-            case PM_CASE_OPERATOR:
-                lex_state_set(parser, next_state == PM_LEX_STATE_NONE ? PM_LEX_STATE_ENDFN : next_state);
-                parser_lex(parser);
-                break;
             default:
                 expect2(parser, PM_TOKEN_IDENTIFIER, PM_TOKEN_METHOD_NAME, PM_ERR_SYMBOL_INVALID);
                 break;
@@ -12541,6 +13029,8 @@ parse_symbol(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_lex_mode_t *lex_mode, pm_lex_state_t next_s
         pm_symbol_node_t *symbol = pm_symbol_node_create(parser, &opening, &parser->previous, &closing);
 
         pm_string_shared_init(&symbol->unescaped, parser->previous.start, parser->previous.end);
+        pm_node_flag_set((pm_node_t *) symbol, parse_symbol_encoding(parser, &symbol->unescaped));
+
         return (pm_node_t *) symbol;
     }
 
@@ -12637,7 +13127,8 @@ parse_symbol(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_lex_mode_t *lex_mode, pm_lex_state_t next_s
     } else {
         expect1(parser, PM_TOKEN_STRING_END, PM_ERR_SYMBOL_TERM_DYNAMIC);
     }
-    return (pm_node_t *) pm_symbol_node_create_unescaped(parser, &opening, &content, &parser->previous, &unescaped);
+
+    return (pm_node_t *) pm_symbol_node_create_unescaped(parser, &opening, &content, &parser->previous, &unescaped, parse_symbol_encoding(parser, &unescaped));
 }
 
 /**
@@ -12647,8 +13138,11 @@ parse_symbol(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_lex_mode_t *lex_mode, pm_lex_state_t next_s
 static inline pm_node_t *
 parse_undef_argument(pm_parser_t *parser) {
     switch (parser->current.type) {
+        case PM_CASE_OPERATOR: {
+            const pm_token_t opening = not_provided(parser);
+            return parse_operator_symbol(parser, &opening, PM_LEX_STATE_NONE);
+        }
         case PM_CASE_KEYWORD:
-        case PM_CASE_OPERATOR:
         case PM_TOKEN_CONSTANT:
         case PM_TOKEN_IDENTIFIER:
         case PM_TOKEN_METHOD_NAME: {
@@ -12659,6 +13153,8 @@ parse_undef_argument(pm_parser_t *parser) {
             pm_symbol_node_t *symbol = pm_symbol_node_create(parser, &opening, &parser->previous, &closing);
 
             pm_string_shared_init(&symbol->unescaped, parser->previous.start, parser->previous.end);
+            pm_node_flag_set((pm_node_t *) symbol, parse_symbol_encoding(parser, &symbol->unescaped));
+
             return (pm_node_t *) symbol;
         }
         case PM_TOKEN_SYMBOL_BEGIN: {
@@ -12682,21 +13178,24 @@ parse_undef_argument(pm_parser_t *parser) {
 static inline pm_node_t *
 parse_alias_argument(pm_parser_t *parser, bool first) {
     switch (parser->current.type) {
-        case PM_CASE_OPERATOR:
+        case PM_CASE_OPERATOR: {
+            const pm_token_t opening = not_provided(parser);
+            return parse_operator_symbol(parser, &opening, first ? PM_LEX_STATE_FNAME | PM_LEX_STATE_FITEM : PM_LEX_STATE_NONE);
+        }
         case PM_CASE_KEYWORD:
         case PM_TOKEN_CONSTANT:
         case PM_TOKEN_IDENTIFIER:
         case PM_TOKEN_METHOD_NAME: {
-            if (first) {
-                lex_state_set(parser, PM_LEX_STATE_FNAME | PM_LEX_STATE_FITEM);
-            }
-
+            if (first) lex_state_set(parser, PM_LEX_STATE_FNAME | PM_LEX_STATE_FITEM);
             parser_lex(parser);
+
             pm_token_t opening = not_provided(parser);
             pm_token_t closing = not_provided(parser);
             pm_symbol_node_t *symbol = pm_symbol_node_create(parser, &opening, &parser->previous, &closing);
 
             pm_string_shared_init(&symbol->unescaped, parser->previous.start, parser->previous.end);
+            pm_node_flag_set((pm_node_t *) symbol, parse_symbol_encoding(parser, &symbol->unescaped));
+
             return (pm_node_t *) symbol;
         }
         case PM_TOKEN_SYMBOL_BEGIN: {
@@ -12733,6 +13232,64 @@ outer_scope_using_numbered_parameters_p(pm_parser_t *parser) {
     return false;
 }
 
+/**
+ * These are the names of the various numbered parameters. We have them here so
+ * that when we insert them into the constant pool we can use a constant string
+ * and not have to allocate.
+ */
+static const char * const pm_numbered_parameter_names[] = {
+    "_1", "_2", "_3", "_4", "_5", "_6", "_7", "_8", "_9"
+};
+
+/**
+ * Parse an identifier into either a local variable read. If the local variable
+ * is not found, it returns NULL instead.
+ */
+static pm_local_variable_read_node_t *
+parse_variable(pm_parser_t *parser) {
+    int depth;
+    if ((depth = pm_parser_local_depth(parser, &parser->previous)) != -1) {
+        return pm_local_variable_read_node_create(parser, &parser->previous, (uint32_t) depth);
+    }
+
+    if (!parser->current_scope->closed && pm_token_is_numbered_parameter(parser->previous.start, parser->previous.end)) {
+        // Now that we know we have a numbered parameter, we need to check
+        // if it's allowed in this context. If it is, then we will create a
+        // local variable read. If it's not, then we'll create a normal call
+        // node but add an error.
+        if (parser->current_scope->explicit_params) {
+            pm_parser_err_previous(parser, PM_ERR_NUMBERED_PARAMETER_NOT_ALLOWED);
+        } else if (outer_scope_using_numbered_parameters_p(parser)) {
+            pm_parser_err_previous(parser, PM_ERR_NUMBERED_PARAMETER_OUTER_SCOPE);
+        } else {
+            // Indicate that this scope is using numbered params so that child
+            // scopes cannot. We subtract the value for the character '0' to get
+            // the actual integer value of the number (only _1 through _9 are
+            // valid).
+            uint8_t numbered_parameters = (uint8_t) (parser->previous.start[1] - '0');
+            if (numbered_parameters > parser->current_scope->numbered_parameters) {
+                parser->current_scope->numbered_parameters = numbered_parameters;
+                pm_parser_numbered_parameters_set(parser, numbered_parameters);
+            }
+
+            // When you use a numbered parameter, it implies the existence
+            // of all of the locals that exist before it. For example,
+            // referencing _2 means that _1 must exist. Therefore here we
+            // loop through all of the possibilities and add them into the
+            // constant pool.
+            for (uint8_t numbered_parameter = 1; numbered_parameter <= numbered_parameters - 1; numbered_parameter++) {
+                pm_parser_local_add_constant(parser, pm_numbered_parameter_names[numbered_parameter - 1], 2);
+            }
+
+            // Finally we can create the local variable read node.
+            pm_constant_id_t name_id = pm_parser_local_add_constant(parser, pm_numbered_parameter_names[numbered_parameters - 1], 2);
+            return pm_local_variable_read_node_create_constant_id(parser, &parser->previous, name_id, 0);
+        }
+    }
+
+    return NULL;
+}
+
 /**
  * Parse an identifier into either a local variable read or a call.
  */
@@ -12741,56 +13298,8 @@ parse_variable_call(pm_parser_t *parser) {
     pm_node_flags_t flags = 0;
 
     if (!match1(parser, PM_TOKEN_PARENTHESIS_LEFT) && (parser->previous.end[-1] != '!') && (parser->previous.end[-1] != '?')) {
-        int depth;
-        if ((depth = pm_parser_local_depth(parser, &parser->previous)) != -1) {
-            return (pm_node_t *) pm_local_variable_read_node_create(parser, &parser->previous, (uint32_t) depth);
-        }
-
-        if (!parser->current_scope->closed && pm_token_is_numbered_parameter(parser->previous.start, parser->previous.end)) {
-            // Now that we know we have a numbered parameter, we need to check
-            // if it's allowed in this context. If it is, then we will create a
-            // local variable read. If it's not, then we'll create a normal call
-            // node but add an error.
-            if (parser->current_scope->explicit_params) {
-                pm_parser_err_previous(parser, PM_ERR_NUMBERED_PARAMETER_NOT_ALLOWED);
-            } else if (outer_scope_using_numbered_parameters_p(parser)) {
-                pm_parser_err_previous(parser, PM_ERR_NUMBERED_PARAMETER_OUTER_SCOPE);
-            } else {
-                // Indicate that this scope is using numbered params so that child
-                // scopes cannot.
-                uint8_t number = parser->previous.start[1];
-
-                // We subtract the value for the character '0' to get the actual
-                // integer value of the number (only _1 through _9 are valid)
-                uint8_t numbered_parameters = (uint8_t) (number - '0');
-                if (numbered_parameters > parser->current_scope->numbered_parameters) {
-                    parser->current_scope->numbered_parameters = numbered_parameters;
-                    pm_parser_numbered_parameters_set(parser, numbered_parameters);
-                }
-
-                // When you use a numbered parameter, it implies the existence
-                // of all of the locals that exist before it. For example,
-                // referencing _2 means that _1 must exist. Therefore here we
-                // loop through all of the possibilities and add them into the
-                // constant pool.
-                uint8_t current = '1';
-                uint8_t *value;
-
-                while (current < number) {
-                    value = malloc(2);
-                    value[0] = '_';
-                    value[1] = current++;
-                    pm_parser_local_add_owned(parser, value, 2);
-                }
-
-                // Now we can add the actual token that is being used. For
-                // this one we can add a shared version since it is directly
-                // referenced in the source.
-                pm_parser_local_add_token(parser, &parser->previous);
-                return (pm_node_t *) pm_local_variable_read_node_create(parser, &parser->previous, 0);
-            }
-        }
-
+        pm_local_variable_read_node_t *node = parse_variable(parser);
+        if (node != NULL) return (pm_node_t *) node;
         flags |= PM_CALL_NODE_FLAGS_VARIABLE_CALL;
     }
 
