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+The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Principles of Scientific Management
+    
+This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online
+at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
+you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
+before using this eBook.
+
+Title: The Principles of Scientific Management
+
+
+Author: Frederick Winslow Taylor
+
+Release date: September 1, 2004 [eBook #6435]
+                Most recently updated: November 4, 2011
+
+Language: English
+
+
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charles E. Nichols
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+The Principles of Scientific Management
+
+by
+
+FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR, M.E., Sc.D.
+
+1911
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+President Roosevelt in his address to the Governors at the White House,
+prophetically remarked that "The conservation of our national resources
+is only preliminary to the larger question of national efficiency."
+
+The whole country at once recognized the importance of conserving our
+material resources and a large movement has been started which will be
+effective in accomplishing this object. As yet, however, we have but
+vaguely appreciated the importance of "the larger question of increasing
+our national efficiency."
+
+We can see our forests vanishing, our water-powers going to waste, our
+soil being carried by floods into the sea; and the end of our coal and
+our iron is in sight. But our larger wastes of human effort, which go on
+every day through such of our acts as are blundering, ill-directed, or
+inefficient, and which Mr. Roosevelt refers to as a, lack of "national
+efficiency," are less visible, less tangible, and are but vaguely
+appreciated.
+
+We can see and feel the waste of material things. Awkward, inefficient,
+or ill-directed movements of men, however, leave nothing visible or
+tangible behind them. Their appreciation calls for an act of memory, an
+effort of the imagination. And for this reason, even though our daily
+loss from this source is greater than from our waste of material things,
+the one has stirred us deeply, while the other has moved us but little.
+
+As yet there has been no public agitation for "greater national
+efficiency," no meetings have been called to consider how this is to be
+brought about. And still there are signs that the need for greater
+efficiency is widely felt.
+
+The search for better, for more competent men, from the presidents of
+our great companies down to our household servants, was never more
+vigorous than it is now. And more than ever before is the demand for
+competent men in excess of the supply.
+
+What we are all looking for, however, is the readymade, competent man;
+the man whom some one else has trained. It is only when we fully realize
+that our duty, as well as our opportunity, lies in systematically
+cooperating to train and to make this competent man, instead of in
+hunting for a man whom some one else has trained, that we shall be on
+the road to national efficiency.
+
+In the past the prevailing idea has been well expressed in the saying
+that "Captains of industry are born, not made"; and the theory has been
+that if one could get the right man, methods could be safely left to
+him. In the future it will be appreciated that our leaders must be
+trained right as well as born right, and that no great man can (with the
+old system of personal management) hope to compete with a number of
+ordinary men who have been properly organized so as efficiently to
+cooperate.
+
+In the past the man has been first; in the future the system must be
+first. This in no sense, however, implies that great men are not needed.
+On the contrary, the first object of any good system must be that of
+developing first-class men; and under systematic management the best man
+rises to the top more certainly and more rapidly than ever before.
+
+This paper has been written:
+
+First. To point out, through a series of simple illustrations, the great
+loss which the whole country is suffering through inefficiency in almost
+all of our daily acts.
+
+Second. To try to convince the reader that the remedy for this
+inefficiency lies in systematic management, rather than in searching for
+some unusual or extraordinary man.
+
+Third. To prove that the best management is a true science, resting upon
+clearly defined laws, rules, and principles, as a foundation. And
+further to show that the fundamental principles of scientific management
+are applicable to all kinds of human activities, from our simplest
+individual acts to the work of our great corporations, which call for
+the most elaborate cooperation. And, briefly, through a series of
+illustrations, to convince the reader that whenever these principles are
+correctly applied, results must follow which are truly astounding.
+
+This paper was originally prepared for presentation to the American
+Society of Mechanical Engineers. The illustrations chosen are such as,
+it is believed, will especially appeal to engineers and to managers of
+industrial and manufacturing establishments, and also quite as much to
+all of the men who are working in these establishments. It is hoped,
+however, that it will be clear to other readers that the same principles
+can be applied with equal force to all social activities: to the
+management of our homes; the management of our farms; the management of
+the business of our tradesmen, large and small; of our churches, our
+philanthropic institutions our universities, and our governmental
+departments.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+FUNDAMENTALS OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT
+
+The principal object of management should be to secure the maximum
+prosperity for the employer, coupled with the maximum prosperity for
+each employee.
