nats-pure 0.6.2 → 2.0.0.pre.rc1

data/lib/nats/io/client.rb

@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-# Copyright 2016-2018 The NATS Authors
+# Copyright 2016-2021 The NATS Authors
 # Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
 # you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
 # You may obtain a copy of the License at
@@ -12,8 +12,13 @@
 # limitations under the License.
 #
 
-require 'nats/io/parser'
-require 'nats/io/version'
+require_relative 'parser'
+require_relative 'version'
+require_relative 'errors'
+require_relative 'msg'
+require_relative 'subscription'
+require_relative 'js'
+
 require 'nats/nuid'
 require 'thread'
 require 'socket'
@@ -28,35 +33,63 @@ rescue LoadError
 end
 
 module NATS
-  module IO
+  class << self
+    # NATS.connect creates a connection to the NATS Server.
+    # @param uri [String] URL endpoint of the NATS Server or cluster.
+    # @param opts [Hash] Options to customize the NATS connection.
+    # @return [NATS::Client]
+    #
+    # @example
+    #   require 'nats'
+    #   nc = NATS.connect("demo.nats.io")
+    #   nc.publish("hello", "world")
+    #   nc.close
+    #
+    def connect(uri=nil, opts={})
+      nc = NATS::Client.new
+      nc.connect(uri, opts)
+
+      nc
+    end
+  end
 
-    DEFAULT_PORT = 4222
-    DEFAULT_URI = "nats://localhost:#{DEFAULT_PORT}".freeze
+  # Status represents the different states from a NATS connection.
+  # A client starts from the DISCONNECTED state to CONNECTING during
+  # the initial connect, then CONNECTED.  If the connection is reset
+  # then it goes from DISCONNECTED to RECONNECTING until it is back to
+  # the CONNECTED state.  In case the client gives up reconnecting or
+  # the connection is manually closed then it will reach the CLOSED
+  # connection state after which it will not reconnect again.
+  module Status
+    # When the client is not actively connected.
+    DISCONNECTED = 0
 
-    MAX_RECONNECT_ATTEMPTS = 10
-    RECONNECT_TIME_WAIT = 2
+    # When the client is connected.
+    CONNECTED = 1
 
-    # Maximum accumulated pending commands bytesize before forcing a flush.
-    MAX_PENDING_SIZE = 32768
+    # When the client will no longer attempt to connect to a NATS Server.
+    CLOSED = 2
 
-    # Maximum number of flush kicks that can be queued up before we block.
-    MAX_FLUSH_KICK_SIZE = 1024
+    # When the client has disconnected and is attempting to reconnect.
+    RECONNECTING = 3
 
-    # Maximum number of bytes which we will be gathering on a single read.
-    # TODO: Make dynamic?
-    MAX_SOCKET_READ_BYTES = 32768
+    # When the client is attempting to connect to a NATS Server for the first time.
+    CONNECTING = 4
 
-    # Ping intervals
-    DEFAULT_PING_INTERVAL = 120
-    DEFAULT_PING_MAX = 2
+    # When the client is draining a connection before closing.
+    DRAINING_SUBS = 5
+    DRAINING_PUBS = 6
+  end
 
-    # Default IO timeouts
-    DEFAULT_CONNECT_TIMEOUT = 2
-    DEFAULT_READ_WRITE_TIMEOUT = 2
+  # Client creates a connection to the NATS Server.
+  class Client
+    include MonitorMixin
+    include Status
 
-    # Default Pending Limits
-    DEFAULT_SUB_PENDING_MSGS_LIMIT  = 65536
-    DEFAULT_SUB_PENDING_BYTES_LIMIT = 65536 * 1024
+    attr_reader :status, :server_info, :server_pool, :options, :connected_server, :stats, :uri
+
+    DEFAULT_PORT = 4222
+    DEFAULT_URI = ("nats://localhost:#{DEFAULT_PORT}".freeze)
 
     CR_LF = ("\r\n".freeze)
     CR_LF_SIZE = (CR_LF.bytesize)
@@ -64,1351 +97,1729 @@ module NATS
     PING_REQUEST  = ("PING#{CR_LF}".freeze)
     PONG_RESPONSE = ("PONG#{CR_LF}".freeze)
 
+    NATS_HDR_LINE  = ("NATS/1.0#{CR_LF}".freeze)
+    STATUS_MSG_LEN = 3
+    STATUS_HDR     = ("Status".freeze)
+    DESC_HDR       = ("Description".freeze)
+    NATS_HDR_LINE_SIZE = (NATS_HDR_LINE.bytesize)
+
     SUB_OP = ('SUB'.freeze)
     EMPTY_MSG = (''.freeze)
 
-    # Connection States
-    DISCONNECTED = 0
-    CONNECTED    = 1
-    CLOSED       = 2
-    RECONNECTING = 3
-    CONNECTING   = 4
-
-    class Error < StandardError; end
-
-    # When the NATS server sends us an 'ERR' message.
-    class ServerError < Error; end
-
-    # When we detect error on the client side.
-    class ClientError < Error; end
-
-    # When we cannot connect to the server (either initially or after a reconnect).
-    class ConnectError < Error; end
-
-    # When we cannot connect to the server because authorization failed.
-    class AuthError < ConnectError; end
+    def initialize
+      super # required to initialize monitor
+      @options = nil
+
+      # Read/Write IO
+      @io = nil
+
+      # Queues for coalescing writes of commands we need to send to server.
+      @flush_queue = nil
+      @pending_queue = nil
+
+      # Parser with state
+      @parser = NATS::Protocol::Parser.new(self)
+
+      # Threads for both reading and flushing command
+      @flusher_thread = nil
+      @read_loop_thread = nil
+      @ping_interval_thread = nil
+
+      # Info that we get from the server
+      @server_info = { }
+
+      # URI from server to which we are currently connected
+      @uri = nil
+      @server_pool = []
+
+      @status = DISCONNECTED
+
+      # Subscriptions
+      @subs = { }
+      @ssid = 0
+
+      # Ping interval
+      @pings_outstanding = 0
+      @pongs_received = 0
+      @pongs = []
+      @pongs.extend(MonitorMixin)
+
+      # Accounting
+      @pending_size = 0
+      @stats = {
+        in_msgs: 0,
+        out_msgs: 0,
+        in_bytes: 0,
+        out_bytes: 0,
+        reconnects: 0
+      }
+
+      # Sticky error
+      @last_err = nil
+
+      # Async callbacks, no ops by default.
+      @err_cb = proc { }
+      @close_cb = proc { }
+      @disconnect_cb = proc { }
+      @reconnect_cb = proc { }
+
+      # Secure TLS options
+      @tls = nil
+
+      # Hostname of current server; used for when TLS host
+      # verification is enabled.
+      @hostname = nil
+      @single_url_connect_used = false
+
+      # Track whether connect has been already been called.
+      @connect_called = false
+
+      # New style request/response implementation.
+      @resp_sub = nil
+      @resp_map = nil
+      @resp_sub_prefix = nil
+      @nuid = NATS::NUID.new
+
+      # NKEYS
+      @user_credentials = nil
+      @nkeys_seed = nil
+      @user_nkey_cb = nil
+      @user_jwt_cb = nil
+      @signature_cb = nil
+
+      # Tokens
+      @auth_token = nil
+
+      @inbox_prefix = "_INBOX"
+
+      # Draining
+      @drain_t = nil
+    end
 
-    # When we cannot connect since there are no servers available.
-    class NoServersError < ConnectError; end
+    # Establishes a connection to NATS.
+    def connect(uri=nil, opts={})
+      synchronize do
+        # In case it has been connected already, then do not need to call this again.
+        return if @connect_called
+        @connect_called = true
+      end
 
-    # When the connection exhausts max number of pending pings replies.
-    class StaleConnectionError < Error; end
+      # Convert URI to string if needed.
+      uri = uri.to_s if uri.is_a?(URI)
+
+      case uri
+      when String
+        # Initialize TLS defaults in case any url is using it.
+        srvs = opts[:servers] = process_uri(uri)
+        if srvs.any? {|u| u.scheme == 'tls'} and !opts[:tls]
+          tls_context = OpenSSL::SSL::SSLContext.new
+          tls_context.set_params
+          opts[:tls] = {
+            context: tls_context
+          }
+        end
+        @single_url_connect_used = true if srvs.size == 1
+      when Hash
+        opts = uri
+      end
 
-    # When we do not get a result within a specified time.
-    class Timeout < Error; end
+      opts[:verbose] = false if opts[:verbose].nil?
+      opts[:pedantic] = false if opts[:pedantic].nil?
+      opts[:reconnect] = true if opts[:reconnect].nil?
+      opts[:old_style_request] = false if opts[:old_style_request].nil?
+      opts[:reconnect_time_wait] = NATS::IO::RECONNECT_TIME_WAIT if opts[:reconnect_time_wait].nil?
+      opts[:max_reconnect_attempts] = NATS::IO::MAX_RECONNECT_ATTEMPTS if opts[:max_reconnect_attempts].nil?
+      opts[:ping_interval] = NATS::IO::DEFAULT_PING_INTERVAL if opts[:ping_interval].nil?
+      opts[:max_outstanding_pings] = NATS::IO::DEFAULT_PING_MAX if opts[:max_outstanding_pings].nil?
+
+      # Override with ENV
+      opts[:verbose] = ENV['NATS_VERBOSE'].downcase == 'true' unless ENV['NATS_VERBOSE'].nil?
+      opts[:pedantic] = ENV['NATS_PEDANTIC'].downcase == 'true' unless ENV['NATS_PEDANTIC'].nil?
+      opts[:reconnect] = ENV['NATS_RECONNECT'].downcase == 'true' unless ENV['NATS_RECONNECT'].nil?
+      opts[:reconnect_time_wait] = ENV['NATS_RECONNECT_TIME_WAIT'].to_i unless ENV['NATS_RECONNECT_TIME_WAIT'].nil?
+      opts[:max_reconnect_attempts] = ENV['NATS_MAX_RECONNECT_ATTEMPTS'].to_i unless ENV['NATS_MAX_RECONNECT_ATTEMPTS'].nil?
+      opts[:ping_interval] = ENV['NATS_PING_INTERVAL'].to_i unless ENV['NATS_PING_INTERVAL'].nil?
+      opts[:max_outstanding_pings] = ENV['NATS_MAX_OUTSTANDING_PINGS'].to_i unless ENV['NATS_MAX_OUTSTANDING_PINGS'].nil?
+      opts[:connect_timeout] ||= NATS::IO::DEFAULT_CONNECT_TIMEOUT
+      opts[:drain_timeout] ||= NATS::IO::DEFAULT_DRAIN_TIMEOUT
+      @options = opts
+
+      # Process servers in the NATS cluster and pick one to connect
+      uris = opts[:servers] || [DEFAULT_URI]
+      uris.shuffle! unless @options[:dont_randomize_servers]
+      uris.each do |u|
+        nats_uri = case u
+                   when URI
+                     u.dup
+                   else
+                     URI.parse(u)
+                   end
+        @server_pool << {
+          :uri => nats_uri,
+          :hostname => nats_uri.host
+        }
+      end
 
-    # When there is an i/o timeout with the socket.
-    class SocketTimeoutError < Error; end
+      if @options[:old_style_request]
+        # Replace for this instance the implementation
+        # of request to use the old_request style.
+        class << self; alias_method :request, :old_request; end
+      end
 
-    # When we use an invalid subject.
-    class BadSubject < Error; end
+      # NKEYS
+      @signature_cb ||= opts[:user_signature_cb]
+      @user_jwt_cb ||= opts[:user_jwt_cb]
+      @user_nkey_cb ||= opts[:user_nkey_cb]
+      @user_credentials ||= opts[:user_credentials]
+      @nkeys_seed ||= opts[:nkeys_seed]
 
-    # When a subscription hits the pending messages limit.
-    class SlowConsumer < Error; end
+      setup_nkeys_connect if @user_credentials or @nkeys_seed
 
-    class Client
-      include MonitorMixin
+      # Tokens, if set will take preference over the user@server uri token
+      @auth_token ||= opts[:auth_token]
 
-      attr_reader :status, :server_info, :server_pool, :options, :connected_server, :stats, :uri
+      # Check for TLS usage
+      @tls = @options[:tls]
 
-      def initialize
-        super # required to initialize monitor
-        @options = nil
+      @inbox_prefix = opts.fetch(:custom_inbox_prefix, @inbox_prefix)
 
-        # Read/Write IO
-        @io = nil
+      validate_settings!
 