@@ -13076,43 +13585,77 @@ parse_pattern_keyword_rest(pm_parser_t *parser) {
     return (pm_node_t *) pm_assoc_splat_node_create(parser, value, &operator);
 }
 
+/**
+ * Create an implicit node for the value of a hash pattern that has omitted the
+ * value. This will use an implicit local variable target.
+ */
+static pm_node_t *
+parse_pattern_hash_implicit_value(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_symbol_node_t *key) {
+    const pm_location_t *value_loc = &((pm_symbol_node_t *) key)->value_loc;
+    pm_constant_id_t name = pm_parser_constant_id_location(parser, value_loc->start, value_loc->end);
+
+    int current_depth = pm_parser_local_depth_constant_id(parser, name);
+    uint32_t depth;
+
+    if (current_depth == -1) {
+        pm_parser_local_add_location(parser, value_loc->start, value_loc->end);
+        depth = 0;
+    } else {
+        depth = (uint32_t) current_depth;
+    }
+
+    pm_local_variable_target_node_t *target = pm_local_variable_target_node_create_values(parser, value_loc, name, depth);
+    return (pm_node_t *) pm_implicit_node_create(parser, (pm_node_t *) target);
+}
+
 /**
  * Parse a hash pattern.
  */
 static pm_hash_pattern_node_t *
-parse_pattern_hash(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *first_assoc) {
+parse_pattern_hash(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *first_node) {
     pm_node_list_t assocs = { 0 };
     pm_node_t *rest = NULL;
 
-    switch (PM_NODE_TYPE(first_assoc)) {
-        case PM_ASSOC_NODE: {
-            if (!match7(parser, PM_TOKEN_COMMA, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_THEN, PM_TOKEN_BRACE_RIGHT, PM_TOKEN_BRACKET_RIGHT, PM_TOKEN_PARENTHESIS_RIGHT, PM_TOKEN_NEWLINE, PM_TOKEN_SEMICOLON)) {
-                // Here we have a value for the first assoc in the list, so we will
-                // parse it now and update the first assoc.
-                pm_node_t *value = parse_pattern(parser, false, PM_ERR_PATTERN_EXPRESSION_AFTER_KEY);
+    switch (PM_NODE_TYPE(first_node)) {
+        case PM_ASSOC_SPLAT_NODE:
+        case PM_NO_KEYWORDS_PARAMETER_NODE:
+            rest = first_node;
+            break;
+        case PM_SYMBOL_NODE: {
+            if (pm_symbol_node_label_p(first_node)) {
+                pm_node_t *value;
+
+                if (!match7(parser, PM_TOKEN_COMMA, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_THEN, PM_TOKEN_BRACE_RIGHT, PM_TOKEN_BRACKET_RIGHT, PM_TOKEN_PARENTHESIS_RIGHT, PM_TOKEN_NEWLINE, PM_TOKEN_SEMICOLON)) {
+                    // Here we have a value for the first assoc in the list, so
+                    // we will parse it now.
+                    value = parse_pattern(parser, false, PM_ERR_PATTERN_EXPRESSION_AFTER_KEY);
+                } else {
+                    // Otherwise, we will create an implicit local variable
+                    // target for the value.
+                    value = parse_pattern_hash_implicit_value(parser, (pm_symbol_node_t *) first_node);
+                }
 
-                pm_assoc_node_t *assoc = (pm_assoc_node_t *) first_assoc;
-                assoc->base.location.end = value->location.end;
-                assoc->value = value;
-            } else {
-                pm_node_t *key = ((pm_assoc_node_t *) first_assoc)->key;
+                pm_token_t operator = not_provided(parser);
+                pm_node_t *assoc = (pm_node_t *) pm_assoc_node_create(parser, first_node, &operator, value);
 
-                if (PM_NODE_TYPE_P(key, PM_SYMBOL_NODE)) {
-                    const pm_location_t *value_loc = &((pm_symbol_node_t *) key)->value_loc;
-                    pm_parser_local_add_location(parser, value_loc->start, value_loc->end);
-                }
+                pm_node_list_append(&assocs, assoc);
+                break;
             }
+        }
+        /* fallthrough */
+        default: {
+            // If we get anything else, then this is an error. For this we'll
+            // create a missing node for the value and create an assoc node for
+            // the first node in the list.
+            pm_parser_err_node(parser, first_node, PM_ERR_PATTERN_HASH_KEY_LABEL);
+
+            pm_token_t operator = not_provided(parser);
+            pm_node_t *value = (pm_node_t *) pm_missing_node_create(parser, first_node->location.start, first_node->location.end);
+            pm_node_t *assoc = (pm_node_t *) pm_assoc_node_create(parser, first_node, &operator, value);
 
-            pm_node_list_append(&assocs, first_assoc);
+            pm_node_list_append(&assocs, assoc);
             break;
         }
-        case PM_ASSOC_SPLAT_NODE:
-        case PM_NO_KEYWORDS_PARAMETER_NODE:
-            rest = first_assoc;
-            break;
-        default:
-            assert(false);
-            break;
     }
 
     // If there are any other assocs, then we'll parse them now.
@@ -13141,6 +13684,7 @@ parse_pattern_hash(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *first_assoc) {
             } else {
                 const pm_location_t *value_loc = &((pm_symbol_node_t *) key)->value_loc;
                 pm_parser_local_add_location(parser, value_loc->start, value_loc->end);
+                value = parse_pattern_hash_implicit_value(parser, (pm_symbol_node_t *) key);
             }
 
             pm_token_t operator = not_provided(parser);
@@ -13246,45 +13790,29 @@ parse_pattern_primitive(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_diagnostic_id_t diag_id) {
                 // pattern node.
                 node = pm_hash_pattern_node_empty_create(parser, &opening, &parser->previous);
             } else {
-                pm_node_t *first_assoc;
+                pm_node_t *first_node;
 
                 switch (parser->current.type) {
-                    case PM_TOKEN_LABEL: {
+                    case PM_TOKEN_LABEL:
                         parser_lex(parser);
-
-                        pm_symbol_node_t *key = pm_symbol_node_label_create(parser, &parser->previous);
-                        pm_token_t operator = not_provided(parser);
-
-                        first_assoc = (pm_node_t *) pm_assoc_node_create(parser, (pm_node_t *) key, &operator, NULL);
+                        first_node = (pm_node_t *) pm_symbol_node_label_create(parser, &parser->previous);
                         break;
-                    }
                     case PM_TOKEN_USTAR_STAR:
-                        first_assoc = parse_pattern_keyword_rest(parser);
+                        first_node = parse_pattern_keyword_rest(parser);
                         break;
-                    case PM_TOKEN_STRING_BEGIN: {
-                        pm_node_t *key = parse_expression(parser, PM_BINDING_POWER_MAX, false, PM_ERR_PATTERN_HASH_KEY);
-                        pm_token_t operator = not_provided(parser);
-
-                        if (!pm_symbol_node_label_p(key)) {
-                            pm_parser_err_node(parser, key, PM_ERR_PATTERN_HASH_KEY_LABEL);
-                        }
-
-                        first_assoc = (pm_node_t *) pm_assoc_node_create(parser, key, &operator, NULL);
+                    case PM_TOKEN_STRING_BEGIN:
+                        first_node = parse_expression(parser, PM_BINDING_POWER_MAX, false, PM_ERR_PATTERN_HASH_KEY);
                         break;
-                    }
                     default: {
                         parser_lex(parser);
                         pm_parser_err_previous(parser, PM_ERR_PATTERN_HASH_KEY);
 
-                        pm_missing_node_t *key = pm_missing_node_create(parser, parser->previous.start, parser->previous.end);
-                        pm_token_t operator = not_provided(parser);
-
-                        first_assoc = (pm_node_t *) pm_assoc_node_create(parser, (pm_node_t *) key, &operator, NULL);
+                        first_node = (pm_node_t *) pm_missing_node_create(parser, parser->previous.start, parser->previous.end);
                         break;
                     }
                 }
 