+
+The words "maximum prosperity" are used, in their broad sense, to mean
+not only large dividends for the company or owner, but the development
+of every branch of the business to its highest state of excellence, so
+that the prosperity may be permanent. In the same way maximum prosperity
+for each employee means not only higher wages than are usually received
+by men of his class, but, of more importance still, it also means the
+development of each man to his state of maximum efficiency, so that he
+may be able to do, generally speaking, the highest grade of work for
+which his natural abilities fit him, and it further means giving him,
+when possible, this class of work to do.
+
+It would seem to be so self-evident that maximum prosperity for the
+employer, coupled with maximum prosperity for the employee, ought to be
+the two leading objects of management, that even to state this fact
+should be unnecessary. And yet there is no question that, throughout the
+industrial world, a large part of the organization of employers, as well
+as employees, is for war rather than for peace, and that perhaps the
+majority on either side do not believe that it is possible so to arrange
+their mutual relations that their interests become identical.
+
+The majority of these men believe that the fundamental interests of
+employees and employers are necessarily antagonistic. Scientific
+management, on the contrary, has for its very foundation the firm
+conviction that the true interests of the two are one and the same; that
+prosperity for the employer cannot exist through a long term of years
+unless it is accompanied by prosperity for the employee, and vice versa;
+and that it is possible to give the workman what he most wants--high
+wages--and the employer what he wants--a low labor cost--for his
+manufactures.
+
+It is hoped that some at least of those who do not sympathize with each
+of these objects may be led to modify their views; that some employers,
+whose attitude toward their workmen has been that of trying to get the
+largest amount of work out of them for the smallest possible wages, may
+be led to see that a more liberal policy toward their men will pay them
+better; and that some of those workmen who begrudge a fair and even a
+large profit to their employers, and who feel that all of the fruits of
+their labor should belong to them, and that those for whom they work and
+the capital invested in the business are entitled to little or nothing,
+may be led to modify these views.
+
+No one can be found who will deny that in the case of any single
+individual the greatest prosperity can exist only when that individual
+has reached his highest state of efficiency; that is, when he is turning
+out his largest daily output.
+
+The truth of this fact is also perfectly clear in the case of two men
+working together. To illustrate: if you and your workman have become so
+skilful that you and he together are making two pairs of, shoes in a
+day, while your competitor and his workman are making only one pair, it
+is clear that after selling your two pairs of shoes you can pay your
+workman much higher wages than your competitor who produces only one
+pair of shoes is able to pay his man, and that there will still be
+enough money left over for you to have a larger profit than your
+competitor.
+
+In the case of a more complicated manufacturing establishment, it should
+also be perfectly clear that the greatest permanent prosperity for the
+workman, coupled with the greatest prosperity for the employer, can be
+brought about only when the work of the establishment is done with the
+smallest combined expenditure of human effort, plus nature's resources,
+plus the cost for the use of capital in the shape of machines,
+buildings, etc. Or, to state the same thing in a different way: that the
+greatest prosperity can exist only as the result of the greatest
+possible productivity of the men and machines of the establishment--that
+is, when each man and each machine are turning out the largest possible
+output; because unless your men and your machines are daily turning out
+more work than others around you, it is clear that competition will
+prevent your paying higher wages to your workmen than are paid to those
+of your competitor. And what is true as to the possibility of paying
+high wages in the case of two companies competing close beside one
+another is also true as to whole districts of the country and even as to
+nations which are in competition. In a word, that maximum prosperity can
+exist only as the result of maximum productivity. Later in this paper
+illustrations will be given of several companies which are earning large
+dividends and at the same time paying from 30 per cent to 100 per cent
+higher wages to their men than are paid to similar men immediately
+around them, and with whose employers they are in competition. These
+illustrations will cover different types of work, from the most
+elementary to the most complicated.
+
+If the above reasoning is correct, it follows that the most important
+object of both the workmen and the management should be the training and
+development of each individual in the establishment, so that he can do
+(at his fastest pace and with the maximum of efficiency) the highest
+class of work for which his natural abilities fit him.
+
+These principles appear to be so self-evident that many men may think it
+almost childish to state them. Let us, however, turn to the facts, as
+they actually exist in this country and in England. The English and
+American peoples are the greatest sportsmen in the world. Whenever an
+American workman plays baseball, or an English workman plays cricket, it
+is safe to say that he strains every nerve to secure victory for his
+side. He does his very best to make the largest possible number of runs.