-        # Queues for coalescing writes of commands we need to send to server.
-        @flush_queue = nil
-        @pending_queue = nil
+      srv = nil
+      begin
+        srv = select_next_server
 
-        # Parser with state
-        @parser = NATS::Protocol::Parser.new(self)
+        # Create TCP socket connection to NATS
+        @io = create_socket
+        @io.connect
 
-        # Threads for both reading and flushing command
-        @flusher_thread = nil
-        @read_loop_thread = nil
-        @ping_interval_thread = nil
+        # Capture state that we have had a TCP connection established against
+        # this server and could potentially be used for reconnecting.
+        srv[:was_connected] = true
 
-        # Info that we get from the server
-        @server_info = { }
+        # Connection established and now in process of sending CONNECT to NATS
+        @status = CONNECTING
 
-        # URI from server to which we are currently connected
-        @uri = nil
-        @server_pool = []
+        # Use the hostname from the server for TLS hostname verification.
+        if client_using_secure_connection? and single_url_connect_used?
+          # Always reuse the original hostname used to connect.
+          @hostname ||= srv[:hostname]
+        else
+          @hostname = srv[:hostname]
+        end
 
-        @status = DISCONNECTED
+        # Established TCP connection successfully so can start connect
+        process_connect_init
 
-        # Subscriptions
-        @subs = { }
-        @ssid = 0
-
-        # Ping interval
-        @pings_outstanding = 0
-        @pongs_received = 0
-        @pongs = []
-        @pongs.extend(MonitorMixin)
-
-        # Accounting
-        @pending_size = 0
-        @stats = {
-          in_msgs: 0,
-          out_msgs: 0,
-          in_bytes: 0,
-          out_bytes: 0,
-          reconnects: 0
-        }
+        # Reset reconnection attempts if connection is valid
+        srv[:reconnect_attempts] = 0
+        srv[:auth_required] ||= true if @server_info[:auth_required]
 
-        # Sticky error
-        @last_err = nil
-
-        # Async callbacks, no ops by default.
-        @err_cb = proc { }
-        @close_cb = proc { }
-        @disconnect_cb = proc { }
-        @reconnect_cb = proc { }
-
-        # Secure TLS options
-        @tls = nil
-
-        # Hostname of current server; used for when TLS host
-        # verification is enabled.
-        @hostname = nil
-        @single_url_connect_used = false
-
-        # New style request/response implementation.
-        @resp_sub = nil
-        @resp_map = nil
-        @resp_sub_prefix = nil
-        @nuid = NATS::NUID.new
-
-        # NKEYS
-        @user_credentials = nil
-        @nkeys_seed = nil
-        @user_nkey_cb = nil
-        @user_jwt_cb = nil
-        @signature_cb = nil
-      end
-
-      # Establishes connection to NATS.
-      def connect(uri=nil, opts={})
-        case uri
-        when String
-          # Initialize TLS defaults in case any url is using it.
-          srvs = opts[:servers] = process_uri(uri)
-          if srvs.any? {|u| u.scheme == 'tls'} and !opts[:tls]
-            tls_context = OpenSSL::SSL::SSLContext.new
-            tls_context.set_params
-            opts[:tls] = {
-              context: tls_context
-            }
-          end
-          @single_url_connect_used = true if srvs.size == 1
-        when Hash
-          opts = uri
+        # Add back to rotation since successfully connected
+        server_pool << srv
+      rescue NATS::IO::NoServersError => e
+        @disconnect_cb.call(e) if @disconnect_cb
+        raise @last_err || e
+      rescue => e
+        # Capture sticky error
+        synchronize do
+          @last_err = e
+          srv[:auth_required] ||= true if @server_info[:auth_required]
+          server_pool << srv if can_reuse_server?(srv)
         end
 
-        opts[:verbose] = false if opts[:verbose].nil?
-        opts[:pedantic] = false if opts[:pedantic].nil?
-        opts[:reconnect] = true if opts[:reconnect].nil?
-        opts[:old_style_request] = false if opts[:old_style_request].nil?
-        opts[:reconnect_time_wait] = RECONNECT_TIME_WAIT if opts[:reconnect_time_wait].nil?
-        opts[:max_reconnect_attempts] = MAX_RECONNECT_ATTEMPTS if opts[:max_reconnect_attempts].nil?
-        opts[:ping_interval] = DEFAULT_PING_INTERVAL if opts[:ping_interval].nil?
-        opts[:max_outstanding_pings] = DEFAULT_PING_MAX if opts[:max_outstanding_pings].nil?
-
-        # Override with ENV
-        opts[:verbose] = ENV['NATS_VERBOSE'].downcase == 'true' unless ENV['NATS_VERBOSE'].nil?
-        opts[:pedantic] = ENV['NATS_PEDANTIC'].downcase == 'true' unless ENV['NATS_PEDANTIC'].nil?
-        opts[:reconnect] = ENV['NATS_RECONNECT'].downcase == 'true' unless ENV['NATS_RECONNECT'].nil?
-        opts[:reconnect_time_wait] = ENV['NATS_RECONNECT_TIME_WAIT'].to_i unless ENV['NATS_RECONNECT_TIME_WAIT'].nil?
-        opts[:max_reconnect_attempts] = ENV['NATS_MAX_RECONNECT_ATTEMPTS'].to_i unless ENV['NATS_MAX_RECONNECT_ATTEMPTS'].nil?
-        opts[:ping_interval] = ENV['NATS_PING_INTERVAL'].to_i unless ENV['NATS_PING_INTERVAL'].nil?
-        opts[:max_outstanding_pings] = ENV['NATS_MAX_OUTSTANDING_PINGS'].to_i unless ENV['NATS_MAX_OUTSTANDING_PINGS'].nil?
-        opts[:connect_timeout] ||= DEFAULT_CONNECT_TIMEOUT
-        @options = opts
-
-        # Process servers in the NATS cluster and pick one to connect
-        uris = opts[:servers] || [DEFAULT_URI]
-        uris.shuffle! unless @options[:dont_randomize_servers]
-        uris.each do |u|
-          nats_uri = case u
-                     when URI
-                       u.dup
-                     else
-                       URI.parse(u)
-                     end
-          @server_pool << {
-            :uri => nats_uri,
-            :hostname => nats_uri.host
-          }
-        end
+        err_cb_call(self, e, nil) if @err_cb
 
-        if @options[:old_style_request]
-          # Replace for this instance the implementation
-          # of request to use the old_request style.
-          class << self; alias_method :request, :old_request; end
+        if should_not_reconnect?
+          @disconnect_cb.call(e) if @disconnect_cb
+          raise e
         end
 
-        # NKEYS
-        @user_credentials ||= opts[:user_credentials]
-        @nkeys_seed ||= opts[:nkeys_seed]
-        setup_nkeys_connect if @user_credentials or @nkeys_seed
+        # Clean up any connecting state and close connection without
+        # triggering the disconnection/closed callbacks.
+        close_connection(DISCONNECTED, false)
 
-        # Check for TLS usage
-        @tls = @options[:tls]
+        # always sleep here to safe guard against errors before current[:was_connected]
+        # is set for the first time
+        sleep @options[:reconnect_time_wait] if @options[:reconnect_time_wait]
 
-        srv = nil
-        begin
-          srv = select_next_server
+        # Continue retrying until there are no options left in the server pool
+        retry
+      end
 
-          # Create TCP socket connection to NATS
-          @io = create_socket
-          @io.connect
+      # Initialize queues and loops for message dispatching and processing engine
+      @flush_queue = SizedQueue.new(NATS::IO::MAX_FLUSH_KICK_SIZE)
+      @pending_queue = SizedQueue.new(NATS::IO::MAX_PENDING_SIZE)
+      @pings_outstanding = 0
+      @pongs_received = 0
+      @pending_size = 0
 
-          # Capture state that we have had a TCP connection established against
-          # this server and could potentially be used for reconnecting.
-          srv[:was_connected] = true
+      # Server roundtrip went ok so consider to be connected at this point
+      @status = CONNECTED
 
-          # Connection established and now in process of sending CONNECT to NATS
-          @status = CONNECTING
+      # Connected to NATS so Ready to start parser loop, flusher and ping interval
+      start_threads!
 
-          # Use the hostname from the server for TLS hostname verification.
-          if client_using_secure_connection? and single_url_connect_used?
-            # Always reuse the original hostname used to connect.
-            @hostname ||= srv[:hostname]
-          else
-            @hostname = srv[:hostname]
-          end
+      self
+    end
 
-          # Established TCP connection successfully so can start connect
-          process_connect_init
+    def publish(subject, msg=EMPTY_MSG, opt_reply=nil, **options, &blk)
+      raise NATS::IO::BadSubject if !subject or subject.empty?
+      if options[:header]
+        return publish_msg(NATS::Msg.new(subject: subject, data: msg, reply: opt_reply, header: options[:header]))
+      end
 
-          # Reset reconnection attempts if connection is valid
-          srv[:reconnect_attempts] = 0
-          srv[:auth_required] ||= true if @server_info[:auth_required]
+      # Accounting
+      msg_size = msg.bytesize
+      @stats[:out_msgs] += 1
+      @stats[:out_bytes] += msg_size
 
-          # Add back to rotation since successfully connected
-          server_pool << srv
-        rescue NoServersError => e
-          @disconnect_cb.call(e) if @disconnect_cb
-          raise @last_err || e
-        rescue => e
-          # Capture sticky error
-          synchronize do
-            @last_err = e
-            srv[:auth_required] ||= true if @server_info[:auth_required]
-            server_pool << srv if can_reuse_server?(srv)
-          end
-
-          @err_cb.call(e) if @err_cb
+      send_command("PUB #{subject} #{opt_reply} #{msg_size}\r\n#{msg}\r\n")
+      @flush_queue << :pub if @flush_queue.empty?
+    end
 
-          if should_not_reconnect?
-            @disconnect_cb.call(e) if @disconnect_cb
-            raise e
-          end
+    # Publishes a NATS::Msg that may include headers.
+    def publish_msg(msg)
+      raise TypeError, "nats: expected NATS::Msg, got #{msg.class.name}" unless msg.is_a?(Msg)
+      raise NATS::IO::BadSubject if !msg.subject or msg.subject.empty?
 
-          # Clean up any connecting state and close connection without
-          # triggering the disconnection/closed callbacks.
-          close_connection(DISCONNECTED, false)
+      msg.reply ||= ''
+      msg.data ||= ''
+      msg_size = msg.data.bytesize
 
-          # always sleep here to safe guard against errors before current[:was_connected]
-          # is set for the first time
-          sleep @options[:reconnect_time_wait] if @options[:reconnect_time_wait]
+      # Accounting
+      @stats[:out_msgs] += 1
+      @stats[:out_bytes] += msg_size
 
-          # Continue retrying until there are no options left in the server pool
-          retry
+      if msg.header
+        hdr = ''
+        hdr << NATS_HDR_LINE
+        msg.header.each do |k, v|
+          hdr << "#{k}: #{v}#{CR_LF}"
         end
+        hdr << CR_LF
+        hdr_len = hdr.bytesize
+        total_size = msg_size + hdr_len
+        send_command("HPUB #{msg.subject} #{msg.reply} #{hdr_len} #{total_size}\r\n#{hdr}#{msg.data}\r\n")
+      else
+        send_command("PUB #{msg.subject} #{msg.reply} #{msg_size}\r\n#{msg.data}\r\n")
+      end
 
-        # Initialize queues and loops for message dispatching and processing engine
-        @flush_queue = SizedQueue.new(MAX_FLUSH_KICK_SIZE)
-        @pending_queue = SizedQueue.new(MAX_PENDING_SIZE)
-        @pings_outstanding = 0
-        @pongs_received = 0
-        @pending_size = 0
+      @flush_queue << :pub if @flush_queue.empty?
+    end
 
-        # Server roundtrip went ok so consider to be connected at this point
-        @status = CONNECTED
+    # Create subscription which is dispatched asynchronously
+    # messages to a callback.
+    def subscribe(subject, opts={}, &callback)
+      raise NATS::IO::ConnectionDrainingError.new("nats: connection draining") if draining?
 