-                node = parse_pattern_hash(parser, first_assoc);
+                node = parse_pattern_hash(parser, first_node);
 
                 accept1(parser, PM_TOKEN_NEWLINE);
                 expect1(parser, PM_TOKEN_BRACE_RIGHT, PM_ERR_PATTERN_TERM_BRACE);
@@ -13350,7 +13878,16 @@ parse_pattern_primitive(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_diagnostic_id_t diag_id) {
             switch (parser->current.type) {
                 case PM_TOKEN_IDENTIFIER: {
                     parser_lex(parser);
-                    pm_node_t *variable = (pm_node_t *) pm_local_variable_read_node_create(parser, &parser->previous, 0);
+                    pm_node_t *variable = (pm_node_t *) parse_variable(parser);
+                    if (variable == NULL) {
+                        if (parser->version != PM_OPTIONS_VERSION_CRUBY_3_3_0 && pm_token_is_it(parser->previous.start, parser->previous.end)) {
+                            pm_constant_id_t name_id = pm_parser_constant_id_constant(parser, "0it", 3);
+                            variable = (pm_node_t *) pm_local_variable_read_node_create_constant_id(parser, &parser->previous, name_id, 0);
+                        } else {
+                            PM_PARSER_ERR_TOKEN_FORMAT_CONTENT(parser, parser->previous, PM_ERR_NO_LOCAL_VARIABLE);
+                            variable = (pm_node_t *) pm_local_variable_read_node_create(parser, &parser->previous, 0);
+                        }
+                    }
 
                     return (pm_node_t *) pm_pinned_variable_node_create(parser, &operator, variable);
                 }
@@ -13519,9 +14056,7 @@ parse_pattern(pm_parser_t *parser, bool top_pattern, pm_diagnostic_id_t diag_id)
         case PM_TOKEN_LABEL: {
             parser_lex(parser);
             pm_node_t *key = (pm_node_t *) pm_symbol_node_label_create(parser, &parser->previous);
-            pm_token_t operator = not_provided(parser);
-
-            return (pm_node_t *) parse_pattern_hash(parser, (pm_node_t *) pm_assoc_node_create(parser, key, &operator, NULL));
+            return (pm_node_t *) parse_pattern_hash(parser, key);
         }
         case PM_TOKEN_USTAR_STAR: {
             node = parse_pattern_keyword_rest(parser);
@@ -13544,8 +14079,7 @@ parse_pattern(pm_parser_t *parser, bool top_pattern, pm_diagnostic_id_t diag_id)
     // If we got a dynamic label symbol, then we need to treat it like the
     // beginning of a hash pattern.
     if (pm_symbol_node_label_p(node)) {
-        pm_token_t operator = not_provided(parser);
-        return (pm_node_t *) parse_pattern_hash(parser, (pm_node_t *) pm_assoc_node_create(parser, node, &operator, NULL));
+        return (pm_node_t *) parse_pattern_hash(parser, node);
     }
 
     if (top_pattern && match1(parser, PM_TOKEN_COMMA)) {
@@ -13558,7 +14092,7 @@ parse_pattern(pm_parser_t *parser, bool top_pattern, pm_diagnostic_id_t diag_id)
         // Gather up all of the patterns into the list.
         while (accept1(parser, PM_TOKEN_COMMA)) {
             // Break early here in case we have a trailing comma.
-            if (match5(parser, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_THEN, PM_TOKEN_BRACE_RIGHT, PM_TOKEN_BRACKET_RIGHT, PM_TOKEN_NEWLINE, PM_TOKEN_SEMICOLON)) {
+            if (match6(parser, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_THEN, PM_TOKEN_BRACE_RIGHT, PM_TOKEN_BRACKET_RIGHT, PM_TOKEN_NEWLINE, PM_TOKEN_SEMICOLON, PM_TOKEN_EOF)) {
                 node = (pm_node_t *) pm_implicit_rest_node_create(parser, &parser->previous);
                 pm_node_list_append(&nodes, node);
                 break;
@@ -13644,7 +14178,7 @@ parse_strings(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *current) {
     assert(parser->current.type == PM_TOKEN_STRING_BEGIN);
 
     bool concating = false;
-    bool state_is_arg_labeled = lex_state_p(parser, PM_LEX_STATE_ARG | PM_LEX_STATE_LABELED);
+    bool state_is_arg_labeled = lex_state_arg_labeled_p(parser);
 
     while (match1(parser, PM_TOKEN_STRING_BEGIN)) {
         pm_node_t *node = NULL;
@@ -13659,7 +14193,7 @@ parse_strings(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *current) {
         parser_lex(parser);
 
         if (match2(parser, PM_TOKEN_STRING_END, PM_TOKEN_EOF)) {
-            expect1(parser, PM_TOKEN_STRING_END, PM_ERR_STRING_LITERAL_TERM);
+            expect1(parser, PM_TOKEN_STRING_END, PM_ERR_STRING_LITERAL_EOF);
             // If we get here, then we have an end immediately after a
             // start. In that case we'll create an empty content token and
             // return an uninterpolated string.
@@ -13672,7 +14206,6 @@ parse_strings(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *current) {
             // If we get here, then we have an end of a label immediately
             // after a start. In that case we'll create an empty symbol
             // node.
-            pm_token_t opening = not_provided(parser);
             pm_token_t content = parse_strings_empty_content(parser->previous.start);
             pm_symbol_node_t *symbol = pm_symbol_node_create(parser, &opening, &content, &parser->previous);
 
@@ -13716,15 +14249,19 @@ parse_strings(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *current) {
                     parser_lex(parser);
                 } while (match1(parser, PM_TOKEN_STRING_CONTENT));
 
-                expect1(parser, PM_TOKEN_STRING_END, PM_ERR_STRING_LITERAL_TERM);
+                expect1(parser, PM_TOKEN_STRING_END, PM_ERR_STRING_LITERAL_EOF);
                 node = (pm_node_t *) pm_interpolated_string_node_create(parser, &opening, &parts, &parser->previous);
             } else if (accept1(parser, PM_TOKEN_LABEL_END) && !state_is_arg_labeled) {
-                node = (pm_node_t *) pm_symbol_node_create_unescaped(parser, &opening, &content, &parser->previous, &unescaped);
+                node = (pm_node_t *) pm_symbol_node_create_unescaped(parser, &opening, &content, &parser->previous, &unescaped, parse_symbol_encoding(parser, &unescaped));
             } else if (match1(parser, PM_TOKEN_EOF)) {
-                pm_parser_err_token(parser, &opening, PM_ERR_STRING_LITERAL_TERM);
+                pm_parser_err_token(parser, &opening, PM_ERR_STRING_LITERAL_EOF);
                 node = (pm_node_t *) pm_string_node_create_unescaped(parser, &opening, &content, &parser->current, &unescaped);
+            } else if (accept1(parser, PM_TOKEN_STRING_END)) {
+                node = (pm_node_t *) pm_string_node_create_unescaped(parser, &opening, &content, &parser->previous, &unescaped);
             } else {
-                expect1(parser, PM_TOKEN_STRING_END, PM_ERR_STRING_LITERAL_TERM);
+                PM_PARSER_ERR_TOKEN_FORMAT(parser, parser->previous, PM_ERR_STRING_LITERAL_TERM, pm_token_type_human(parser->previous.type));
+                parser->previous.start = parser->previous.end;
+                parser->previous.type = PM_TOKEN_MISSING;
                 node = (pm_node_t *) pm_string_node_create_unescaped(parser, &opening, &content, &parser->previous, &unescaped);
             }
         } else if (match1(parser, PM_TOKEN_STRING_CONTENT)) {
@@ -13739,9 +14276,9 @@ parse_strings(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *current) {
             if (match2(parser, PM_TOKEN_STRING_END, PM_TOKEN_EOF)) {
                 node = (pm_node_t *) pm_string_node_create_unescaped(parser, &opening, &content, &parser->current, &unescaped);
                 pm_node_flag_set(node, parse_unescaped_encoding(parser));
-                expect1(parser, PM_TOKEN_STRING_END, PM_ERR_STRING_LITERAL_TERM);
+                expect1(parser, PM_TOKEN_STRING_END, PM_ERR_STRING_LITERAL_EOF);
             } else if (accept1(parser, PM_TOKEN_LABEL_END)) {
-                node = (pm_node_t *) pm_symbol_node_create_unescaped(parser, &opening, &content, &parser->previous, &unescaped);
+                node = (pm_node_t *) pm_symbol_node_create_unescaped(parser, &opening, &content, &parser->previous, &unescaped, parse_symbol_encoding(parser, &unescaped));
             } else {
                 // If we get here, then we have interpolation so we'll need
                 // to create a string or symbol node with interpolation.
@@ -13830,11 +14367,34 @@ parse_strings(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *current) {
     return current;
 }
 