+The universal sentiment is so strong that any man who fails to give out
+all there is in him in sport is branded as a "quitter," and treated with
+contempt by those who are around him.
+
+When the same workman returns to work on the following day, instead of
+using every effort to turn out the largest possible amount of work, in a
+majority of the cases this man deliberately plans to do as little as he
+safely can to turn out far less work than he is well able to do in many
+instances to do not more than one-third to one-half of a proper day's
+work. And in fact if he were to do his best to turn out his largest
+possible day's work, he would be abused by his fellow-workers for so
+doing, even more than if he had proved himself a "quitter" in sport.
+Under working, that is, deliberately working slowly so as to avoid doing
+a full day's work, "soldiering," as it is called in this country,
+"hanging it out," as it is called in England, "ca canae," as it is
+called in Scotland, is almost universal in industrial establishments,
+and prevails also to a large extent in the building trades; and the
+writer asserts without fear of contradiction that this constitutes the
+greatest evil with which the working-people of both England and America
+are now afflicted.
+
+It will be shown later in this paper that doing away with slow working
+and "soldiering" in all its forms and so arranging the relations between
+employer and employs that each workman will work to his very best
+advantage and at his best speed, accompanied by the intimate cooperation
+with the management and the help (which the workman should receive) from
+the management, would result on the average in nearly doubling the
+output of each man and each machine. What other reforms, among those
+which are being discussed by these two nations, could do as much toward
+promoting prosperity, toward the diminution of poverty, and the
+alleviation of suffering? America and England have been recently
+agitated over such subjects as the tariff, the control of the large
+corporations on the one hand, and of hereditary power on the other hand,
+and over various more or less socialistic proposals for taxation, etc.
+On these subjects both peoples have been profoundly stirred, and yet
+hardly a voice has been raised to call attention to this vastly greater
+and more important subject of "soldiering," which directly and
+powerfully affects the wages, the prosperity, and the life of almost
+every working-man, and also quite as much the prosperity of every
+industrial, establishment in the nation.
+
+The elimination of "soldiering" and of the several causes of slow
+working would so lower the cost of production that both our home and
+foreign markets would be greatly enlarged, and we could compete on more
+than even terms with our rivals. It would remove one of the fundamental
+causes for dull times, for lack of employment, and for poverty, and
+therefore would have a more permanent and far-reaching effect upon these
+misfortunes than any of the curative remedies that are now being used to
+soften their consequences. It would insure higher wages and make shorter
+working hours and better working and home conditions possible.
+
+Why is it, then, in the face of the self-evident fact that maximum
+prosperity can exist only as the result of the determined effort of each
+workman to turn out each day his largest possible day's work, that the
+great majority of our men are deliberately doing just the opposite, and
+that even when the men have the best of intentions their work is in most
+cases far from efficient?
+
+There are three causes for this condition, which may be briefly
+summarized as:
+
+First. The fallacy, which has from time immemorial been almost universal
+among workmen, that a material increase in the output of each man or
+each machine in the trade would result in the end in throwing a large
+number of men out of work.
+
+Second. The defective systems of management which are in common use, and
+which make it necessary for each workman to soldier, or work slowly, in
+order that he may protect his own best interests.
+
+Third. The inefficient rule-of-thumb methods, which are still almost
+universal in all trades, and in practicing which our workmen waste a
+large part of their effort.
+
+This paper will attempt to show the enormous gains which would result
+from the substitution by our workmen of scientific for rule-of-thumb
+methods.
+
+To explain a little more fully these three causes:
+
+First. The great majority of workmen still believe that if they were to
+work at their best speed they would be doing a great injustice to the
+whole trade by throwing a lot of men out of work, and yet the history of
+the development of each trade shows that each improvement, whether it be
+the invention of a new machine or the introduction of a better method,
+which results in increasing the productive capacity of the men in the
+trade and cheapening the costs, instead of throwing men out of work make
+in the end work for more men.