-        # Connected to NATS so Ready to start parser loop, flusher and ping interval
-        start_threads!
+      sid = nil
+      sub = nil
+      synchronize do
+        sid = (@ssid += 1)
+        sub = @subs[sid] = Subscription.new
+        sub.nc = self
+        sub.sid = sid
+      end
+      opts[:pending_msgs_limit]  ||= NATS::IO::DEFAULT_SUB_PENDING_MSGS_LIMIT
+      opts[:pending_bytes_limit] ||= NATS::IO::DEFAULT_SUB_PENDING_BYTES_LIMIT
+
+      sub.subject = subject
+      sub.callback = callback
+      sub.received = 0
+      sub.queue = opts[:queue] if opts[:queue]
+      sub.max = opts[:max] if opts[:max]
+      sub.pending_msgs_limit  = opts[:pending_msgs_limit]
+      sub.pending_bytes_limit = opts[:pending_bytes_limit]
+      sub.pending_queue = SizedQueue.new(sub.pending_msgs_limit)
+
+      send_command("SUB #{subject} #{opts[:queue]} #{sid}#{CR_LF}")
+      @flush_queue << :sub
+
+      # Setup server support for auto-unsubscribe when receiving enough messages
+      sub.unsubscribe(opts[:max]) if opts[:max]
+
+      unless callback
+        cond = sub.new_cond
+        sub.wait_for_msgs_cond = cond
       end
 
-      def publish(subject, msg=EMPTY_MSG, opt_reply=nil, &blk)
-        raise BadSubject if !subject or subject.empty?
-        msg_size = msg.bytesize
+      # Async subscriptions each own a single thread for the
+      # delivery of messages.
+      # FIXME: Support shared thread pool with configurable limits
+      # to better support case of having a lot of subscriptions.
+      sub.wait_for_msgs_t = Thread.new do
+        loop do
+          msg = sub.pending_queue.pop
 
-        # Accounting
-        @stats[:out_msgs] += 1
-        @stats[:out_bytes] += msg_size
+          cb = nil
+          sub.synchronize do
 
-        send_command("PUB #{subject} #{opt_reply} #{msg_size}\r\n#{msg}\r\n")
-        @flush_queue << :pub if @flush_queue.empty?
-      end
+            # Decrease pending size since consumed already
+            sub.pending_size -= msg.data.size
+            cb = sub.callback
+          end
 
-      # Create subscription which is dispatched asynchronously
-      # messages to a callback.
-      def subscribe(subject, opts={}, &callback)
-        sid = nil
-        sub = nil
-        synchronize do
-          sid = (@ssid += 1)
-          sub = @subs[sid] = Subscription.new
-        end
-        opts[:pending_msgs_limit]  ||= DEFAULT_SUB_PENDING_MSGS_LIMIT
-        opts[:pending_bytes_limit] ||= DEFAULT_SUB_PENDING_BYTES_LIMIT
-
-        sub.subject = subject
-        sub.callback = callback
-        sub.received = 0
-        sub.queue = opts[:queue] if opts[:queue]
-        sub.max = opts[:max] if opts[:max]
-        sub.pending_msgs_limit  = opts[:pending_msgs_limit]
-        sub.pending_bytes_limit = opts[:pending_bytes_limit]
-        sub.pending_queue = SizedQueue.new(sub.pending_msgs_limit)
-
-        send_command("SUB #{subject} #{opts[:queue]} #{sid}#{CR_LF}")
-        @flush_queue << :sub
-
-        # Setup server support for auto-unsubscribe when receiving enough messages
-        unsubscribe(sid, opts[:max]) if opts[:max]
-
-        # Async subscriptions each own a single thread for the
-        # delivery of messages.
-        # FIXME: Support shared thread pool with configurable limits
-        # to better support case of having a lot of subscriptions.
-        sub.wait_for_msgs_t = Thread.new do
-          loop do
-            msg = sub.pending_queue.pop
-
-            cb = nil
-            sub.synchronize do
-              # Decrease pending size since consumed already
-              sub.pending_size -= msg.data.size
-              cb = sub.callback
+          begin
+            # Note: Keep some of the alternative arity versions to slightly
+            # improve backwards compatibility.  Eventually fine to deprecate
+            # since recommended version would be arity of 1 to get a NATS::Msg.
+            case cb.arity
+            when 0 then cb.call
+            when 1 then cb.call(msg)
+            when 2 then cb.call(msg.data, msg.reply)
+            when 3 then cb.call(msg.data, msg.reply, msg.subject)
+            else cb.call(msg.data, msg.reply, msg.subject, msg.header)
             end
-
-            begin
-              case cb.arity
-              when 0 then cb.call
-              when 1 then cb.call(msg.data)
-              when 2 then cb.call(msg.data, msg.reply)
-              else cb.call(msg.data, msg.reply, msg.subject)
-              end
-            rescue => e
-              synchronize do
-                @err_cb.call(e) if @err_cb
-              end
+          rescue => e
+            synchronize do
+              err_cb_call(self, e, sub) if @err_cb
             end
           end
         end
+      end if callback
 
-        sid
-      end
+      sub
+    end
 
-      # Sends a request using expecting a single response using a
-      # single subscription per connection for receiving the responses.
-      # It times out in case the request is not retrieved within the
-      # specified deadline.
-      # If given a callback, then the request happens asynchronously.
-      def request(subject, payload, opts={}, &blk)
-        return unless subject
+    # Sends a request using expecting a single response using a
+    # single subscription per connection for receiving the responses.
+    # It times out in case the request is not retrieved within the
+    # specified deadline.
+    # If given a callback, then the request happens asynchronously.
+    def request(subject, payload="", **opts, &blk)
+      raise NATS::IO::BadSubject if !subject or subject.empty?
 
-        # If a block was given then fallback to method using auto unsubscribe.
-        return old_request(subject, payload, opts, &blk) if blk
+      # If a block was given then fallback to method using auto unsubscribe.
+      return old_request(subject, payload, opts, &blk) if blk
+      return old_request(subject, payload, opts) if opts[:old_style]
 
-        token = nil
-        inbox = nil
-        future = nil
-        response = nil
-        timeout = opts[:timeout] ||= 0.5
-        synchronize do
-          start_resp_mux_sub! unless @resp_sub_prefix
+      if opts[:header]
+        return request_msg(NATS::Msg.new(subject: subject, data: payload, header: opts[:header]), **opts)
+      end
 
-          # Create token for this request.
-          token = @nuid.next
-          inbox = "#{@resp_sub_prefix}.#{token}"
+      token = nil
+      inbox = nil
+      future = nil
+      response = nil
+      timeout = opts[:timeout] ||= 0.5
+      synchronize do
+        start_resp_mux_sub! unless @resp_sub_prefix
+
+        # Create token for this request.
+        token = @nuid.next
+        inbox = "#{@resp_sub_prefix}.#{token}"
+
+        # Create the a future for the request that will
+        # get signaled when it receives the request.
+        future = @resp_sub.new_cond
+        @resp_map[token][:future] = future
+      end
 
-          # Create the a future for the request that will
-          # get signaled when it receives the request.
-          future = @resp_sub.new_cond
-          @resp_map[token][:future] = future
+      # Publish request and wait for reply.
+      publish(subject, payload, inbox)
+      begin
+        MonotonicTime::with_nats_timeout(timeout) do
+          @resp_sub.synchronize do
+            future.wait(timeout)
+          end
         end
+      rescue NATS::Timeout => e
+        synchronize { @resp_map.delete(token) }
+        raise e
+      end
 
-        # Publish request and wait for reply.
-        publish(subject, payload, inbox)
-        with_nats_timeout(timeout) do
+      # Check if there is a response already.
+      synchronize do
+        result = @resp_map[token]
+        response = result[:response]
+        @resp_map.delete(token)
+      end
+
+      if response and response.header
+        status = response.header[STATUS_HDR]
+        raise NATS::IO::NoRespondersError if status == "503"
+      end
+
+      response
+    end
+
+    # request_msg makes a NATS request using a NATS::Msg that may include headers.
+    def request_msg(msg, **opts)
+      raise TypeError, "nats: expected NATS::Msg, got #{msg.class.name}" unless msg.is_a?(Msg)
+      raise NATS::IO::BadSubject if !msg.subject or msg.subject.empty?
+
+      token = nil
+      inbox = nil
+      future = nil
+      response = nil
+      timeout = opts[:timeout] ||= 0.5
+      synchronize do
+        start_resp_mux_sub! unless @resp_sub_prefix
+
+        # Create token for this request.
+        token = @nuid.next
+        inbox = "#{@resp_sub_prefix}.#{token}"
+
+        # Create the a future for the request that will
+        # get signaled when it receives the request.
+        future = @resp_sub.new_cond
+        @resp_map[token][:future] = future
+      end
+      msg.reply = inbox
+      msg.data ||= ''
+      msg_size = msg.data.bytesize
+
+      # Publish request and wait for reply.
+      publish_msg(msg)
+      begin
+        MonotonicTime::with_nats_timeout(timeout) do
           @resp_sub.synchronize do
             future.wait(timeout)
           end
         end
+      rescue NATS::Timeout => e
+        synchronize { @resp_map.delete(token) }
+        raise e
+      end
 
-        # Check if there is a response already
-        synchronize do
-          result = @resp_map[token]
-          response = result[:response]
-        end
+      # Check if there is a response already.
+      synchronize do
+        result = @resp_map[token]
+        response = result[:response]
+        @resp_map.delete(token)
+      end
 
-        response
-      end
-
-      # Sends a request creating an ephemeral subscription for the request,
-      # expecting a single response or raising a timeout in case the request
-      # is not retrieved within the specified deadline.
-      # If given a callback, then the request happens asynchronously.
-      def old_request(subject, payload, opts={}, &blk)
-        return unless subject
-        inbox = new_inbox
-
-        # If a callback was passed, then have it process
-        # the messages asynchronously and return the sid.
-        if blk
-          opts[:max] ||= 1
-          s = subscribe(inbox, opts) do |msg, reply|
-            case blk.arity
-            when 0 then blk.call
-            when 1 then blk.call(msg)
-            else blk.call(msg, reply)
-            end
-          end
-          publish(subject, payload, inbox)
+      if response and response.header
+        status = response.header[STATUS_HDR]
+        raise NATS::IO::NoRespondersError if status == "503"
+      end
+
+      response
+    end
 
-          return s
+    # Sends a request creating an ephemeral subscription for the request,
+    # expecting a single response or raising a timeout in case the request
+    # is not retrieved within the specified deadline.
+    # If given a callback, then the request happens asynchronously.
+    def old_request(subject, payload, opts={}, &blk)
+      return unless subject
+      inbox = new_inbox
+
+      # If a callback was passed, then have it process
+      # the messages asynchronously and return the sid.
+      if blk
+        opts[:max] ||= 1
+        s = subscribe(inbox, opts) do |msg|
+          case blk.arity
+          when 0 then blk.call
+          when 1 then blk.call(msg)
+          when 2 then blk.call(msg.data, msg.reply)
+          when 3 then blk.call(msg.data, msg.reply, msg.subject)
+          else blk.call(msg.data, msg.reply, msg.subject, msg.header)
+          end
         end
+        publish(subject, payload, inbox)
+
+        return s
+      end
 
-        # In case block was not given, handle synchronously
-        # with a timeout and only allow a single response.
-        timeout = opts[:timeout] ||= 0.5
-        opts[:max] = 1
+      # In case block was not given, handle synchronously
+      # with a timeout and only allow a single response.
+      timeout = opts[:timeout] ||= 0.5
+      opts[:max] = 1
 
-        sub = Subscription.new
-        sub.subject = inbox
-        sub.received = 0
-        future = sub.new_cond
-        sub.future = future
+      sub = Subscription.new
+      sub.subject = inbox
+      sub.received = 0
+      future = sub.new_cond
+      sub.future = future
+      sub.nc = self
 
-        sid = nil
-        synchronize do
-          sid = (@ssid += 1)
-          @subs[sid] = sub
+      sid = nil
+      synchronize do
+        sid = (@ssid += 1)
+        sub.sid = sid
+        @subs[sid] = sub
+      end
+
+      send_command("SUB #{inbox} #{sid}#{CR_LF}")
+      @flush_queue << :sub
+      unsubscribe(sub, 1)
+
+      sub.synchronize do
+        # Publish the request and then wait for the response...
+        publish(subject, payload, inbox)
+
+        MonotonicTime::with_nats_timeout(timeout) do
+          future.wait(timeout)
         end
+      end
+      response = sub.response
 
-        send_command("SUB #{inbox} #{sid}#{CR_LF}")
-        @flush_queue << :sub
-        unsubscribe(sid, 1)
+      if response and response.header
+        status = response.header[STATUS_HDR]
+        raise NATS::IO::NoRespondersError if status == "503"
+      end
 
-        sub.synchronize do
-          # Publish the request and then wait for the response...
-          publish(subject, payload, inbox)
+      response
+    end
 