+/**
+ * Append an error to the error list on the parser using the given diagnostic
+ * ID. This function is a specialization that handles formatting the specific
+ * kind of error that is being appended.
+ */
+static void
+pm_parser_err_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_diagnostic_id_t diag_id) {
+    switch (diag_id) {
+        case PM_ERR_HASH_KEY: {
+            PM_PARSER_ERR_TOKEN_FORMAT(parser, parser->previous, diag_id, pm_token_type_human(parser->previous.type));
+            break;
+        }
+        case PM_ERR_UNARY_RECEIVER: {
+            const char *human = (parser->current.type == PM_TOKEN_EOF ? "end-of-input" : pm_token_type_human(parser->current.type));
+            PM_PARSER_ERR_TOKEN_FORMAT(parser, parser->previous, diag_id, human, parser->previous.start[0]);
+            break;
+        }
+        default:
+            pm_parser_err_previous(parser, diag_id);
+            break;
+    }
+}
+
 /**
  * Parse an expression that begins with the previous node that we just lexed.
  */
 static inline pm_node_t *
-parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, bool accepts_command_call) {
+parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, bool accepts_command_call, pm_diagnostic_id_t diag_id) {
     switch (parser->current.type) {
         case PM_TOKEN_BRACKET_LEFT_ARRAY: {
             parser_lex(parser);
@@ -13866,9 +14426,7 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
                     pm_node_t *expression = NULL;
 
                     if (match3(parser, PM_TOKEN_BRACKET_RIGHT, PM_TOKEN_COMMA, PM_TOKEN_EOF)) {
-                        if (pm_parser_local_depth(parser, &parser->previous) == -1) {
-                            pm_parser_err_token(parser, &operator, PM_ERR_ARGUMENT_NO_FORWARDING_STAR);
-                        }
+                        pm_parser_scope_forwarding_positionals_check(parser, &operator);
                     } else {
                         expression = parse_value_expression(parser, PM_BINDING_POWER_DEFINED, false, PM_ERR_ARRAY_EXPRESSION_AFTER_STAR);
                     }
@@ -14016,7 +14574,7 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
             // If we didn't find a terminator and we didn't find a right
             // parenthesis, then this is a syntax error.
             if (!terminator_found) {
-                pm_parser_err(parser, parser->current.start, parser->current.start, PM_ERR_EXPECT_EOL_AFTER_STATEMENT);
+                PM_PARSER_ERR_TOKEN_FORMAT(parser, parser->current, PM_ERR_EXPECT_EOL_AFTER_STATEMENT, pm_token_type_human(parser->current.type));
             }
 
             // Parse each statement within the parentheses.
@@ -14045,7 +14603,7 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
                 } else if (match1(parser, PM_TOKEN_PARENTHESIS_RIGHT)) {
                     break;
                 } else {
-                    pm_parser_err(parser, parser->current.start, parser->current.start, PM_ERR_EXPECT_EOL_AFTER_STATEMENT);
+                    PM_PARSER_ERR_TOKEN_FORMAT(parser, parser->current, PM_ERR_EXPECT_EOL_AFTER_STATEMENT, pm_token_type_human(parser->current.type));
                 }
             }
 
@@ -14113,7 +14671,8 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
             if (
                 match1(parser, PM_TOKEN_PARENTHESIS_LEFT) ||
                 (accepts_command_call && (token_begins_expression_p(parser->current.type) || match3(parser, PM_TOKEN_UAMPERSAND, PM_TOKEN_USTAR, PM_TOKEN_USTAR_STAR))) ||
-                (pm_accepts_block_stack_p(parser) && match2(parser, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_DO, PM_TOKEN_BRACE_LEFT))
+                (pm_accepts_block_stack_p(parser) && match1(parser, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_DO)) ||
+                match1(parser, PM_TOKEN_BRACE_LEFT)
             ) {
                 pm_arguments_t arguments = { 0 };
                 parse_arguments_list(parser, &arguments, true, accepts_command_call);
@@ -14237,7 +14796,8 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
                 // a block, so we need to check for that here.
                 if (
                     (accepts_command_call && (token_begins_expression_p(parser->current.type) || match3(parser, PM_TOKEN_UAMPERSAND, PM_TOKEN_USTAR, PM_TOKEN_USTAR_STAR))) ||
-                    (pm_accepts_block_stack_p(parser) && match2(parser, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_DO, PM_TOKEN_BRACE_LEFT))
+                    (pm_accepts_block_stack_p(parser) && match1(parser, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_DO)) ||
+                    match1(parser, PM_TOKEN_BRACE_LEFT)
                 ) {
                     pm_arguments_t arguments = { 0 };
                     parse_arguments_list(parser, &arguments, true, accepts_command_call);
@@ -14250,6 +14810,31 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
 
             if ((binding_power == PM_BINDING_POWER_STATEMENT) && match1(parser, PM_TOKEN_COMMA)) {
                 node = parse_targets_validate(parser, node, PM_BINDING_POWER_INDEX);
+            } else {
+                // Check if `it` is not going to be assigned.
+                switch (parser->current.type) {
+                    case PM_TOKEN_AMPERSAND_AMPERSAND_EQUAL:
+                    case PM_TOKEN_AMPERSAND_EQUAL:
+                    case PM_TOKEN_CARET_EQUAL:
+                    case PM_TOKEN_EQUAL:
+                    case PM_TOKEN_GREATER_GREATER_EQUAL:
+                    case PM_TOKEN_LESS_LESS_EQUAL:
+                    case PM_TOKEN_MINUS_EQUAL:
+                    case PM_TOKEN_PARENTHESIS_RIGHT:
+                    case PM_TOKEN_PERCENT_EQUAL:
+                    case PM_TOKEN_PIPE_EQUAL:
+                    case PM_TOKEN_PIPE_PIPE_EQUAL:
+                    case PM_TOKEN_PLUS_EQUAL:
+                    case PM_TOKEN_SLASH_EQUAL:
+                    case PM_TOKEN_STAR_EQUAL:
+                    case PM_TOKEN_STAR_STAR_EQUAL:
+                        break;
+                    default:
+                        // Once we know it's neither a method call nor an
+                        // assignment, we can finally create `it` default
+                        // parameter.
+                        node = pm_node_check_it(parser, node);
+                }
             }
 
             return node;
@@ -14286,6 +14871,9 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
                 // If we get here, then we tried to find something in the
                 // heredoc but couldn't actually parse anything, so we'll just
                 // return a missing node.
+                //
+                // parse_string_part handles its own errors, so there is no need
+                // for us to add one here.
                 node = (pm_node_t *) pm_missing_node_create(parser, parser->previous.start, parser->previous.end);
             } else if (PM_NODE_TYPE_P(part, PM_STRING_NODE) && match2(parser, PM_TOKEN_HEREDOC_END, PM_TOKEN_EOF)) {
                 // If we get here, then the part that we parsed was plain string
@@ -14549,11 +15137,11 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
                     // for guard clauses in the form of `if` or `unless` statements.
                     if (accept1(parser, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_IF_MODIFIER)) {
                         pm_token_t keyword = parser->previous;
-                        pm_node_t *predicate = parse_value_expression(parser, PM_BINDING_POWER_DEFINED, true, PM_ERR_CONDITIONAL_IF_PREDICATE);
+                        pm_node_t *predicate = parse_value_expression(parser, PM_BINDING_POWER_COMPOSITION, true, PM_ERR_CONDITIONAL_IF_PREDICATE);
                         pattern = (pm_node_t *) pm_if_node_modifier_create(parser, pattern, &keyword, predicate);
                     } else if (accept1(parser, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_UNLESS_MODIFIER)) {
                         pm_token_t keyword = parser->previous;
-                        pm_node_t *predicate = parse_value_expression(parser, PM_BINDING_POWER_DEFINED, true, PM_ERR_CONDITIONAL_UNLESS_PREDICATE);
+                        pm_node_t *predicate = parse_value_expression(parser, PM_BINDING_POWER_COMPOSITION, true, PM_ERR_CONDITIONAL_UNLESS_PREDICATE);
                         pattern = (pm_node_t *) pm_unless_node_modifier_create(parser, pattern, &keyword, predicate);
                     }
 
@@ -14742,8 +15330,7 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
                 pm_token_t operator = parser->previous;
                 pm_node_t *expression = parse_value_expression(parser, PM_BINDING_POWER_NOT, true, PM_ERR_EXPECT_EXPRESSION_AFTER_LESS_LESS);
 
-                pm_constant_id_t old_param_name = parser->current_param_name;
-                parser->current_param_name = 0;
+                pm_constant_id_t saved_param_name = pm_parser_current_param_name_unset(parser);
                 pm_parser_scope_push(parser, true);
                 accept2(parser, PM_TOKEN_NEWLINE, PM_TOKEN_SEMICOLON);
 
@@ -14756,15 +15343,16 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
 
                 if (match2(parser, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_RESCUE, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_ENSURE)) {
                     assert(statements == NULL || PM_NODE_TYPE_P(statements, PM_STATEMENTS_NODE));
-                    statements = (pm_node_t *) parse_rescues_as_begin(parser, (pm_statements_node_t *) statements, false);
+                    statements = (pm_node_t *) parse_rescues_as_begin(parser, class_keyword.start, (pm_statements_node_t *) statements, false);
                 }
 
                 expect1(parser, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_END, PM_ERR_CLASS_TERM);
-
                 pm_constant_id_list_t locals = parser->current_scope->locals;
+
                 pm_parser_scope_pop(parser);
-                parser->current_param_name = old_param_name;
                 pm_do_loop_stack_pop(parser);
+                pm_parser_current_param_name_restore(parser, saved_param_name);
+
                 return (pm_node_t *) pm_singleton_class_node_create(parser, &locals, &class_keyword, &operator, expression, statements, &parser->previous);
             }
 
@@ -14790,9 +15378,9 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
                 superclass = NULL;
             }
 