+
+The cheapening of any article in common use almost immediately results
+in a largely increased demand for that article. Take the case of shoes,
+for instance. The introduction of machinery for doing every element of
+the work which was formerly done by hand has resulted in making shoes at
+a fraction of their former labor cost, and in selling them so cheap that
+now almost every man, woman, and child in the working-classes buys one
+or two pairs of shoes per year, and wears shoes all the time, whereas
+formerly each workman bought perhaps one pair of shoes every five years,
+and went barefoot most of the time, wearing shoes only as a luxury or as
+a matter of the sternest necessity. In spite of the enormously increased
+output of shoes per workman, which has come with shoe machinery, the
+demand for shoes has so increased that there are relatively more men
+working in the shoe industry now than ever before.
+
+The workmen in almost every trade have before them an object lesson of
+this kind, and yet, because they are ignorant of the history of their
+own trade even, they still firmly believe, as their fathers did before
+them, that it is against their best interests for each man to turn out
+each day as much work as possible.
+
+Under this fallacious idea a large proportion of the workmen of both
+countries each day deliberately work slowly so as to curtail the output.
+Almost every labor union has made, or is contemplating making, rules
+which have for their object curtailing the output of their members,
+and those men who have the greatest influence with the working-people,
+the labor leaders as well as many people with philanthropic feelings who
+are helping them, are daily spreading this fallacy and at the same time
+telling them that they are overworked.
+
+A great deal has been and is being constantly said about "sweat-shop"
+work and conditions. The writer has great sympathy with those who are
+overworked, but on the whole a greater sympathy for those who are under
+paid. For every individual, however, who is overworked, there are a
+hundred who intentionally under work--greatly under work--every day of
+their lives, and who for this reason deliberately aid in establishing
+those conditions which in the end inevitably result in low wages. And
+yet hardly a single voice is being raised in an endeavor to correct this
+evil.
+
+As engineers and managers, we are more intimately acquainted with these
+facts than any other class in the community, and are therefore best
+fitted to lead in a movement to combat this fallacious idea by educating
+not only the workmen but the whole of the country as to the true facts.
+And yet we are practically doing nothing in this direction, and are
+leaving this field entirely in the hands of the labor agitators (many of
+whom are misinformed and misguided), and of sentimentalists who are
+ignorant as to actual working conditions.
+
+Second. As to the second cause for soldiering--the relations which exist
+between employers and employees under almost all of the systems of
+management which are in common use--it is impossible in a few words to
+make it clear to one not familiar with this problem why it is that the
+ignorance of employers as to the proper time in which work of various
+kinds should be done makes it for the interest of the workman to
+"soldier."
+
+The writer therefore quotes herewith from a paper read before The
+American Society of Mechanical Engineers, in June, 1903, entitled "Shop
+Management," which it is hoped will explain fully this cause for
+soldiering:
+
+"This loafing or soldiering proceeds from two causes. First, from the
+natural instinct and tendency of men to take it easy, which may be
+called natural soldiering. Second, from more intricate second thought
+and reasoning caused by their relations with other men, which may be
+called systematic soldiering."
+
+"There is no question that the tendency of the average man (in all walks
+of life) is toward working at a slow, easy gait, and that it is only
+after a good deal of thought and observation on his part or as a result
+of example, conscience, or external pressure that he takes a more rapid
+pace."
+
+"There are, of course, men of unusual energy, vitality, and ambition who
+naturally choose the fastest gait, who set up their own standards, and
+who work hard, even though it may be against their best interests. But
+these few uncommon men only serve by forming a contrast to emphasize the
+tendency of the average."
+
+"This common tendency to 'take it easy' is greatly increased by bringing
+a number of men together on similar work and at a uniform standard rate
+of pay by the day."
+
+"Under this plan the better men gradually but surely slow down their
+gait to that of the poorest and least efficient. When a naturally
+energetic man works for a few days beside a lazy one, the logic of the
+situation is unanswerable."
+
+"Why should I work hard when that lazy fellow gets the same pay that I
+do and does only half as much work?"
+
+"A careful time study of men working under these conditions will
+disclose facts which are ludicrous as well as pitiable."
+
+"To illustrate: The writer has timed a naturally energetic workman who,
+while going and coming from work, would walk at a speed of from three to
+four miles per hour, and not infrequently trot home after a day's work.
+On arriving at his work he would immediately slow down to a speed of
+about one mile an hour. When, for example, wheeling a loaded
+wheelbarrow, he would go at a good fast pace even up hill in order to be
+as short a time as possible under load, and immediately on the return
+walk slow down to a mile an hour, improving every opportunity for delay
+short of actually sitting down. In order to be sure not to do more than
+his lazy neighbor, he would actually tire himself in his effort to go
+slow."