-          with_nats_timeout(timeout) do
-            future.wait(timeout)
-          end
+    # Send a ping and wait for a pong back within a timeout.
+    def flush(timeout=10)
+      # Schedule sending a PING, and block until we receive PONG back,
+      # or raise a timeout in case the response is past the deadline.
+      pong = @pongs.new_cond
+      @pongs.synchronize do
+        @pongs << pong
+
+        # Flush once pong future has been prepared
+        @pending_queue << PING_REQUEST
+        @flush_queue << :ping
+        MonotonicTime::with_nats_timeout(timeout) do
+          pong.wait(timeout)
         end
-        response = sub.response
+      end
+    end
 
-        response
+    alias :servers :server_pool
+
+    # discovered_servers returns the NATS Servers that have been discovered
+    # via INFO protocol updates.
+    def discovered_servers
+      servers.select {|s| s[:discovered] }
+    end
+
+    # Close connection to NATS, flushing in case connection is alive
+    # and there are any pending messages, should not be used while
+    # holding the lock.
+    def close
+      close_connection(CLOSED, true)
+    end
+
+    # new_inbox returns a unique inbox used for subscriptions.
+    # @return [String]
+    def new_inbox
+      "#{@inbox_prefix}.#{@nuid.next}"
+    end
+
+    def connected_server
+      connected? ? @uri : nil
+    end
+
+    def connected?
+      @status == CONNECTED
+    end
+
+    def connecting?
+      @status == CONNECTING
+    end
+
+    def reconnecting?
+      @status == RECONNECTING
+    end
+
+    def closed?
+      @status == CLOSED
+    end
+
+    def draining?
+      if @status == DRAINING_PUBS or @status == DRAINING_SUBS
+        return true
       end
 
-      # Auto unsubscribes the server by sending UNSUB command and throws away
-      # subscription in case already present and has received enough messages.
-      def unsubscribe(sid, opt_max=nil)
-        opt_max_str = " #{opt_max}" unless opt_max.nil?
-        send_command("UNSUB #{sid}#{opt_max_str}#{CR_LF}")
-        @flush_queue << :unsub
+      is_draining = false
+      synchronize do
+        is_draining = true if @drain_t
+      end
 
-        return unless sub = @subs[sid]
-        synchronize do
-          sub.max = opt_max
-          @subs.delete(sid) unless (sub.max && (sub.received < sub.max))
+      is_draining
+    end
 
-          # Stop messages delivery thread for async subscribers
-          if sub.wait_for_msgs_t && sub.wait_for_msgs_t.alive?
-            sub.wait_for_msgs_t.exit
-            sub.pending_queue.clear
+    def on_error(&callback)
+      @err_cb = callback
+    end
+
+    def on_disconnect(&callback)
+      @disconnect_cb = callback
+    end
+
+    def on_reconnect(&callback)
+      @reconnect_cb = callback
+    end
+
+    def on_close(&callback)
+      @close_cb = callback
+    end
+
+    def last_error
+      synchronize do
+        @last_err
+      end
+    end
+
+    # drain will put a connection into a drain state. All subscriptions will
+    # immediately be put into a drain state. Upon completion, the publishers
+    # will be drained and can not publish any additional messages. Upon draining
+    # of the publishers, the connection will be closed. Use the `on_close`
+    # callback option to know when the connection has moved from draining to closed.
+    def drain
+      return if draining?
+
+      synchronize do
+        @drain_t ||= Thread.new { do_drain }
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Create a JetStream context.
+    # @param opts [Hash] Options to customize the JetStream context.
+    # @option params [String] :prefix JetStream API prefix to use for the requests.
+    # @option params [String] :domain JetStream Domain to use for the requests.
+    # @option params [Float] :timeout Default timeout to use for JS requests.
+    # @return [NATS::JetStream]
+    def jetstream(opts={})
+      ::NATS::JetStream.new(self, opts)
+    end
+    alias_method :JetStream, :jetstream
+    alias_method :jsm, :jetstream
+
+    private
+
+    def validate_settings!
+      raise(NATS::IO::ClientError, "custom inbox may not include '>'") if @inbox_prefix.include?(">")
+      raise(NATS::IO::ClientError, "custom inbox may not include '*'") if @inbox_prefix.include?("*")
+      raise(NATS::IO::ClientError, "custom inbox may not end in '.'") if @inbox_prefix.end_with?(".")
+      raise(NATS::IO::ClientError, "custom inbox may not begin with '.'") if @inbox_prefix.start_with?(".")
+    end
+
+    def process_info(line)
+      parsed_info = JSON.parse(line)
+
+      # INFO can be received asynchronously too,
+      # so has to be done under the lock.
+      synchronize do
+        # Symbolize keys from parsed info line
+        @server_info = parsed_info.reduce({}) do |info, (k,v)|
+          info[k.to_sym] = v
+
+          info
+        end
+
+        # Detect any announced server that we might not be aware of...
+        connect_urls = @server_info[:connect_urls]
+        if connect_urls
+          srvs = []
+          connect_urls.each do |url|
+            scheme = client_using_secure_connection? ? "tls" : "nats"
+            u = URI.parse("#{scheme}://#{url}")
+
+            # Skip in case it is the current server which we already know
+            next if @uri.host == u.host && @uri.port == u.port
+
+            present = server_pool.detect do |srv|
+              srv[:uri].host == u.host && srv[:uri].port == u.port
+            end
+
+            if not present
+              # Let explicit user and pass options set the credentials.
+              u.user = options[:user] if options[:user]
+              u.password = options[:pass] if options[:pass]
+
+              # Use creds from the current server if not set explicitly.
+              if @uri
+                u.user ||= @uri.user if @uri.user
+                u.password ||= @uri.password if @uri.password
+              end
+
+              # NOTE: Auto discovery won't work here when TLS host verification is enabled.
+              srv = { :uri => u, :reconnect_attempts => 0, :discovered => true, :hostname => u.host }
+              srvs << srv
+            end
           end
+          srvs.shuffle! unless @options[:dont_randomize_servers]
+
+          # Include in server pool but keep current one as the first one.
+          server_pool.push(*srvs)
         end
       end
 
-      # Send a ping and wait for a pong back within a timeout.
-      def flush(timeout=60)
-        # Schedule sending a PING, and block until we receive PONG back,
-        # or raise a timeout in case the response is past the deadline.
-        pong = @pongs.new_cond
-        @pongs.synchronize do
-          @pongs << pong
+      @server_info
+    end
+
+    def process_hdr(header)
+      hdr = nil
+      if header
+        hdr = {}
+        lines = header.lines
+
+        # Check if it is an inline status and description.
+        if lines.count <= 2
+          status_hdr = lines.first.rstrip
+          hdr[STATUS_HDR] = status_hdr.slice(NATS_HDR_LINE_SIZE-1, STATUS_MSG_LEN)
 
-          # Flush once pong future has been prepared
-          @pending_queue << PING_REQUEST
-          @flush_queue << :ping
-          with_nats_timeout(timeout) do
-            pong.wait(timeout)
+          if NATS_HDR_LINE_SIZE+2 < status_hdr.bytesize
+            desc = status_hdr.slice(NATS_HDR_LINE_SIZE+STATUS_MSG_LEN, status_hdr.bytesize)
+            hdr[DESC_HDR] = desc unless desc.empty?
           end
         end
+        begin
+          lines.slice(1, header.size).each do |line|
+            line.rstrip!
+            next if line.empty?
+            key, value = line.strip.split(/\s*:\s*/, 2)
+            hdr[key] = value
+          end
+        rescue => e
+          err = e
+        end
       end
 
-      alias :servers :server_pool
+      hdr
+    end
+
+    # Methods only used by the parser
 
-      def discovered_servers
-        servers.select {|s| s[:discovered] }
+    def process_pong
+      # Take first pong wait and signal any flush in case there was one
+      @pongs.synchronize do
+        pong = @pongs.pop
+        pong.signal unless pong.nil?
       end
+      @pings_outstanding -= 1
+      @pongs_received += 1
+    end
 
-      # Methods only used by the parser
+    # Received a ping so respond back with a pong
+    def process_ping
+      @pending_queue << PONG_RESPONSE
+      @flush_queue << :ping
+      pong = @pongs.new_cond
+      @pongs.synchronize { @pongs << pong }
+    end
 
-      def process_pong
-        # Take first pong wait and signal any flush in case there was one
-        @pongs.synchronize do
-          pong = @pongs.pop
-          pong.signal unless pong.nil?
+    # Handles protocol errors being sent by the server.
+    def process_err(err)
+      # In case of permissions violation then dispatch the error callback
+      # while holding the lock.
+      e = synchronize do
+        current = server_pool.first
+        case
+        when err =~ /'Stale Connection'/
+          @last_err = NATS::IO::StaleConnectionError.new(err)
+        when current && current[:auth_required]
+          # We cannot recover from auth errors so mark it to avoid
+          # retrying to unecessarily next time.
+          current[:error_received] = true
+          @last_err = NATS::IO::AuthError.new(err)
+        else
+          @last_err = NATS::IO::ServerError.new(err)
         end
-        @pings_outstanding -= 1
-        @pongs_received += 1
       end
+      process_op_error(e)
+    end
 
-      # Received a ping so respond back with a pong
-      def process_ping
-        @pending_queue << PONG_RESPONSE
-        @flush_queue << :ping
-        pong = @pongs.new_cond
-        @pongs.synchronize { @pongs << pong }
-      end
+    def process_msg(subject, sid, reply, data, header)
+      @stats[:in_msgs] += 1
+      @stats[:in_bytes] += data.size
+
+      # Throw away in case we no longer manage the subscription
+      sub = nil
+      synchronize { sub = @subs[sid] }
+      return unless sub
 
-      # Handles protocol errors being sent by the server.
-      def process_err(err)
-        # In case of permissions violation then dispatch the error callback
-        # while holding the lock.
-        e = synchronize do
-          current = server_pool.first
+      err = nil
+      sub.synchronize do
+        sub.received += 1
+
+        # Check for auto_unsubscribe
+        if sub.max
           case
-          when err =~ /'Stale Connection'/
-            @last_err = NATS::IO::StaleConnectionError.new(err)
-          when current && current[:auth_required]
-            # We cannot recover from auth errors so mark it to avoid
-            # retrying to unecessarily next time.
-            current[:error_received] = true
-            @last_err = NATS::IO::AuthError.new(err)
-          else
-            @last_err = NATS::IO::ServerError.new(err)
+          when sub.received > sub.max
+            # Client side support in case server did not receive unsubscribe
+            unsubscribe(sid)
+            return
+          when sub.received == sub.max
+            # Cleanup here if we have hit the max..
+            synchronize { @subs.delete(sid) }
           end
         end
-        process_op_error(e)
-      end
 
-      def process_msg(subject, sid, reply, data)
-        # Accounting
-        @stats[:in_msgs] += 1
-        @stats[:in_bytes] += data.size
-
-        # Throw away in case we no longer manage the subscription
-        sub = nil
-        synchronize { sub = @subs[sid] }
-        return unless sub
-
-        sc = nil
-        sub.synchronize do
-          sub.received += 1
-
-          # Check for auto_unsubscribe
-          if sub.max
-            case
-            when sub.received > sub.max
-              # Client side support in case server did not receive unsubscribe
-              unsubscribe(sid)
-              return
-            when sub.received == sub.max
-              # Cleanup here if we have hit the max..
-              synchronize { @subs.delete(sid) }
-            end
-          end
+        # In case of a request which requires a future
+        # do so here already while holding the lock and return
+        if sub.future
+          future = sub.future
+          hdr = process_hdr(header)
+          sub.response = Msg.new(subject: subject, reply: reply, data: data, header: hdr, nc: self, sub: sub)
+          future.signal
+
+          return
+        elsif sub.pending_queue
+          # Async subscribers use a sized queue for processing
+          # and should be able to consume messages in parallel.
+          if sub.pending_queue.size >= sub.pending_msgs_limit \
+            or sub.pending_size >= sub.pending_bytes_limit then
+            err = NATS::IO::SlowConsumer.new("nats: slow consumer, messages dropped")
+          else
+            hdr = process_hdr(header)
 
-          # In case of a request which requires a future
-          # do so here already while holding the lock and return
-          if sub.future
-            future = sub.future
-            sub.response = Msg.new(subject, reply, data)
-            future.signal
+            # Only dispatch message when sure that it would not block
+            # the main read loop from the parser.
+            msg = Msg.new(subject: subject, reply: reply, data: data, header: hdr, nc: self, sub: sub)
+            sub.pending_queue << msg
 
-            return
-          elsif sub.pending_queue
-            # Async subscribers use a sized queue for processing
-            # and should be able to consume messages in parallel.
-            if sub.pending_queue.size >= sub.pending_msgs_limit \
-              or sub.pending_size >= sub.pending_bytes_limit then
-              sc = SlowConsumer.new("nats: slow consumer, messages dropped")
-            else
-              # Only dispatch message when sure that it would not block
-              # the main read loop from the parser.
-              sub.pending_queue << Msg.new(subject, reply, data)
-              sub.pending_size += data.size
-            end
+            # For sync subscribers, signal that there is a new message.
+            sub.wait_for_msgs_cond.signal if sub.wait_for_msgs_cond
+
+            sub.pending_size += data.size
           end
         end
-
-        synchronize do
-          @last_err = sc
-          @err_cb.call(sc) if @err_cb
-        end if sc
       end
 
-      def process_info(line)
-        parsed_info = JSON.parse(line)
+      synchronize do
+        @last_err = err
+        err_cb_call(self, err, sub) if @err_cb
+      end if err
+    end
 
-        # INFO can be received asynchronously too,
-        # so has to be done under the lock.
-        synchronize do
-          # Symbolize keys from parsed info line
-          @server_info = parsed_info.reduce({}) do |info, (k,v)|
-            info[k.to_sym] = v
+    def select_next_server
+      raise NATS::IO::NoServersError.new("nats: No servers available") if server_pool.empty?
 