-            pm_constant_id_t old_param_name = parser->current_param_name;
-            parser->current_param_name = 0;
+            pm_constant_id_t saved_param_name = pm_parser_current_param_name_unset(parser);
             pm_parser_scope_push(parser, true);
+
             if (inheritance_operator.type != PM_TOKEN_NOT_PROVIDED) {
                 expect2(parser, PM_TOKEN_NEWLINE, PM_TOKEN_SEMICOLON, PM_ERR_CLASS_UNEXPECTED_END);
             } else {
@@ -14808,7 +15396,7 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
 
             if (match2(parser, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_RESCUE, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_ENSURE)) {
                 assert(statements == NULL || PM_NODE_TYPE_P(statements, PM_STATEMENTS_NODE));
-                statements = (pm_node_t *) parse_rescues_as_begin(parser, (pm_statements_node_t *) statements, false);
+                statements = (pm_node_t *) parse_rescues_as_begin(parser, class_keyword.start, (pm_statements_node_t *) statements, false);
             }
 
             expect1(parser, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_END, PM_ERR_CLASS_TERM);
@@ -14818,9 +15406,10 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
             }
 
             pm_constant_id_list_t locals = parser->current_scope->locals;
+
             pm_parser_scope_pop(parser);
-            parser->current_param_name = old_param_name;
             pm_do_loop_stack_pop(parser);
+            pm_parser_current_param_name_restore(parser, saved_param_name);
 
             if (!PM_NODE_TYPE_P(constant_path, PM_CONSTANT_PATH_NODE) && !(PM_NODE_TYPE_P(constant_path, PM_CONSTANT_READ_NODE))) {
                 pm_parser_err_node(parser, constant_path, PM_ERR_CLASS_NAME);
@@ -14835,18 +15424,21 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
             pm_token_t operator = not_provided(parser);
             pm_token_t name = (pm_token_t) { .type = PM_TOKEN_MISSING, .start = def_keyword.end, .end = def_keyword.end };
 
-            // This context is necessary for lexing `...` in a bare params correctly.
-            // It must be pushed before lexing the first param, so it is here.
+            // This context is necessary for lexing `...` in a bare params
+            // correctly. It must be pushed before lexing the first param, so it
+            // is here.
             context_push(parser, PM_CONTEXT_DEF_PARAMS);
+            pm_constant_id_t saved_param_name;
+
             parser_lex(parser);
-            pm_constant_id_t old_param_name = parser->current_param_name;
 
             switch (parser->current.type) {
                 case PM_CASE_OPERATOR:
+                    saved_param_name = pm_parser_current_param_name_unset(parser);
                     pm_parser_scope_push(parser, true);
-                    parser->current_param_name = 0;
                     lex_state_set(parser, PM_LEX_STATE_ENDFN);
                     parser_lex(parser);
+
                     name = parser->previous;
                     break;
                 case PM_TOKEN_IDENTIFIER: {
@@ -14854,18 +15446,20 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
 
                     if (match2(parser, PM_TOKEN_DOT, PM_TOKEN_COLON_COLON)) {
                         receiver = parse_variable_call(parser);
+                        receiver = pm_node_check_it(parser, receiver);
 
+                        saved_param_name = pm_parser_current_param_name_unset(parser);
                         pm_parser_scope_push(parser, true);
-                        parser->current_param_name = 0;
                         lex_state_set(parser, PM_LEX_STATE_FNAME);
                         parser_lex(parser);
 
                         operator = parser->previous;
                         name = parse_method_definition_name(parser);
                     } else {
+                        saved_param_name = pm_parser_current_param_name_unset(parser);
                         pm_refute_numbered_parameter(parser, parser->previous.start, parser->previous.end);
                         pm_parser_scope_push(parser, true);
-                        parser->current_param_name = 0;
+
                         name = parser->previous;
                     }
 
@@ -14882,9 +15476,10 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
                 case PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD___FILE__:
                 case PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD___LINE__:
                 case PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD___ENCODING__: {
+                    saved_param_name = pm_parser_current_param_name_unset(parser);
                     pm_parser_scope_push(parser, true);
-                    parser->current_param_name = 0;
                     parser_lex(parser);
+
                     pm_token_t identifier = parser->previous;
 
                     if (match2(parser, PM_TOKEN_DOT, PM_TOKEN_COLON_COLON)) {
@@ -14946,6 +15541,7 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
                     pm_token_t lparen = parser->previous;
                     pm_node_t *expression = parse_value_expression(parser, PM_BINDING_POWER_STATEMENT, true, PM_ERR_DEF_RECEIVER);
 
+                    accept1(parser, PM_TOKEN_NEWLINE);
                     expect1(parser, PM_TOKEN_PARENTHESIS_RIGHT, PM_ERR_EXPECT_RPAREN);
                     pm_token_t rparen = parser->previous;
 
@@ -14955,8 +15551,8 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
                     operator = parser->previous;
                     receiver = (pm_node_t *) pm_parentheses_node_create(parser, &lparen, expression, &rparen);
 
+                    saved_param_name = pm_parser_current_param_name_unset(parser);
                     pm_parser_scope_push(parser, true);
-                    parser->current_param_name = 0;
 
                     // To push `PM_CONTEXT_DEF_PARAMS` again is for the same reason as described the above.
                     context_push(parser, PM_CONTEXT_DEF_PARAMS);
@@ -14964,8 +15560,9 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
                     break;
                 }
                 default:
+                    saved_param_name = pm_parser_current_param_name_unset(parser);
                     pm_parser_scope_push(parser, true);
-                    parser->current_param_name = 0;
+
                     name = parse_method_definition_name(parser);
                     break;
             }
@@ -15018,8 +15615,6 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
                 }
             }
 
-            uint32_t locals_body_index = (uint32_t) parser->current_scope->locals.size;
-
             context_pop(parser);
             pm_node_t *statements = NULL;
             pm_token_t equal;
@@ -15070,7 +15665,7 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
 
                 if (match2(parser, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_RESCUE, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_ENSURE)) {
                     assert(statements == NULL || PM_NODE_TYPE_P(statements, PM_STATEMENTS_NODE));
-                    statements = (pm_node_t *) parse_rescues_as_begin(parser, (pm_statements_node_t *) statements, true);
+                    statements = (pm_node_t *) parse_rescues_as_begin(parser, def_keyword.start, (pm_statements_node_t *) statements, true);
                 }
 
                 pm_accepts_block_stack_pop(parser);
@@ -15080,17 +15675,25 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
             }
 
             pm_constant_id_list_t locals = parser->current_scope->locals;
-            parser->current_param_name = old_param_name;
+
             pm_parser_scope_pop(parser);
+            pm_parser_current_param_name_restore(parser, saved_param_name);
+
+            /**
+             * If the final character is @. As is the case when defining
+             * methods to override the unary operators, we should ignore
+             * the @ in the same way we do for symbols.
+             */
+            pm_constant_id_t name_id = pm_parser_constant_id_location(parser, name.start, parse_operator_symbol_name(&name));
 
             return (pm_node_t *) pm_def_node_create(
                 parser,
+                name_id,
                 &name,
                 receiver,
                 params,
                 statements,
                 &locals,
-                locals_body_index,
                 &def_keyword,
                 &operator,
                 &lparen,
@@ -15309,9 +15912,9 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
                 pm_parser_err_token(parser, &name, PM_ERR_MODULE_NAME);
             }
 
-            pm_constant_id_t old_param_name = parser->current_param_name;
-            parser->current_param_name = 0;
+            pm_constant_id_t saved_param_name = pm_parser_current_param_name_unset(parser);
             pm_parser_scope_push(parser, true);
+
             accept2(parser, PM_TOKEN_SEMICOLON, PM_TOKEN_NEWLINE);
             pm_node_t *statements = NULL;
 
@@ -15323,12 +15926,12 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
 
             if (match2(parser, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_RESCUE, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_ENSURE)) {
                 assert(statements == NULL || PM_NODE_TYPE_P(statements, PM_STATEMENTS_NODE));
-                statements = (pm_node_t *) parse_rescues_as_begin(parser, (pm_statements_node_t *) statements, false);
+                statements = (pm_node_t *) parse_rescues_as_begin(parser, module_keyword.start, (pm_statements_node_t *) statements, false);
             }
 
             pm_constant_id_list_t locals = parser->current_scope->locals;
             pm_parser_scope_pop(parser);
-            parser->current_param_name = old_param_name;
+            pm_parser_current_param_name_restore(parser, saved_param_name);
 
             expect1(parser, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_END, PM_ERR_MODULE_TERM);
 
@@ -15914,6 +16517,7 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
             // context of a multiple assignment. We enforce that here. We'll
             // still lex past it though and create a missing node place.
             if (binding_power != PM_BINDING_POWER_STATEMENT) {
+                pm_parser_err_prefix(parser, diag_id);
                 return (pm_node_t *) pm_missing_node_create(parser, parser->previous.start, parser->previous.end);
             }
 