+
+"These men were working under a foreman of good reputation and highly
+thought of by his employer, who, when his attention was called to this
+state of things, answered: 'Well, I can keep them from sitting down, but
+the devil can't make them get a move on while they are at work.'"
+
+"The natural laziness of men is serious, but by far the greatest evil
+from which both workmen and employers are suffering is the systematic
+soldiering which is almost universal under all of the ordinary schemes
+of management and which results from a careful study on the part of the
+workmen of what will promote their best interests."
+
+"The writer was much interested recently in hearing one small but
+experienced golf caddy boy of twelve explaining to a green caddy, who
+had shown special energy and interest, the necessity of going slow and
+lagging behind his man when he came up to the ball, showing him that
+since they were paid by the hour, the faster they went the less money
+they got, and finally telling him that if he went too fast the other
+boys would give him a licking."
+
+"This represents a type of systematic soldiering which is not, however,
+very serious, since it is done with the knowledge of the employer, who
+can quite easily break it up if he wishes."
+
+"The greater part of the systematic soldiering, however, is done by the
+men with the deliberate object of keeping their employers ignorant of
+how fast work can be done."
+
+"So universal is soldiering for this purpose that hardly a competent
+workman can be found in a large establishment, whether he works by the
+day or on piece work, contract work, or under any of the ordinary
+systems, who does not devote a considerable part of his time to studying
+just how slow he can work and still convince his employer that he is
+going at a good pace."
+
+"The causes for this are, briefly, that practically all employers
+determine upon a maximum sum which they feel it is right for each of
+their classes of employees to earn per day, whether their men work by
+the day or piece."
+
+"Each workman soon finds out about what this figure is for his
+particular case, and he also realizes that when his employer is
+convinced that a man is capable of doing more work than he has done, he
+will find sooner or later some way of compelling him to do it with
+little or no increase of pay."
+
+"Employers derive their knowledge of how much of a given class of work
+can be done in a day from either their own experience, which has
+frequently grown hazy with age, from casual and unsystematic observation
+of their men, or at best from records which are kept, showing the
+quickest time in which each job has been done. In many cases the
+employer will feel almost certain that a given job can be done faster
+than it has been, but he rarely cares to take the drastic measures
+necessary to force men to do it in the quickest time, unless he has an
+actual record proving conclusively how fast the work can be done."
+
+"It evidently becomes for each man's interest, then, to see that no job
+is done faster than it has been in the past. The younger and less
+experienced men are taught this by their elders, and all possible
+persuasion and social pressure is brought to bear upon the greedy and
+selfish men to keep them from making new records which result in
+temporarily increasing their wages, while all those who come after them
+are made to work harder for the same old pay."
+
+"Under the best day work of the ordinary type, when accurate records are
+kept of the amount of work done by each man and of his efficiency, and
+when each man's wages are raised as he improves, and those who fail to
+rise to a certain standard are discharged and a fresh supply of
+carefully selected men are given work in their places, both the natural
+loafing and systematic soldiering can be largely broken up. This can
+only be done, however, when the men are thoroughly convinced that there
+is no intention of establishing piece work even in the remote future,
+and it is next to impossible to make men believe this when the work is
+of such a nature that they believe piece work to be practicable. In most
+cases their fear of making a record which will be used as a basis for
+piece work will cause them to soldier as much as they dare."
+
+"It is, however, under piece work that the art of systematic soldiering
+is thoroughly developed; after a workman has had the price per piece of
+the work he is doing lowered two or three times as a result of his
+having worked harder and increased his output, he is likely entirely to
+lose sight of his employer's side of the case and become imbued with a
+grim determination to have no more cuts if soldiering can prevent it.
+Unfortunately for the character of the workman, soldiering involves a
+deliberate attempt to mislead and deceive his employer, and thus upright
+and straightforward workmen are compelled to become more or less
+hypocritical. The employer is soon looked upon as an antagonist, if not
+an enemy, and the mutual confidence which should exist between a leader
+and his men, the enthusiasm, the feeling that they are all working for
+the same end and will share in the results is entirely lacking.