-            info
-          end
+      # Pick next from head of the list
+      srv = server_pool.shift
 
-          # Detect any announced server that we might not be aware of...
-          connect_urls = @server_info[:connect_urls]
-          if connect_urls
-            srvs = []
-            connect_urls.each do |url|
-              scheme = client_using_secure_connection? ? "tls" : "nats"
-              u = URI.parse("#{scheme}://#{url}")
+      # Track connection attempts to this server
+      srv[:reconnect_attempts] ||= 0
+      srv[:reconnect_attempts] += 1
 
-              # Skip in case it is the current server which we already know
-              next if @uri.host == u.host && @uri.port == u.port
+      # Back off in case we are reconnecting to it and have been connected
+      sleep @options[:reconnect_time_wait] if should_delay_connect?(srv)
 
-              present = server_pool.detect do |srv|
-                srv[:uri].host == u.host && srv[:uri].port == u.port
-              end
+      # Set url of the server to which we would be connected
+      @uri = srv[:uri]
+      @uri.user = @options[:user] if @options[:user]
+      @uri.password = @options[:pass] if @options[:pass]
 
-              if not present
-                # Let explicit user and pass options set the credentials.
-                u.user = options[:user] if options[:user]
-                u.password = options[:pass] if options[:pass]
+      srv
+    end
 
-                # Use creds from the current server if not set explicitly.
-                if @uri
-                  u.user ||= @uri.user if @uri.user
-                  u.password ||= @uri.password if @uri.password
-                end
+    def server_using_secure_connection?
+      @server_info[:ssl_required] || @server_info[:tls_required]
+    end
 
-                # NOTE: Auto discovery won't work here when TLS host verification is enabled.
-                srv = { :uri => u, :reconnect_attempts => 0, :discovered => true, :hostname => u.host }
-                srvs << srv
-              end
-            end
-            srvs.shuffle! unless @options[:dont_randomize_servers]
+    def client_using_secure_connection?
+      @uri.scheme == "tls" || @tls
+    end
 
-            # Include in server pool but keep current one as the first one.
-            server_pool.push(*srvs)
-          end
-        end
+    def single_url_connect_used?
+      @single_url_connect_used
+    end
 
-        @server_info
-      end
+    def send_command(command)
+      @pending_size += command.bytesize
+      @pending_queue << command
 
-      # Close connection to NATS, flushing in case connection is alive
-      # and there are any pending messages, should not be used while
-      # holding the lock.
-      def close
-        close_connection(CLOSED, true)
-      end
+      # TODO: kick flusher here in case pending_size growing large
+    end
 
-      def new_inbox
-        "_INBOX.#{SecureRandom.hex(13)}"
+    # Auto unsubscribes the server by sending UNSUB command and throws away
+    # subscription in case already present and has received enough messages.
+    def unsubscribe(sub, opt_max=nil)
+      sid = nil
+      closed = nil
+      sub.synchronize do
+        sid = sub.sid
+        closed = sub.closed
       end
-
-      def connected_server
-        connected? ? @uri : nil
+      raise NATS::IO::BadSubscription.new("nats: invalid subscription") if closed
+
+      opt_max_str = " #{opt_max}" unless opt_max.nil?
+      send_command("UNSUB #{sid}#{opt_max_str}#{CR_LF}")
+      @flush_queue << :unsub
+
+      synchronize { sub = @subs[sid] }
+      return unless sub
+      synchronize do
+        sub.max = opt_max
+        @subs.delete(sid) unless (sub.max && (sub.received < sub.max))
+
+        # Stop messages delivery thread for async subscribers
+        if sub.wait_for_msgs_t && sub.wait_for_msgs_t.alive?
+          sub.wait_for_msgs_t.exit
+          sub.pending_queue.clear
+        end
       end
 
-      def connected?
-        @status == CONNECTED
+      sub.synchronize do
+        sub.closed = true
       end
+    end
 
-      def connecting?
-        @status == CONNECTING
+    def drain_sub(sub)
+      sid = nil
+      closed = nil
+      sub.synchronize do
+        sid = sub.sid
+        closed = sub.closed
       end
+      return if closed
 
-      def reconnecting?
-        @status == RECONNECTING
-      end
+      send_command("UNSUB #{sid}#{CR_LF}")
+      @flush_queue << :drain
 
-      def closed?
-        @status == CLOSED
-      end
+      synchronize { sub = @subs[sid] }
+      return unless sub
+    end
 
-      def on_error(&callback)
-        @err_cb = callback
-      end
+    def do_drain
+      synchronize { @status = DRAINING_SUBS }
 
-      def on_disconnect(&callback)
-        @disconnect_cb = callback
+      # Do unsubscribe protocol for all the susbcriptions, then have a single thread
+      # waiting until all subs are done or drain timeout error reported to async error cb.
+      subs = []
+      @subs.each do |_, sub|
+        next if sub == @resp_sub
+        drain_sub(sub)
+        subs << sub
       end
+      force_flush!
 
-      def on_reconnect(&callback)
-        @reconnect_cb = callback
-      end
+      # Wait until all subs have no pending messages.
+      drain_timeout = MonotonicTime::now + @options[:drain_timeout]
+      to_delete = []
 
-      def on_close(&callback)
-        @close_cb = callback
-      end
+      loop do
+        break if MonotonicTime::now > drain_timeout
+        sleep 0.1
 
-      def last_error
-        synchronize do
-          @last_err
+        # Wait until all subs are done.
+        @subs.each do |_, sub|
+          if sub != @resp_sub and sub.pending_queue.size == 0
+            to_delete << sub
+          end
+        end
+        next if to_delete.empty?
+
+        to_delete.each do |sub|
+          @subs.delete(sub.sid)
+          # Stop messages delivery thread for async subscribers
+          if sub.wait_for_msgs_t && sub.wait_for_msgs_t.alive?
+            sub.wait_for_msgs_t.exit
+            sub.pending_queue.clear
+          end
+        end
+        to_delete.clear
+
+        # Wait until only the resp mux is remaining or there are no subscriptions.
+        if @subs.count == 1
+          sid, sub = @subs.first
+          if sub == @resp_sub
+            break
+          end
+        elsif @subs.count == 0
+          break
         end
       end
 
-      private
+      if MonotonicTime::now > drain_timeout
+        e = NATS::IO::DrainTimeoutError.new("nats: draining connection timed out")
+        err_cb_call(self, e, nil) if @err_cb
+      end
+      synchronize { @status = DRAINING_PUBS }
+
+      # Remove resp mux handler in case there is one.
+      unsubscribe(@resp_sub) if @resp_sub
+      close
+    end
 
-      def select_next_server
-        raise NoServersError.new("nats: No servers available") if server_pool.empty?
+    def send_flush_queue(s)
+      @flush_queue << s
+    end
 
-        # Pick next from head of the list
-        srv = server_pool.shift
+    def delete_sid(sid)
+      @subs.delete(sid)
+    end
 
-        # Track connection attempts to this server
-        srv[:reconnect_attempts] ||= 0
-        srv[:reconnect_attempts] += 1
+    def err_cb_call(nc, e, sub)
+      return unless @err_cb
 
-        # Back off in case we are reconnecting to it and have been connected
-        sleep @options[:reconnect_time_wait] if should_delay_connect?(srv)
+      cb = @err_cb
+      case cb.arity
+      when 0 then cb.call
+      when 1 then cb.call(e)
+      when 2 then cb.call(e, sub)
+      else cb.call(nc, e, sub)
+      end
+    end
 
-        # Set url of the server to which we would be connected
-        @uri = srv[:uri]
-        @uri.user = @options[:user] if @options[:user]
-        @uri.password = @options[:pass] if @options[:pass]
+    def auth_connection?
+      !@uri.user.nil?
+    end
 
-        srv
-      end
+    def connect_command
+      cs = {
+            :verbose  => @options[:verbose],
+            :pedantic => @options[:pedantic],
+            :lang     => NATS::IO::LANG,
+            :version  => NATS::IO::VERSION,
+            :protocol => NATS::IO::PROTOCOL
+      }
+      cs[:name] = @options[:name] if @options[:name]
 
-      def server_using_secure_connection?
-        @server_info[:ssl_required] || @server_info[:tls_required]
+      case
+      when auth_connection?
+        if @uri.password
+          cs[:user] = @uri.user
+          cs[:pass] = @uri.password
+        else
+          cs[:auth_token] = @uri.user
+        end
+      when @user_jwt_cb && @signature_cb
+        nonce = @server_info[:nonce]
+        cs[:jwt] = @user_jwt_cb.call
+        cs[:sig] = @signature_cb.call(nonce)
+      when @user_nkey_cb && @signature_cb
+        nonce = @server_info[:nonce]
+        cs[:nkey] = @user_nkey_cb.call
+        cs[:sig] = @signature_cb.call(nonce)
       end
 
-      def client_using_secure_connection?
-        @uri.scheme == "tls" || @tls
-      end
+      cs[:auth_token] = @auth_token if @auth_token
 
-      def single_url_connect_used?
-        @single_url_connect_used
+      if @server_info[:headers]
+        cs[:headers] = @server_info[:headers]
+        cs[:no_responders] = if @options[:no_responders] == false
+                               @options[:no_responders]
+                             else
+                               @server_info[:headers]
+                             end
       end
 
-      def send_command(command)
-        @pending_size += command.bytesize
-        @pending_queue << command
+      "CONNECT #{cs.to_json}#{CR_LF}"
+    end
 
-        # TODO: kick flusher here in case pending_size growing large
+    # Handles errors from reading, parsing the protocol or stale connection.
+    # the lock should not be held entering this function.
+    def process_op_error(e)
+      should_bail = synchronize do
+        connecting? || closed? || reconnecting?
       end
+      return if should_bail
 
-      def auth_connection?
-        !@uri.user.nil?
-      end
+      synchronize do
+        @last_err = e
+        err_cb_call(self, e, nil) if @err_cb
 
-      def connect_command
-        cs = {
-          :verbose  => @options[:verbose],
-          :pedantic => @options[:pedantic],
-          :lang     => NATS::IO::LANG,
-          :version  => NATS::IO::VERSION,
-          :protocol => NATS::IO::PROTOCOL
-        }
-        cs[:name] = @options[:name] if @options[:name]
+        # If we were connected and configured to reconnect,
+        # then trigger disconnect and start reconnection logic
+        if connected? and should_reconnect?
+          @status = RECONNECTING
+          @io.close if @io
+          @io = nil
 
-        case
-        when auth_connection?
-          if @uri.password
-            cs[:user] = @uri.user
-            cs[:pass] = @uri.password
-          else
-            cs[:auth_token] = @uri.user
+          # TODO: Reconnecting pending buffer?
+
+          # Do reconnect under a different thread than the one
+          # in which we got the error.
+          Thread.new do
+            begin
+              # Abort currently running reads in case they're around
+              # FIXME: There might be more graceful way here...
+              @read_loop_thread.exit if @read_loop_thread.alive?
+              @flusher_thread.exit if @flusher_thread.alive?
+              @ping_interval_thread.exit if @ping_interval_thread.alive?
+
+              attempt_reconnect
+            rescue NATS::IO::NoServersError => e
+              @last_err = e
+              close
+            end
           end
-        when @user_credentials
-          nonce = @server_info[:nonce]
-          cs[:jwt] = @user_jwt_cb.call
-          cs[:sig] = @signature_cb.call(nonce)
-        when @nkeys_seed
-          nonce = @server_info[:nonce]
-          cs[:nkey] = @user_nkey_cb.call
-          cs[:sig] = @signature_cb.call(nonce)
+
+          Thread.exit
+          return
         end
 