@@ -15936,7 +16540,7 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
             parser_lex(parser);
 
             pm_token_t operator = parser->previous;
-            pm_node_t *receiver = parse_expression(parser, pm_binding_powers[parser->previous.type].right, binding_power < PM_BINDING_POWER_MATCH, PM_ERR_UNARY_RECEIVER_BANG);
+            pm_node_t *receiver = parse_expression(parser, pm_binding_powers[parser->previous.type].right, binding_power < PM_BINDING_POWER_MATCH, PM_ERR_UNARY_RECEIVER);
             pm_call_node_t *node = pm_call_node_unary_create(parser, &operator, receiver, "!");
 
             pm_conditional_predicate(receiver);
@@ -15946,7 +16550,7 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
             parser_lex(parser);
 
             pm_token_t operator = parser->previous;
-            pm_node_t *receiver = parse_expression(parser, pm_binding_powers[parser->previous.type].right, false, PM_ERR_UNARY_RECEIVER_TILDE);
+            pm_node_t *receiver = parse_expression(parser, pm_binding_powers[parser->previous.type].right, false, PM_ERR_UNARY_RECEIVER);
             pm_call_node_t *node = pm_call_node_unary_create(parser, &operator, receiver, "~");
 
             return (pm_node_t *) node;
@@ -15955,7 +16559,7 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
             parser_lex(parser);
 
             pm_token_t operator = parser->previous;
-            pm_node_t *receiver = parse_expression(parser, pm_binding_powers[parser->previous.type].right, false, PM_ERR_UNARY_RECEIVER_MINUS);
+            pm_node_t *receiver = parse_expression(parser, pm_binding_powers[parser->previous.type].right, false, PM_ERR_UNARY_RECEIVER);
             pm_call_node_t *node = pm_call_node_unary_create(parser, &operator, receiver, "-@");
 
             return (pm_node_t *) node;
@@ -15964,7 +16568,7 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
             parser_lex(parser);
 
             pm_token_t operator = parser->previous;
-            pm_node_t *node = parse_expression(parser, pm_binding_powers[parser->previous.type].right, false, PM_ERR_UNARY_RECEIVER_MINUS);
+            pm_node_t *node = parse_expression(parser, pm_binding_powers[parser->previous.type].right, false, PM_ERR_UNARY_RECEIVER);
 
             if (accept1(parser, PM_TOKEN_STAR_STAR)) {
                 pm_token_t exponent_operator = parser->previous;
@@ -15995,7 +16599,9 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
             parser_lex(parser);
 
             pm_token_t operator = parser->previous;
+            pm_constant_id_t saved_param_name = pm_parser_current_param_name_unset(parser);
             pm_parser_scope_push(parser, false);
+
             pm_block_parameters_node_t *block_parameters;
 
             switch (parser->current.type) {
@@ -16030,12 +16636,6 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
                 }
             }
 
-            uint32_t locals_body_index = 0;
-
-            if (block_parameters) {
-                locals_body_index = (uint32_t) parser->current_scope->locals.size;
-            }
-
             pm_token_t opening;
             pm_node_t *body = NULL;
             parser->lambda_enclosure_nesting = previous_lambda_enclosure_nesting;
@@ -16059,7 +16659,7 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
 
                 if (match2(parser, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_RESCUE, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_ENSURE)) {
                     assert(body == NULL || PM_NODE_TYPE_P(body, PM_STATEMENTS_NODE));
-                    body = (pm_node_t *) parse_rescues_as_begin(parser, (pm_statements_node_t *) body, false);
+                    body = (pm_node_t *) parse_rescues_as_begin(parser, opening.start, (pm_statements_node_t *) body, false);
                 }
 
                 expect1(parser, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_END, PM_ERR_LAMBDA_TERM_END);
@@ -16070,19 +16670,21 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
 
             if (parameters == NULL && (maximum > 0)) {
                 parameters = (pm_node_t *) pm_numbered_parameters_node_create(parser, &(pm_location_t) { .start = operator.start, .end = parser->previous.end }, maximum);
-                locals_body_index = maximum;
             }
 
             pm_constant_id_list_t locals = parser->current_scope->locals;
+
             pm_parser_scope_pop(parser);
             pm_accepts_block_stack_pop(parser);
-            return (pm_node_t *) pm_lambda_node_create(parser, &locals, locals_body_index, &operator, &opening, &parser->previous, parameters, body);
+            pm_parser_current_param_name_restore(parser, saved_param_name);
+
+            return (pm_node_t *) pm_lambda_node_create(parser, &locals, &operator, &opening, &parser->previous, parameters, body);
         }
         case PM_TOKEN_UPLUS: {
             parser_lex(parser);
 
             pm_token_t operator = parser->previous;
-            pm_node_t *receiver = parse_expression(parser, pm_binding_powers[parser->previous.type].right, false, PM_ERR_UNARY_RECEIVER_PLUS);
+            pm_node_t *receiver = parse_expression(parser, pm_binding_powers[parser->previous.type].right, false, PM_ERR_UNARY_RECEIVER);
             pm_call_node_t *node = pm_call_node_unary_create(parser, &operator, receiver, "+@");
 
             return (pm_node_t *) node;
@@ -16095,12 +16697,34 @@ parse_expression_prefix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, b
 
             return parse_symbol(parser, &lex_mode, PM_LEX_STATE_END);
         }
-        default:
-            if (context_recoverable(parser, &parser->current)) {
+        default: {
+            pm_context_t recoverable = context_recoverable(parser, &parser->current);
+
+            if (recoverable != PM_CONTEXT_NONE) {
                 parser->recovering = true;
+
+                // If the given error is not the generic one, then we'll add it
+                // here because it will provide more context in addition to the
+                // recoverable error that we will also add.
+                if (diag_id != PM_ERR_CANNOT_PARSE_EXPRESSION) {
+                    pm_parser_err_prefix(parser, diag_id);
+                }
+
+                // If we get here, then we are assuming this token is closing a
+                // parent context, so we'll indicate that to the user so that
+                // they know how we behaved.
+                PM_PARSER_ERR_TOKEN_FORMAT(parser, parser->current, PM_ERR_UNEXPECTED_TOKEN_CLOSE_CONTEXT, pm_token_type_human(parser->current.type), context_human(recoverable));
+            } else if (diag_id == PM_ERR_CANNOT_PARSE_EXPRESSION) {
+                // We're going to make a special case here, because "cannot
+                // parse expression" is pretty generic, and we know here that we
+                // have an unexpected token.
+                PM_PARSER_ERR_TOKEN_FORMAT(parser, parser->current, PM_ERR_UNEXPECTED_TOKEN_IGNORE, pm_token_type_human(parser->current.type));
+            } else {
+                pm_parser_err_prefix(parser, diag_id);
             }
 
             return (pm_node_t *) pm_missing_node_create(parser, parser->previous.start, parser->previous.end);
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -16145,7 +16769,18 @@ parse_assignment_values(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t previous_binding
     if (is_single_value && match1(parser, PM_TOKEN_KEYWORD_RESCUE_MODIFIER)) {
         pm_token_t rescue = parser->current;
         parser_lex(parser);
-        pm_node_t *right = parse_expression(parser, binding_power, false, PM_ERR_RESCUE_MODIFIER_VALUE);
+
+        bool accepts_command_call_inner = false;
+
+        // RHS can accept command call iff the value is a call with arguments but without paranthesis.
+        if (PM_NODE_TYPE_P(value, PM_CALL_NODE)) {
+            pm_call_node_t *call_node = (pm_call_node_t *)value;
+            if ((call_node->arguments != NULL) && (call_node->opening_loc.start == NULL)) {
+                accepts_command_call_inner = true;
+            }
+        }
+
+        pm_node_t *right = parse_expression(parser, binding_power, accepts_command_call_inner, PM_ERR_RESCUE_MODIFIER_VALUE);
 
         return (pm_node_t *) pm_rescue_modifier_node_create(parser, value, &rescue, right);
     }
@@ -16330,7 +16965,7 @@ parse_expression_infix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *node, pm_binding_power_t
             switch (PM_NODE_TYPE(node)) {
                 case PM_BACK_REFERENCE_READ_NODE:
                 case PM_NUMBERED_REFERENCE_READ_NODE:
-                    pm_parser_err_node(parser, node, PM_ERR_WRITE_TARGET_READONLY);
+                    PM_PARSER_ERR_NODE_FORMAT_CONTENT(parser, node, PM_ERR_WRITE_TARGET_READONLY);
                 /* fallthrough */
                 case PM_GLOBAL_VARIABLE_READ_NODE: {
                     parser_lex(parser);
@@ -16412,7 +17047,7 @@ parse_expression_infix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *node, pm_binding_power_t
                     }
 
                     // If this node cannot be writable, then we have an error.
-                    if (pm_call_node_writable_p(cast)) {
+                    if (pm_call_node_writable_p(parser, cast)) {
                         parse_write_name(parser, &cast->name);
                     } else {
                         pm_parser_err_node(parser, node, PM_ERR_WRITE_TARGET_UNEXPECTED);
@@ -16441,7 +17076,7 @@ parse_expression_infix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *node, pm_binding_power_t
             switch (PM_NODE_TYPE(node)) {
                 case PM_BACK_REFERENCE_READ_NODE:
                 case PM_NUMBERED_REFERENCE_READ_NODE:
-                    pm_parser_err_node(parser, node, PM_ERR_WRITE_TARGET_READONLY);
+                    PM_PARSER_ERR_NODE_FORMAT_CONTENT(parser, node, PM_ERR_WRITE_TARGET_READONLY);
                 /* fallthrough */
                 case PM_GLOBAL_VARIABLE_READ_NODE: {
                     parser_lex(parser);
@@ -16523,7 +17158,7 @@ parse_expression_infix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *node, pm_binding_power_t
                     }
 