-        "CONNECT #{cs.to_json}#{CR_LF}"
+        # Otherwise, stop trying to reconnect and close the connection
+        @status = DISCONNECTED
       end
 
-      def with_nats_timeout(timeout)
-        start_time = MonotonicTime.now
-        yield
-        end_time = MonotonicTime.now
-        duration = end_time - start_time
-        raise NATS::IO::Timeout.new("nats: timeout") if duration > timeout
+      # Otherwise close the connection to NATS
+      close
+    end
+
+    # Gathers data from the socket and sends it to the parser.
+    def read_loop
+      loop do
+        begin
+          should_bail = synchronize do
+            # FIXME: In case of reconnect as well?
+            @status == CLOSED or @status == RECONNECTING
+          end
+          if !@io or @io.closed? or should_bail
+            return
+          end
+
+          # TODO: Remove timeout and just wait to be ready
+          data = @io.read(NATS::IO::MAX_SOCKET_READ_BYTES)
+          @parser.parse(data) if data
+        rescue Errno::ETIMEDOUT
+          # FIXME: We do not really need a timeout here...
+          retry
+        rescue => e
+          # In case of reading/parser errors, trigger
+          # reconnection logic in case desired.
+          process_op_error(e)
+        end
       end
+    end
+
+    # Waits for client to notify the flusher that it will be
+    # it is sending a command.
+    def flusher_loop
+      loop do
+        # Blocks waiting for the flusher to be kicked...
+        @flush_queue.pop
 
-      # Handles errors from reading, parsing the protocol or stale connection.
-      # the lock should not be held entering this function.
-      def process_op_error(e)
         should_bail = synchronize do
-          connecting? || closed? || reconnecting?
+          @status != CONNECTED || @status == CONNECTING
         end
         return if should_bail
 
+        # Skip in case nothing remains pending already.
+        next if @pending_queue.empty?
+
+        force_flush!
+
+        synchronize do
+          @pending_size = 0
+        end
+      end
+    end
+
+    def force_flush!
+      # FIXME: should limit how many commands to take at once
+      # since producers could be adding as many as possible
+      # until reaching the max pending queue size.
+      cmds = []
+      cmds << @pending_queue.pop until @pending_queue.empty?
+      begin
+        @io.write(cmds.join) unless cmds.empty?
+      rescue => e
         synchronize do
           @last_err = e
-          @err_cb.call(e) if @err_cb
-
-          # If we were connected and configured to reconnect,
-          # then trigger disconnect and start reconnection logic
-          if connected? and should_reconnect?
-            @status = RECONNECTING
-            @io.close if @io
-            @io = nil
-
-            # TODO: Reconnecting pending buffer?
-
-            # Do reconnect under a different thread than the one
-            # in which we got the error.
-            Thread.new do
-              begin
-                # Abort currently running reads in case they're around
-                # FIXME: There might be more graceful way here...
-                @read_loop_thread.exit if @read_loop_thread.alive?
-                @flusher_thread.exit if @flusher_thread.alive?
-                @ping_interval_thread.exit if @ping_interval_thread.alive?
-
-                attempt_reconnect
-              rescue NoServersError => e
-                @last_err = e
-                close
-              end
-            end
+          err_cb_call(self, e, nil) if @err_cb
+        end
 
-            Thread.exit
-            return
-          end
+        process_op_error(e)
+        return
+      end if @io
+    end
 
-          # Otherwise, stop trying to reconnect and close the connection
-          @status = DISCONNECTED
+    def ping_interval_loop
+      loop do
+        sleep @options[:ping_interval]
+
+        # Skip ping interval until connected
+        next if !connected?
+
+        if @pings_outstanding >= @options[:max_outstanding_pings]
+          process_op_error(NATS::IO::StaleConnectionError.new("nats: stale connection"))
+          return
         end
 
-        # Otherwise close the connection to NATS
-        close
+        @pings_outstanding += 1
+        send_command(PING_REQUEST)
+        @flush_queue << :ping
       end
+    rescue => e
+      process_op_error(e)
+    end
 
-      # Gathers data from the socket and sends it to the parser.
-      def read_loop
-        loop do
-          begin
-            should_bail = synchronize do
-              # FIXME: In case of reconnect as well?
-              @status == CLOSED or @status == RECONNECTING
-            end
-            if !@io or @io.closed? or should_bail
-              return
-            end
+    def process_connect_init
+      line = @io.read_line(options[:connect_timeout])
+      if !line or line.empty?
+        raise NATS::IO::ConnectError.new("nats: protocol exception, INFO not received")
+      end
 
-            # TODO: Remove timeout and just wait to be ready
-            data = @io.read(MAX_SOCKET_READ_BYTES)
-            @parser.parse(data) if data
-          rescue Errno::ETIMEDOUT
-            # FIXME: We do not really need a timeout here...
-            retry
-          rescue => e
-            # In case of reading/parser errors, trigger
-            # reconnection logic in case desired.
-            process_op_error(e)
-          end
-        end
+      if match = line.match(NATS::Protocol::INFO)
+        info_json = match.captures.first
+        process_info(info_json)
+      else
+        raise NATS::IO::ConnectError.new("nats: protocol exception, INFO not valid")
       end
 
-      # Waits for client to notify the flusher that it will be
-      # it is sending a command.
-      def flusher_loop
-        loop do
-          # Blocks waiting for the flusher to be kicked...
-          @flush_queue.pop
+      case
+      when (server_using_secure_connection? and client_using_secure_connection?)
+        tls_context = nil
 
-          should_bail = synchronize do
-            @status != CONNECTED || @status == CONNECTING
-          end
-          return if should_bail
+        if @tls
+          # Allow prepared context and customizations via :tls opts
+          tls_context = @tls[:context] if @tls[:context]
+        else
+          # Defaults
+          tls_context = OpenSSL::SSL::SSLContext.new
+
+          # Use the default verification options from Ruby:
+          # https://github.com/ruby/ruby/blob/96db72ce38b27799dd8e80ca00696e41234db6ba/ext/openssl/lib/openssl/ssl.rb#L19-L29
+          #
+          # Insecure TLS versions not supported already:
+          # https://github.com/ruby/openssl/commit/3e5a009966bd7f806f7180d82cf830a04be28986
+          #
+          tls_context.set_params
+        end
 
-          # Skip in case nothing remains pending already.
-          next if @pending_queue.empty?
+        # Setup TLS connection by rewrapping the socket
+        tls_socket = OpenSSL::SSL::SSLSocket.new(@io.socket, tls_context)
 
-          # FIXME: should limit how many commands to take at once
-          # since producers could be adding as many as possible
-          # until reaching the max pending queue size.
-          cmds = []
-          cmds << @pending_queue.pop until @pending_queue.empty?
-          begin
-            @io.write(cmds.join) unless cmds.empty?
-          rescue => e
-            synchronize do
-              @last_err = e
-              @err_cb.call(e) if @err_cb
-            end
+        # Close TCP socket after closing TLS socket as well.
+        tls_socket.sync_close = true
 
-            process_op_error(e)
-            return
-          end if @io
+        # Required to enable hostname verification if Ruby runtime supports it (>= 2.4):
+        # https://github.com/ruby/openssl/commit/028e495734e9e6aa5dba1a2e130b08f66cf31a21
+        tls_socket.hostname = @hostname
 
-          synchronize do
-            @pending_size = 0
-          end
-        end
+        tls_socket.connect
+        @io.socket = tls_socket
+      when (server_using_secure_connection? and !client_using_secure_connection?)
+        raise NATS::IO::ConnectError.new('TLS/SSL required by server')
+      when (client_using_secure_connection? and !server_using_secure_connection?)
+        raise NATS::IO::ConnectError.new('TLS/SSL not supported by server')
+      else
+        # Otherwise, use a regular connection.
       end
 
-      def ping_interval_loop
-        loop do
-          sleep @options[:ping_interval]
+      # Send connect and process synchronously. If using TLS,
+      # it should have handled upgrading at this point.
+      @io.write(connect_command)
 
-          # Skip ping interval until connected
-          next if !connected?
+      # Send ping/pong after connect
+      @io.write(PING_REQUEST)
 
-          if @pings_outstanding >= @options[:max_outstanding_pings]
-            process_op_error(StaleConnectionError.new("nats: stale connection"))
-            return
-          end
+      next_op = @io.read_line(options[:connect_timeout])
+      if @options[:verbose]
+        # Need to get another command here if verbose
+        raise NATS::IO::ConnectError.new("expected to receive +OK") unless next_op =~ NATS::Protocol::OK
+        next_op = @io.read_line(options[:connect_timeout])
+      end
 
-          @pings_outstanding += 1
-          send_command(PING_REQUEST)
-          @flush_queue << :ping
+      case next_op
+      when NATS::Protocol::PONG
+      when NATS::Protocol::ERR
+        if @server_info[:auth_required]
+          raise NATS::IO::AuthError.new($1)
+        else
+          raise NATS::IO::ServerError.new($1)
         end
-      rescue => e
-        process_op_error(e)
+      else
+        raise NATS::IO::ConnectError.new("expected PONG, got #{next_op}")
       end
+    end
 
-      def process_connect_init
-        line = @io.read_line(options[:connect_timeout])
-        if !line or line.empty?
-          raise ConnectError.new("nats: protocol exception, INFO not received")
-        end
+    # Reconnect logic, this is done while holding the lock.
+    def attempt_reconnect
+      @disconnect_cb.call(@last_err) if @disconnect_cb
+
+      # Clear sticky error
+      @last_err = nil
 
-        if match = line.match(NATS::Protocol::INFO)
-          info_json = match.captures.first
-          process_info(info_json)
+      # Do reconnect
+      srv = nil
+      begin
+        srv = select_next_server
+
+        # Establish TCP connection with new server
+        @io = create_socket
+        @io.connect
+        @stats[:reconnects] += 1
+
+        # Set hostname to use for TLS hostname verification
+        if client_using_secure_connection? and single_url_connect_used?
+          # Reuse original hostname name in case of using TLS.
+          @hostname ||= srv[:hostname]
         else
-          raise ConnectError.new("nats: protocol exception, INFO not valid")
+          @hostname = srv[:hostname]
         end
 
-        case
-        when (server_using_secure_connection? and client_using_secure_connection?)
-          tls_context = nil
+        # Established TCP connection successfully so can start connect
+        process_connect_init
 
-          if @tls
-            # Allow prepared context and customizations via :tls opts
-            tls_context = @tls[:context] if @tls[:context]
-          else
-            # Defaults
-            tls_context = OpenSSL::SSL::SSLContext.new
-
-            # Use the default verification options from Ruby:
-            # https://github.com/ruby/ruby/blob/96db72ce38b27799dd8e80ca00696e41234db6ba/ext/openssl/lib/openssl/ssl.rb#L19-L29
-            #
-            # Insecure TLS versions not supported already:
-            # https://github.com/ruby/openssl/commit/3e5a009966bd7f806f7180d82cf830a04be28986
-            #
-            tls_context.set_params
-          end
+        # Reset reconnection attempts if connection is valid
+        srv[:reconnect_attempts] = 0
+        srv[:auth_required] ||= true if @server_info[:auth_required]
 
-          # Setup TLS connection by rewrapping the socket
-          tls_socket = OpenSSL::SSL::SSLSocket.new(@io.socket, tls_context)
+        # Add back to rotation since successfully connected
+        server_pool << srv
+      rescue NATS::IO::NoServersError => e
+        raise e
+      rescue => e
+        # In case there was an error from the server check
+        # to see whether need to take it out from rotation
+        srv[:auth_required] ||= true if @server_info[:auth_required]
+        server_pool << srv if can_reuse_server?(srv)
 
-          # Close TCP socket after closing TLS socket as well.
-          tls_socket.sync_close = true
+        @last_err = e
 
-          # Required to enable hostname verification if Ruby runtime supports it (>= 2.4):
-          # https://github.com/ruby/openssl/commit/028e495734e9e6aa5dba1a2e130b08f66cf31a21
-          tls_socket.hostname = @hostname
+        # Trigger async error handler
+        err_cb_call(self, e, nil) if @err_cb
 
-          tls_socket.connect
-          @io.socket = tls_socket
-        when (server_using_secure_connection? and !client_using_secure_connection?)
-          raise NATS::IO::ConnectError.new('TLS/SSL required by server')
-        when (client_using_secure_connection? and !server_using_secure_connection?)
-          raise NATS::IO::ConnectError.new('TLS/SSL not supported by server')
-        else
-          # Otherwise, use a regular connection.
-        end
+        # Continue retrying until there are no options left in the server pool
+        retry
+      end
 
-        # Send connect and process synchronously. If using TLS,
-        # it should have handled upgrading at this point.
-        @io.write(connect_command)
+      # Clear pending flush calls and reset state before restarting loops
+      @flush_queue.clear
+      @pings_outstanding = 0
+      @pongs_received = 0
 
-        # Send ping/pong after connect
-        @io.write(PING_REQUEST)
+      # Replay all subscriptions
+      @subs.each_pair do |sid, sub|
+        @io.write("SUB #{sub.subject} #{sub.queue} #{sid}#{CR_LF}")
+      end
 
-        next_op = @io.read_line(options[:connect_timeout])
-        if @options[:verbose]
-          # Need to get another command here if verbose
-          raise NATS::IO::ConnectError.new("expected to receive +OK") unless next_op =~ NATS::Protocol::OK
-          next_op = @io.read_line(options[:connect_timeout])
-        end
+      # Flush anything which was left pending, in case of errors during flush
+      # then we should raise error then retry the reconnect logic
+      cmds = []
+      cmds << @pending_queue.pop until @pending_queue.empty?
+      @io.write(cmds.join) unless cmds.empty?
+      @status = CONNECTED
+      @pending_size = 0
+
+      # Reset parser state here to avoid unknown protocol errors
+      # on reconnect...
+      @parser.reset!
+
+      # Now connected to NATS, and we can restart parser loop, flusher
+      # and ping interval
+      start_threads!
+
+      # Dispatch the reconnected callback while holding lock
+      # which we should have already
+      @reconnect_cb.call if @reconnect_cb
+    end
 
-        case next_op
-        when NATS::Protocol::PONG
-        when NATS::Protocol::ERR
-          if @server_info[:auth_required]
-            raise NATS::IO::AuthError.new($1)
-          else
-            raise NATS::IO::ServerError.new($1)
-          end
-        else
-          raise NATS::IO::ConnectError.new("expected PONG, got #{next_op}")
+    def close_connection(conn_status, do_cbs=true)
+      synchronize do
+        if @status == CLOSED
+          @status = conn_status
+          return
         end
       end
 
-      # Reconnect logic, this is done while holding the lock.
-      def attempt_reconnect
-        @disconnect_cb.call(@last_err) if @disconnect_cb
+      # Kick the flusher so it bails due to closed state
+      @flush_queue << :fallout if @flush_queue
+      Thread.pass
 
-        # Clear sticky error
-        @last_err = nil
+      # FIXME: More graceful way of handling the following?
+      # Ensure ping interval and flusher are not running anymore
+      if @ping_interval_thread and @ping_interval_thread.alive?
+        @ping_interval_thread.exit
+      end
 
-        # Do reconnect
-        srv = nil
-        begin
-          srv = select_next_server
+      if @flusher_thread and @flusher_thread.alive?
+        @flusher_thread.exit
+      end
 
-          # Establish TCP connection with new server
-          @io = create_socket
-          @io.connect
-          @stats[:reconnects] += 1
+      if @read_loop_thread and @read_loop_thread.alive?
+        @read_loop_thread.exit
+      end
 
-          # Set hostname to use for TLS hostname verification
-          if client_using_secure_connection? and single_url_connect_used?
-            # Reuse original hostname name in case of using TLS.
-            @hostname ||= srv[:hostname]
-          else
-            @hostname = srv[:hostname]
+      # TODO: Delete any other state which we are not using here too.
+      synchronize do
+        @pongs.synchronize do
+          @pongs.each do |pong|
+            pong.signal
           end
+          @pongs.clear
+        end
 
-          # Established TCP connection successfully so can start connect
-          process_connect_init
-
-          # Reset reconnection attempts if connection is valid
-          srv[:reconnect_attempts] = 0
-          srv[:auth_required] ||= true if @server_info[:auth_required]
+        # Try to write any pending flushes in case
+        # we have a connection then close it.
+        should_flush = (@pending_queue && @io && @io.socket && !@io.closed?)
+        begin
+          cmds = []
+          cmds << @pending_queue.pop until @pending_queue.empty?
 
-          # Add back to rotation since successfully connected
-          server_pool << srv
-        rescue NoServersError => e
-          raise e
+          # FIXME: Fails when empty on TLS connection?
+          @io.write(cmds.join) unless cmds.empty?
         rescue => e
-          # In case there was an error from the server check
-          # to see whether need to take it out from rotation
-          srv[:auth_required] ||= true if @server_info[:auth_required]
-          server_pool << srv if can_reuse_server?(srv)
-
           @last_err = e
+          err_cb_call(self, e, nil) if @err_cb
+        end if should_flush
 
-          # Trigger async error handler
-          @err_cb.call(e) if @err_cb
+        # Destroy any remaining subscriptions.
+        @subs.each do |_, sub|
+          if sub.wait_for_msgs_t && sub.wait_for_msgs_t.alive?
+            sub.wait_for_msgs_t.exit
+            sub.pending_queue.clear
+          end
+        end
+        @subs.clear
 
-          # Continue retrying until there are no options left in the server pool
-          retry
+        if do_cbs
+          @disconnect_cb.call(@last_err) if @disconnect_cb
+          @close_cb.call if @close_cb
         end
 
-        # Clear pending flush calls and reset state before restarting loops
-        @flush_queue.clear
-        @pings_outstanding = 0
-        @pongs_received = 0
+        @status = conn_status
 
-        # Replay all subscriptions
-        @subs.each_pair do |sid, sub|
-          @io.write("SUB #{sub.subject} #{sub.queue} #{sid}#{CR_LF}")
+        # Close the established connection in case
+        # we still have it.
+        if @io
+          @io.close if @io.socket
+          @io = nil
         end
+      end
+    end
 
-        # Flush anything which was left pending, in case of errors during flush
-        # then we should raise error then retry the reconnect logic
-        cmds = []
-        cmds << @pending_queue.pop until @pending_queue.empty?
-        @io.write(cmds.join) unless cmds.empty?
-        @status = CONNECTED
-        @pending_size = 0
+    def start_threads!
+      # Reading loop for gathering data
+      @read_loop_thread = Thread.new { read_loop }
+      @read_loop_thread.abort_on_exception = true
 
-        # Reset parser state here to avoid unknown protocol errors
-        # on reconnect...
-        @parser.reset!
+      # Flusher loop for sending commands
+      @flusher_thread = Thread.new { flusher_loop }
+      @flusher_thread.abort_on_exception = true
 
-        # Now connected to NATS, and we can restart parser loop, flusher
-        # and ping interval
-        start_threads!
+      # Ping interval handling for keeping alive the connection
+      @ping_interval_thread = Thread.new { ping_interval_loop }
+      @ping_interval_thread.abort_on_exception = true
+    end
 
-        # Dispatch the reconnected callback while holding lock
-        # which we should have already
-        @reconnect_cb.call if @reconnect_cb
-      end
+    # Prepares requests subscription that handles the responses
+    # for the new style request response.
+    def start_resp_mux_sub!
+      @resp_sub_prefix = new_inbox
+      @resp_map = Hash.new { |h,k| h[k] = { }}
+
+      @resp_sub = Subscription.new
+      @resp_sub.subject = "#{@resp_sub_prefix}.*"
+      @resp_sub.received = 0
+      @resp_sub.nc = self
+
+      # FIXME: Allow setting pending limits for responses mux subscription.
+      @resp_sub.pending_msgs_limit = NATS::IO::DEFAULT_SUB_PENDING_MSGS_LIMIT
+      @resp_sub.pending_bytes_limit = NATS::IO::DEFAULT_SUB_PENDING_BYTES_LIMIT
+      @resp_sub.pending_queue = SizedQueue.new(@resp_sub.pending_msgs_limit)
+      @resp_sub.wait_for_msgs_t = Thread.new do
+        loop do
+          msg = @resp_sub.pending_queue.pop
+          @resp_sub.pending_size -= msg.data.size
 
-      def close_connection(conn_status, do_cbs=true)
-        synchronize do
-          if @status == CLOSED
-            @status = conn_status
-            return
+          # Pick the token and signal the request under the mutex
+          # from the subscription itself.
+          token = msg.subject.split('.').last
+          future = nil
+          synchronize do
+            future = @resp_map[token][:future]
+            @resp_map[token][:response] = msg
           end
-        end
-
-        # Kick the flusher so it bails due to closed state
-        @flush_queue << :fallout if @flush_queue
-        Thread.pass
 
-        # FIXME: More graceful way of handling the following?
-        # Ensure ping interval and flusher are not running anymore
-        if @ping_interval_thread and @ping_interval_thread.alive?
-          @ping_interval_thread.exit
+          # Signal back that the response has arrived
+          # in case the future has not been yet delete.
+          @resp_sub.synchronize do
+            future.signal if future
+          end
         end
+      end
 
-        if @flusher_thread and @flusher_thread.alive?
-          @flusher_thread.exit
-        end
+      sid = (@ssid += 1)
+      @subs[sid] = @resp_sub
+      send_command("SUB #{@resp_sub.subject} #{sid}#{CR_LF}")
+      @flush_queue << :sub
+    end
 
-        if @read_loop_thread and @read_loop_thread.alive?
-          @read_loop_thread.exit
-        end
+    def can_reuse_server?(server)
+      return false if server.nil?
 
-        # TODO: Delete any other state which we are not using here too.
-        synchronize do
-          @pongs.synchronize do
-            @pongs.each do |pong|
-              pong.signal
-            end
-            @pongs.clear
-          end
+      # We can always reuse servers with infinite reconnects settings
+      return true if @options[:max_reconnect_attempts] < 0
 
-          # Try to write any pending flushes in case
-          # we have a connection then close it.
-          should_flush = (@pending_queue && @io && @io.socket && !@io.closed?)
-          begin
-            cmds = []
-            cmds << @pending_queue.pop until @pending_queue.empty?
+      # In case of hard errors like authorization errors, drop the server
+      # already since won't be able to connect.
+      return false if server[:error_received]
 
-            # FIXME: Fails when empty on TLS connection?
-            @io.write(cmds.join) unless cmds.empty?
-          rescue => e
-            @last_err = e
-            @err_cb.call(e) if @err_cb
-          end if should_flush
-
-          # Destroy any remaining subscriptions.
-          @subs.each do |_, sub|
-            if sub.wait_for_msgs_t && sub.wait_for_msgs_t.alive?
-              sub.wait_for_msgs_t.exit
-              sub.pending_queue.clear
-            end
-          end
-          @subs.clear
+      # We will retry a number of times to reconnect to a server.
+      return server[:reconnect_attempts] <= @options[:max_reconnect_attempts]
+    end
 
-          if do_cbs
-            @disconnect_cb.call(@last_err) if @disconnect_cb
-            @close_cb.call if @close_cb
-          end
+    def should_delay_connect?(server)
+      server[:was_connected] && server[:reconnect_attempts] >= 0
+    end
 
-          @status = conn_status
+    def should_not_reconnect?
+      !@options[:reconnect]
+    end
 
-          # Close the established connection in case
-          # we still have it.
-          if @io
-            @io.close if @io.socket
-            @io = nil
-          end
-        end
-      end
+    def should_reconnect?
+      @options[:reconnect]
+    end
 
-      def start_threads!
-        # Reading loop for gathering data
-        @read_loop_thread = Thread.new { read_loop }
-        @read_loop_thread.abort_on_exception = true
+    def create_socket
+      NATS::IO::Socket.new({
+          uri: @uri,
+          connect_timeout: NATS::IO::DEFAULT_CONNECT_TIMEOUT
+        })
+    end
 
-        # Flusher loop for sending commands
-        @flusher_thread = Thread.new { flusher_loop }
-        @flusher_thread.abort_on_exception = true
+    def setup_nkeys_connect
+      begin
+        require 'nkeys'
+        require 'base64'
+      rescue LoadError
+        raise(Error, "nkeys is not installed")
+      end
 
-        # Ping interval handling for keeping alive the connection
-        @ping_interval_thread = Thread.new { ping_interval_loop }
-        @ping_interval_thread.abort_on_exception = true
+      case
+      when @nkeys_seed
+        @user_nkey_cb = nkey_cb_for_nkey_file(@nkeys_seed)
+        @signature_cb = signature_cb_for_nkey_file(@nkeys_seed)
+      when @user_credentials
+        # When the credentials are within a single decorated file.
+        @user_jwt_cb = jwt_cb_for_creds_file(@user_credentials)
+        @signature_cb = signature_cb_for_creds_file(@user_credentials)
       end
+    end
 
-      # Prepares requests subscription that handles the responses
-      # for the new style request response.
-      def start_resp_mux_sub!
-        @resp_sub_prefix = "_INBOX.#{@nuid.next}"
-        @resp_map = Hash.new { |h,k| h[k] = { }}
+    def signature_cb_for_nkey_file(nkey)
+      proc { |nonce|
+        seed = File.read(nkey).chomp
+        kp = NKEYS::from_seed(seed)
+        raw_signed = kp.sign(nonce)
+        kp.wipe!
+        encoded = Base64.urlsafe_encode64(raw_signed)
+        encoded.gsub('=', '')
+      }
+    end
 
-        @resp_sub = Subscription.new
-        @resp_sub.subject = "#{@resp_sub_prefix}.*"
-        @resp_sub.received = 0
+    def nkey_cb_for_nkey_file(nkey)
+      proc {
+        seed = File.read(nkey).chomp
+        kp = NKEYS::from_seed(seed)
 
-        # FIXME: Allow setting pending limits for responses mux subscription.
-        @resp_sub.pending_msgs_limit = DEFAULT_SUB_PENDING_MSGS_LIMIT
-        @resp_sub.pending_bytes_limit = DEFAULT_SUB_PENDING_BYTES_LIMIT
-        @resp_sub.pending_queue = SizedQueue.new(@resp_sub.pending_msgs_limit)
-        @resp_sub.wait_for_msgs_t = Thread.new do
-          loop do
-            msg = @resp_sub.pending_queue.pop
-            @resp_sub.pending_size -= msg.data.size
+        # Take a copy since original will be gone with the wipe.
+        pub_key = kp.public_key.dup
+        kp.wipe!
 