                     // If this node cannot be writable, then we have an error.
-                    if (pm_call_node_writable_p(cast)) {
+                    if (pm_call_node_writable_p(parser, cast)) {
                         parse_write_name(parser, &cast->name);
                     } else {
                         pm_parser_err_node(parser, node, PM_ERR_WRITE_TARGET_UNEXPECTED);
@@ -16562,7 +17197,7 @@ parse_expression_infix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *node, pm_binding_power_t
             switch (PM_NODE_TYPE(node)) {
                 case PM_BACK_REFERENCE_READ_NODE:
                 case PM_NUMBERED_REFERENCE_READ_NODE:
-                    pm_parser_err_node(parser, node, PM_ERR_WRITE_TARGET_READONLY);
+                    PM_PARSER_ERR_NODE_FORMAT_CONTENT(parser, node, PM_ERR_WRITE_TARGET_READONLY);
                 /* fallthrough */
                 case PM_GLOBAL_VARIABLE_READ_NODE: {
                     parser_lex(parser);
@@ -16644,7 +17279,7 @@ parse_expression_infix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *node, pm_binding_power_t
                     }
 
                     // If this node cannot be writable, then we have an error.
-                    if (pm_call_node_writable_p(cast)) {
+                    if (pm_call_node_writable_p(parser, cast)) {
                         parse_write_name(parser, &cast->name);
                     } else {
                         pm_parser_err_node(parser, node, PM_ERR_WRITE_TARGET_UNEXPECTED);
@@ -17063,15 +17698,12 @@ parse_expression_infix(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_node_t *node, pm_binding_power_t
  */
 static pm_node_t *
 parse_expression(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, bool accepts_command_call, pm_diagnostic_id_t diag_id) {
-    pm_token_t recovery = parser->previous;
-    pm_node_t *node = parse_expression_prefix(parser, binding_power, accepts_command_call);
+    pm_node_t *node = parse_expression_prefix(parser, binding_power, accepts_command_call, diag_id);
 
     switch (PM_NODE_TYPE(node)) {
         case PM_MISSING_NODE:
             // If we found a syntax error, then the type of node returned by
-            // parse_expression_prefix is going to be a missing node. In that
-            // case we need to add the error message to the parser's error list.
-            pm_parser_err(parser, recovery.end, recovery.end, diag_id);
+            // parse_expression_prefix is going to be a missing node.
             return node;
         case PM_PRE_EXECUTION_NODE:
         case PM_POST_EXECUTION_NODE:
@@ -17080,7 +17712,7 @@ parse_expression(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, bool acc
         case PM_UNDEF_NODE:
             // These expressions are statements, and cannot be followed by
             // operators (except modifiers).
-            if (pm_binding_powers[parser->current.type].left > PM_BINDING_POWER_MODIFIER_RESCUE) {
+            if (pm_binding_powers[parser->current.type].left > PM_BINDING_POWER_MODIFIER) {
                 return node;
             }
             break;
@@ -17175,9 +17807,14 @@ parse_expression(pm_parser_t *parser, pm_binding_power_t binding_power, bool acc
 
 static pm_node_t *
 parse_program(pm_parser_t *parser) {
-    pm_parser_scope_push(parser, !parser->current_scope);
-    parser_lex(parser);
+    // If the current scope is NULL, then we want to push a new top level scope.
+    // The current scope could exist in the event that we are parsing an eval
+    // and the user has passed into scopes that already exist.
+    if (parser->current_scope == NULL) {
+        pm_parser_scope_push(parser, true);
+    }
 
+    parser_lex(parser);
     pm_statements_node_t *statements = parse_statements(parser, PM_CONTEXT_MAIN);
     if (!statements) {
         statements = pm_statements_node_create(parser);
@@ -17224,6 +17861,7 @@ pm_parser_init(pm_parser_t *parser, const uint8_t *source, size_t size, const pm
         .current = { .type = PM_TOKEN_EOF, .start = source, .end = source },
         .next_start = NULL,
         .heredoc_end = NULL,
+        .data_loc = { .start = NULL, .end = NULL },
         .comment_list = { 0 },
         .magic_comment_list = { 0 },
         .warning_list = { 0 },
@@ -17234,7 +17872,7 @@ pm_parser_init(pm_parser_t *parser, const uint8_t *source, size_t size, const pm
         .encoding_changed_callback = NULL,
         .encoding_comment_start = source,
         .lex_callback = NULL,
-        .filepath_string = { 0 },
+        .filepath = { 0 },
         .constant_pool = { 0 },
         .newline_list = { 0 },
         .integer_base = 0,
@@ -17248,8 +17886,7 @@ pm_parser_init(pm_parser_t *parser, const uint8_t *source, size_t size, const pm
         .in_keyword_arg = false,
         .current_param_name = 0,
         .semantic_token_seen = false,
-        .frozen_string_literal = false,
-        .suppress_warnings = false
+        .frozen_string_literal = false
     };
 
     // Initialize the constant pool. We're going to completely guess as to the
@@ -17278,7 +17915,7 @@ pm_parser_init(pm_parser_t *parser, const uint8_t *source, size_t size, const pm
     // If options were provided to this parse, establish them here.
     if (options != NULL) {
         // filepath option
-        parser->filepath_string = options->filepath;
+        parser->filepath = options->filepath;
 
         // line option
         parser->start_line = options->line;
@@ -17295,10 +17932,8 @@ pm_parser_init(pm_parser_t *parser, const uint8_t *source, size_t size, const pm
             parser->frozen_string_literal = true;
         }
 
-        // suppress_warnings option
-        if (options->suppress_warnings) {
-            parser->suppress_warnings = true;
-        }
+        // version option
+        parser->version = options->version;
 
         // scopes option
         for (size_t scope_index = 0; scope_index < options->scopes_count; scope_index++) {
@@ -17382,7 +18017,7 @@ pm_magic_comment_list_free(pm_list_t *list) {
  */
 PRISM_EXPORTED_FUNCTION void
 pm_parser_free(pm_parser_t *parser) {
-    pm_string_free(&parser->filepath_string);
+    pm_string_free(&parser->filepath);
     pm_diagnostic_list_free(&parser->error_list);
     pm_diagnostic_list_free(&parser->warning_list);
     pm_comment_list_free(&parser->comment_list);
@@ -17484,3 +18119,303 @@ pm_serialize_parse_comments(pm_buffer_t *buffer, const uint8_t *source, size_t s
 #undef PM_LOCATION_NODE_VALUE
 #undef PM_LOCATION_NULL_VALUE
 #undef PM_LOCATION_TOKEN_VALUE
+
+/** An error that is going to be formatted into the output. */
+typedef struct {
+    /** A pointer to the diagnostic that was generated during parsing. */
+    pm_diagnostic_t *error;
+
+    /** The start line of the diagnostic message. */
+    int32_t line;
+
+    /** The column start of the diagnostic message. */
+    uint32_t column_start;
+
+    /** The column end of the diagnostic message. */
+    uint32_t column_end;
+} pm_error_t;
+
+/** The format that will be used to format the errors into the output. */
+typedef struct {
+    /** The prefix that will be used for line numbers. */
+    const char *number_prefix;
+
+    /** The prefix that will be used for blank lines. */
+    const char *blank_prefix;
+
+    /** The divider that will be used between sections of source code. */
+    const char *divider;
+
+    /** The length of the blank prefix. */
+    size_t blank_prefix_length;
+
+    /** The length of the divider. */
+    size_t divider_length;
+} pm_error_format_t;
+
+#define PM_COLOR_GRAY "\033[38;5;102m"
+#define PM_COLOR_RED "\033[1;31m"
+#define PM_COLOR_RESET "\033[0m"
+
+static inline pm_error_t *
+pm_parser_errors_format_sort(const pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_list_t *error_list, const pm_newline_list_t *newline_list) {
+    pm_error_t *errors = calloc(error_list->size, sizeof(pm_error_t));
+    int32_t start_line = parser->start_line;
+
+    for (pm_diagnostic_t *error = (pm_diagnostic_t *) error_list->head; error != NULL; error = (pm_diagnostic_t *) error->node.next) {
+        pm_line_column_t start = pm_newline_list_line_column(newline_list, error->location.start, start_line);
+        pm_line_column_t end = pm_newline_list_line_column(newline_list, error->location.end, start_line);
+
+        // We're going to insert this error into the array in sorted order. We
+        // do this by finding the first error that has a line number greater
+        // than the current error and then inserting the current error before
+        // that one.
+        size_t index = 0;
+        while (
+            (index < error_list->size) &&
+            (errors[index].error != NULL) &&
+            (
+                (errors[index].line < start.line) ||
+                ((errors[index].line == start.line) && (errors[index].column_start < start.column))
+            )
+        ) index++;
+
+        // Now we're going to shift all of the errors after this one down one
+        // index to make room for the new error.
+        if (index + 1 < error_list->size) {
+            memmove(&errors[index + 1], &errors[index], sizeof(pm_error_t) * (error_list->size - index - 1));
+        }
+
+        // Finally, we'll insert the error into the array.
+        uint32_t column_end;
+        if (start.line == end.line) {
+            column_end = end.column;
+        } else {
+            column_end = (uint32_t) (newline_list->offsets[start.line - start_line + 1] - newline_list->offsets[start.line - start_line] - 1);
+        }
+
+        // Ensure we have at least one column of error.
+        if (start.column == column_end) column_end++;
+
+        errors[index] = (pm_error_t) {
+            .error = error,
+            .line = start.line,
+            .column_start = start.column,
+            .column_end = column_end
+        };
+    }
+
+    return errors;
+}
+
+static inline void
+pm_parser_errors_format_line(const pm_parser_t *parser, const pm_newline_list_t *newline_list, const char *number_prefix, int32_t line, pm_buffer_t *buffer) {
+    size_t index = (size_t) (line - parser->start_line);
+
+    const uint8_t *start = &parser->start[newline_list->offsets[index]];
+    const uint8_t *end;
+
+    if (index >= newline_list->size - 1) {
+        end = parser->end;
+    } else {
+        end = &parser->start[newline_list->offsets[index + 1]];
+    }
+
+    pm_buffer_append_format(buffer, number_prefix, line);
+    pm_buffer_append_string(buffer, (const char *) start, (size_t) (end - start));
+
+    if (end == parser->end && end[-1] != '\n') {
+        pm_buffer_append_string(buffer, "\n", 1);
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Format the errors on the parser into the given buffer.
+ */
+PRISM_EXPORTED_FUNCTION void
+pm_parser_errors_format(const pm_parser_t *parser, pm_buffer_t *buffer, bool colorize) {
+    const pm_list_t *error_list = &parser->error_list;
+    assert(error_list->size != 0);
+
+    // First, we're going to sort all of the errors by line number using an
+    // insertion sort into a newly allocated array.
+    const int32_t start_line = parser->start_line;
+    const pm_newline_list_t *newline_list = &parser->newline_list;
+    pm_error_t *errors = pm_parser_errors_format_sort(parser, error_list, newline_list);
+
+    // Now we're going to determine how we're going to format line numbers and
+    // blank lines based on the maximum number of digits in the line numbers
+    // that are going to be displayed.
+    pm_error_format_t error_format;
+    int32_t max_line_number = errors[error_list->size - 1].line - start_line;
+
+    if (max_line_number < 10) {
+        if (colorize) {
+            error_format = (pm_error_format_t) {
+                .number_prefix = PM_COLOR_GRAY "%1" PRIi32 " | " PM_COLOR_RESET,
+                .blank_prefix = PM_COLOR_GRAY "  | " PM_COLOR_RESET,
+                .divider = PM_COLOR_GRAY "  ~~~~~" PM_COLOR_RESET "\n"
+            };
+        } else {
+            error_format = (pm_error_format_t) {
+                .number_prefix = "%1" PRIi32 " | ",
+                .blank_prefix = "  | ",
+                .divider = "  ~~~~~\n"
+            };
+        }
+    } else if (max_line_number < 100) {
+        if (colorize) {
+            error_format = (pm_error_format_t) {
+                .number_prefix = PM_COLOR_GRAY "%2" PRIi32 " | " PM_COLOR_RESET,
+                .blank_prefix = PM_COLOR_GRAY "   | " PM_COLOR_RESET,
+                .divider = PM_COLOR_GRAY "  ~~~~~~" PM_COLOR_RESET "\n"
+            };
+        } else {
+            error_format = (pm_error_format_t) {
+                .number_prefix = "%2" PRIi32 " | ",
+                .blank_prefix = "   | ",
+                .divider = "  ~~~~~~\n"
+            };
+        }
+    } else if (max_line_number < 1000) {
+        if (colorize) {
+            error_format = (pm_error_format_t) {
+                .number_prefix = PM_COLOR_GRAY "%3" PRIi32 " | " PM_COLOR_RESET,
+                .blank_prefix = PM_COLOR_GRAY "    | " PM_COLOR_RESET,
+                .divider = PM_COLOR_GRAY "  ~~~~~~~" PM_COLOR_RESET "\n"
+            };
+        } else {
+            error_format = (pm_error_format_t) {
+                .number_prefix = "%3" PRIi32 " | ",
+                .blank_prefix = "    | ",
+                .divider = "  ~~~~~~~\n"
+            };
+        }
+    } else if (max_line_number < 10000) {
+        if (colorize) {
+            error_format = (pm_error_format_t) {
+                .number_prefix = PM_COLOR_GRAY "%4" PRIi32 " | " PM_COLOR_RESET,
+                .blank_prefix = PM_COLOR_GRAY "     | " PM_COLOR_RESET,
+                .divider = PM_COLOR_GRAY "  ~~~~~~~~" PM_COLOR_RESET "\n"
+            };
+        } else {
+            error_format = (pm_error_format_t) {
+                .number_prefix = "%4" PRIi32 " | ",
+                .blank_prefix = "     | ",
+                .divider = "  ~~~~~~~~\n"
+            };
+        }
+    } else {
+        if (colorize) {
+            error_format = (pm_error_format_t) {
+                .number_prefix = PM_COLOR_GRAY "%5" PRIi32 " | " PM_COLOR_RESET,
+                .blank_prefix = PM_COLOR_GRAY "      | " PM_COLOR_RESET,
+                .divider = PM_COLOR_GRAY "  ~~~~~~~~" PM_COLOR_RESET "\n"
+            };
+        } else {
+            error_format = (pm_error_format_t) {
+                .number_prefix = "%5" PRIi32 " | ",
+                .blank_prefix = "      | ",
+                .divider = "  ~~~~~~~~\n"
+            };
+        }
+    }
+
+    error_format.blank_prefix_length = strlen(error_format.blank_prefix);
+    error_format.divider_length = strlen(error_format.divider);
+
+    // Now we're going to iterate through every error in our error list and
+    // display it. While we're iterating, we will display some padding lines of
+    // the source before the error to give some context. We'll be careful not to
+    // display the same line twice in case the errors are close enough in the
+    // source.
+    int32_t last_line = 0;
+    const pm_encoding_t *encoding = parser->encoding;
+
+    for (size_t index = 0; index < error_list->size; index++) {
+        pm_error_t *error = &errors[index];
+
+        // Here we determine how many lines of padding of the source to display,
+        // based on the difference from the last line that was displayed.
+        if (error->line - last_line > 1) {
+            if (error->line - last_line > 2) {
+                if ((index != 0) && (error->line - last_line > 3)) {
+                    pm_buffer_append_string(buffer, error_format.divider, error_format.divider_length);
+                }
+
+                pm_buffer_append_string(buffer, "  ", 2);
+                pm_parser_errors_format_line(parser, newline_list, error_format.number_prefix, error->line - 2, buffer);
+            }
+
+            pm_buffer_append_string(buffer, "  ", 2);
+            pm_parser_errors_format_line(parser, newline_list, error_format.number_prefix, error->line - 1, buffer);
+        }
+
+        // If this is the first error or we're on a new line, then we'll display
+        // the line that has the error in it.
+        if ((index == 0) || (error->line != last_line)) {
+            if (colorize) {
+                pm_buffer_append_string(buffer, PM_COLOR_RED "> " PM_COLOR_RESET, 13);
+            } else {
+                pm_buffer_append_string(buffer, "> ", 2);
+            }
+            pm_parser_errors_format_line(parser, newline_list, error_format.number_prefix, error->line, buffer);
+        }
+
+        // Now we'll display the actual error message. We'll do this by first
+        // putting the prefix to the line, then a bunch of blank spaces
+        // depending on the column, then as many carets as we need to display
+        // the width of the error, then the error message itself.
+        //
+        // Note that this doesn't take into account the width of the actual
+        // character when displayed in the terminal. For some east-asian
+        // languages or emoji, this means it can be thrown off pretty badly. We
+        // will need to solve this eventually.
+        pm_buffer_append_string(buffer, "  ", 2);
+        pm_buffer_append_string(buffer, error_format.blank_prefix, error_format.blank_prefix_length);
+
+        size_t column = 0;
+        const uint8_t *start = &parser->start[newline_list->offsets[error->line - start_line]];
+
+        while (column < error->column_end) {
+            if (column < error->column_start) {
+                pm_buffer_append_byte(buffer, ' ');
+            } else if (colorize) {
+                pm_buffer_append_string(buffer, PM_COLOR_RED "^" PM_COLOR_RESET, 12);
+            } else {
+                pm_buffer_append_byte(buffer, '^');
+            }
+
+            size_t char_width = encoding->char_width(start + column, parser->end - (start + column));
+            column += (char_width == 0 ? 1 : char_width);
+        }
+
+        pm_buffer_append_byte(buffer, ' ');
+
+        const char *message = error->error->message;
+        pm_buffer_append_string(buffer, message, strlen(message));
+        pm_buffer_append_byte(buffer, '\n');
+
+        // Here we determine how many lines of padding to display after the
+        // error, depending on where the next error is in source.
+        last_line = error->line;
+        int32_t next_line = (index == error_list->size - 1) ? ((int32_t) newline_list->size) : errors[index + 1].line;
+
+        if (next_line - last_line > 1) {
+            pm_buffer_append_string(buffer, "  ", 2);
+            pm_parser_errors_format_line(parser, newline_list, error_format.number_prefix, ++last_line, buffer);
+        }
+
+        if (next_line - last_line > 1) {
+            pm_buffer_append_string(buffer, "  ", 2);
+            pm_parser_errors_format_line(parser, newline_list, error_format.number_prefix, ++last_line, buffer);
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Finally, we'll free the array of errors that we allocated.
+    free(errors);
+}
+
+#undef PM_COLOR_GRAY
+#undef PM_COLOR_RED
+#undef PM_COLOR_RESET