-            # Pick the token and signal the request under the mutex
-            # from the subscription itself.
-            token = msg.subject.split('.').last
-            future = nil
-            synchronize do
-              future = @resp_map[token][:future]
-              @resp_map[token][:response] = msg
-            end
+        pub_key
+      }
+    end
 
-            # Signal back that the response has arrived.
-            @resp_sub.synchronize do
-              future.signal
-            end
+    def jwt_cb_for_creds_file(creds)
+      proc {
+        jwt_start = "BEGIN NATS USER JWT".freeze
+        found = false
+        jwt = nil
+
+        File.readlines(creds).each do |line|
+          case
+          when found
+            jwt = line.chomp
+            break
+          when line.include?(jwt_start)
+            found = true
           end
         end
 
-        sid = (@ssid += 1)
-        @subs[sid] = @resp_sub
-        send_command("SUB #{@resp_sub.subject} #{sid}#{CR_LF}")
-        @flush_queue << :sub
-      end
+        raise(Error, "No JWT found in #{creds}") if not found
 
-      def can_reuse_server?(server)
-        return false if server.nil?
+        jwt
+      }
+    end
 
-        # We can always reuse servers with infinite reconnects settings
-        return true if @options[:max_reconnect_attempts] < 0
+    def signature_cb_for_creds_file(creds)
+      proc { |nonce|
+        seed_start = "BEGIN USER NKEY SEED".freeze
+        found = false
+        seed = nil
 
-        # In case of hard errors like authorization errors, drop the server
-        # already since won't be able to connect.
-        return false if server[:error_received]
+        File.readlines(creds).each do |line|
+          case
+          when found
+            seed = line.chomp
+            break
+          when line.include?(seed_start)
+            found = true
+          end
+        end
 
-        # We will retry a number of times to reconnect to a server.
-        return server[:reconnect_attempts] <= @options[:max_reconnect_attempts]
-      end
+        raise(Error, "No nkey user seed found in #{creds}") if not found
 
-      def should_delay_connect?(server)
-        server[:was_connected] && server[:reconnect_attempts] >= 0
-      end
+        kp = NKEYS::from_seed(seed)
+        raw_signed = kp.sign(nonce)
 
-      def should_not_reconnect?
-        !@options[:reconnect]
-      end
+        # seed is a reference so also cleared when doing wipe,
+        # which can be done since Ruby strings are mutable.
+        kp.wipe
+        encoded = Base64.urlsafe_encode64(raw_signed)
 
-      def should_reconnect?
-        @options[:reconnect]
-      end
+        # Remove padding
+        encoded.gsub('=', '')
+      }
+    end
 
-      def create_socket
-        NATS::IO::Socket.new({
-          uri: @uri,
-          connect_timeout: DEFAULT_CONNECT_TIMEOUT
-        })
-      end
+    def process_uri(uris)
+      connect_uris = []
+      uris.split(',').each do |uri|
+        opts = {}
 
-      def setup_nkeys_connect
-        begin
-          require 'nkeys'
-          require 'base64'
-        rescue LoadError
-          raise(Error, "nkeys is not installed")
+        # Scheme
+        if uri.include?("://")
+          scheme, uri = uri.split("://")
+          opts[:scheme] = scheme
+        else
+          opts[:scheme] = 'nats'
         end
 
-        case
-        when @nkeys_seed
-          @user_nkey_cb = proc {
-            seed = File.read(@nkeys_seed).chomp
-            kp = NKEYS::from_seed(seed)
-
-            # Take a copy since original will be gone with the wipe.
-            pub_key = kp.public_key.dup
-            kp.wipe!
-
-            pub_key
-          }
+        # UserInfo
+        if uri.include?("@")
+          userinfo, endpoint = uri.split("@")
+          host, port = endpoint.split(":")
+          opts[:userinfo] = userinfo
+        else
+          host, port = uri.split(":")
+        end
 
-          @signature_cb = proc { |nonce|
-            seed = File.read(@nkeys_seed).chomp
-            kp = NKEYS::from_seed(seed)
-            raw_signed = kp.sign(nonce)
-            kp.wipe!
-            encoded = Base64.urlsafe_encode64(raw_signed)
-            encoded.gsub('=', '')
-          }
-        when @user_credentials
-          # When the credentials are within a single decorated file.
-          @user_jwt_cb = proc {
-            jwt_start = "BEGIN NATS USER JWT".freeze
-            found = false
-            jwt = nil
-            File.readlines(@user_credentials).each do |line|
-              case
-              when found
-                jwt = line.chomp
-                break
-              when line.include?(jwt_start)
-                found = true
-              end
-            end
-            raise(Error, "No JWT found in #{@user_credentials}") if not found
+        # Host and Port
+        opts[:host] = host || "localhost"
+        opts[:port] = port || DEFAULT_PORT
 
-            jwt
-          }
+        connect_uris << URI::Generic.build(opts)
+      end
+      connect_uris
+    end
+  end
 
-          @signature_cb = proc { |nonce|
-            seed_start = "BEGIN USER NKEY SEED".freeze
-            found = false
-            seed = nil
-            File.readlines(@user_credentials).each do |line|
-              case
-              when found
-                seed = line.chomp
-                break
-              when line.include?(seed_start)
-                found = true
-              end
-            end
-            raise(Error, "No nkey user seed found in #{@user_credentials}") if not found
+  module IO
+    include Status
 
-            kp = NKEYS::from_seed(seed)
-            raw_signed = kp.sign(nonce)
+    # Client creates a connection to the NATS Server.
+    Client = ::NATS::Client
 
-            # seed is a reference so also cleared when doing wipe,
-            # which can be done since Ruby strings are mutable.
-            kp.wipe
-            encoded = Base64.urlsafe_encode64(raw_signed)
+    MAX_RECONNECT_ATTEMPTS = 10
+    RECONNECT_TIME_WAIT = 2
 
-            # Remove padding
-            encoded.gsub('=', '')
-          }
-        end
-      end
+    # Maximum accumulated pending commands bytesize before forcing a flush.
+    MAX_PENDING_SIZE = 32768
 
-      def process_uri(uris)
-        connect_uris = []
-        uris.split(',').each do |uri|
-          opts = {}
+    # Maximum number of flush kicks that can be queued up before we block.
+    MAX_FLUSH_KICK_SIZE = 1024
 
-          # Scheme
-          if uri.include?("://")
-            scheme, uri = uri.split("://")
-            opts[:scheme] = scheme
-          else
-            opts[:scheme] = 'nats'
-          end
+    # Maximum number of bytes which we will be gathering on a single read.
+    # TODO: Make dynamic?
+    MAX_SOCKET_READ_BYTES = 32768
 
-          # UserInfo
-          if uri.include?("@")
-            userinfo, endpoint = uri.split("@")
-            host, port = endpoint.split(":")
-            opts[:userinfo] = userinfo
-          else
-            host, port = uri.split(":")
-          end
+    # Ping intervals
+    DEFAULT_PING_INTERVAL = 120
+    DEFAULT_PING_MAX = 2
 
-          # Host and Port
-          opts[:host] = host || "localhost"
-          opts[:port] = port || DEFAULT_PORT
+    # Default IO timeouts
+    DEFAULT_CONNECT_TIMEOUT = 2
+    DEFAULT_READ_WRITE_TIMEOUT = 2
+    DEFAULT_DRAIN_TIMEOUT = 30
 
-          connect_uris << URI::Generic.build(opts)
-        end
-        connect_uris
-      end
-    end
+    # Default Pending Limits
+    DEFAULT_SUB_PENDING_MSGS_LIMIT  = 65536
+    DEFAULT_SUB_PENDING_BYTES_LIMIT = 65536 * 1024
 
     # Implementation adapted from https://github.com/redis/redis-rb
     class Socket
@@ -1441,7 +1852,7 @@ module NATS
       def read_line(deadline=nil)
         # FIXME: Should accumulate and read in a non blocking way instead
         unless ::IO.select([@socket], nil, nil, deadline)
-          raise SocketTimeoutError
+          raise NATS::IO::SocketTimeoutError
         end
         @socket.gets
       end
@@ -1454,13 +1865,13 @@ module NATS
           if ::IO.select([@socket], nil, nil, deadline)
             retry
           else
-            raise SocketTimeoutError
+            raise NATS::IO::SocketTimeoutError
           end
         rescue ::IO::WaitWritable
           if ::IO.select(nil, [@socket], nil, deadline)
             retry
           else
-            raise SocketTimeoutError
+            raise NATS::IO::SocketTimeoutError
           end
         end
       rescue EOFError => e
@@ -1488,13 +1899,13 @@ module NATS
             if ::IO.select(nil, [@socket], nil, deadline)
               retry
             else
-              raise SocketTimeoutError
+              raise NATS::IO::SocketTimeoutError
             end
           rescue ::IO::WaitReadable
             if ::IO.select([@socket], nil, nil, deadline)
               retry
             else
-              raise SocketTimeoutError
+              raise NATS::IO::SocketTimeoutError
             end
           end
         end
@@ -1521,7 +1932,7 @@ module NATS
           sock.connect_nonblock(sockaddr)
         rescue Errno::EINPROGRESS, Errno::EALREADY, ::IO::WaitWritable
           unless ::IO.select(nil, [sock], nil, @connect_timeout)
-            raise SocketTimeoutError
+            raise NATS::IO::SocketTimeoutError
           end
 
           # Confirm that connection was established
@@ -1537,39 +1948,9 @@ module NATS
     end
   end
 
-  Msg = Struct.new(:subject, :reply, :data)
-
-  class Subscription
-    include MonitorMixin
-
-    attr_accessor :subject, :queue, :future, :callback, :response, :received, :max, :pending
-    attr_accessor :pending_queue, :pending_size, :wait_for_msgs_t, :is_slow_consumer
-    attr_accessor :pending_msgs_limit, :pending_bytes_limit
-
-    def initialize
-      super # required to initialize monitor
-      @subject  = ''
-      @queue    = nil
-      @future   = nil
-      @callback = nil
-      @response = nil
-      @received = 0
-      @max      = nil
-      @pending  = nil
-
-      # State from async subscriber messages delivery
-      @pending_queue       = nil
-      @pending_size        = 0
-      @pending_msgs_limit  = nil
-      @pending_bytes_limit = nil
-      @wait_for_msgs_t     = nil
-      @is_slow_consumer    = false
-    end
-  end
-
-  # Implementation of MonotonicTime adapted from
-  # https://github.com/ruby-concurrency/concurrent-ruby/
   class MonotonicTime
+    # Implementation of MonotonicTime adapted from
+    # https://github.com/ruby-concurrency/concurrent-ruby/
     class << self
       case
       when defined?(Process::CLOCK_MONOTONIC)
@@ -1586,6 +1967,20 @@ module NATS
           ::Time.now.to_f
         end
       end
+
+      def with_nats_timeout(timeout)
+        start_time = now
+        yield
+        end_time = now
+        duration = end_time - start_time
+        if duration > timeout
+          raise NATS::Timeout.new("nats: timeout")
+        end
+      end
+
+      def since(t0)
+        now - t0
+      end
     end
   end
 end