+
+"The feeling of antagonism under the ordinary piece-work system becomes
+in many cases so marked on the part of the men that any proposition made
+by their employers, however reasonable, is looked upon with suspicion,
+and soldiering becomes such a fixed habit that men will frequently take
+pains to restrict the product of machines which they are running when
+even a large increase in output would involve no more work on their
+part."
+
+Third. As to the third cause for slow work, considerable space will
+later in this paper be devoted to illustrating the great gain, both to
+employers and employees, which results from the substitution of
+scientific for rule-of-thumb methods in even the smallest details of the
+work of every trade. The enormous saving of time and therefore increase
+in the output which it is possible to effect through eliminating
+unnecessary motions and substituting fast for slow and inefficient
+motions for the men working in any of our trades can be fully realized
+only after one has personally seen the improvement which results from a
+thorough motion and time study, made by a competent man.
+
+To explain briefly: owing to the fact that the workmen in all of our
+trades have been taught the details of their work by observation of
+those immediately around them, there are many different ways in common
+use for doing the same thing, perhaps forty, fifty, or a hundred ways of
+doing each act in each trade, and for the same reason there is a great
+variety in the implements used for each class of work. Now, among the
+various methods and implements used in each element of each trade there
+is always one method and one implement which is quicker and better than
+any of the rest.
+
+And this one best method and best implement can only be discovered or
+developed through a scientific study and analysis of all of the methods
+and implements in use, together with accurate, minute, motion and time
+study. This involves the gradual substitution of science for rule of
+thumb throughout the mechanic arts.
+
+This paper will show that the underlying philosophy of all of the old
+systems of management in common use makes it imperative that each
+workman shall be left with the final responsibility for doing his job
+practically as he thinks best, with comparatively little help and advice
+from the management. And it will also show that because of this
+isolation of workmen, it is in most cases impossible for the men working
+under these systems to do their work in accordance with the rules and
+laws of a science or art, even where one exists.
+
+The writer asserts as a general principle (and he proposes to give
+illustrations tending to prove the fact later in this paper) that in
+almost all of the mechanic arts the science which underlies each act of
+each workman is so great and amounts to so much that the workman who is
+best suited to actually doing the work is incapable of fully
+understanding this science, without the guidance and help of those who
+are working with him or over him, either through lack of education or
+through insufficient mental capacity. In order that the work may be done
+in accordance with scientific laws, it is necessary that there shall be
+a far more equal division of the responsibility between the management
+and the workmen than exists under any of the ordinary types of
+management. Those in the management whose duty it is to develop this
+science should also guide and help the workman in working under it, and
+should assume a much larger share of the responsibility for results than
+under usual conditions is assumed by the management.
+
+The body of this paper will make it clear that, to work according to
+scientific laws, the management must take over and perform much of the
+work which is now left to the men; almost every act of the workman
+should be preceded by one or more preparatory acts of the management
+which enable him to do his work better and quicker than he otherwise
+could. And each man should daily be taught by and receive the most
+friendly help from those who are over him, instead of being, at the one
+extreme, driven or coerced by his bosses, and at the other left to his
+own unaided devices.
+
+This close, intimate, personal cooperation between the management and
+the men is of the essence of modern scientific or task management.
+
+It will be shown by a series of practical illustrations that, through
+this friendly cooperation, namely, through sharing equally in every
+day's burden, all of the great obstacles (above described) to obtaining
+the maximum output for each man and each machine in the establishment
+are swept away. The 30 per cent to 100 per cent increase in wages which
+the workmen are able to earn beyond what they receive under the old type
+of management, coupled with the daily intimate shoulder to shoulder
+contact with the management, entirely removes all cause for soldiering.
+And in a few years, under this system, the workmen have before them the
+object lesson of seeing that a great increase in the output per man
+results in giving employment to more men, instead of throwing men out of
+work, thus completely eradicating the fallacy that a larger output for
+each man will throw other men out of work.
+
+It is the writer's judgment, then, that while much can be done and
+should be done by writing and talking toward educating not only workmen,
+but all classes in the community, as to the importance of obtaining the
+maximum output of each man and each machine, it is only through the
+adoption of modern scientific management that this great problem can be
+finally solved. Probably most of the readers of this paper will say that
+all of this is mere theory. On the contrary, the theory, or philosophy,
+of scientific management is just beginning to be understood, whereas the
+management itself has been a gradual evolution, extending over a period
+of nearly thirty years. And during this time the employees of one
+company after another, including a large range and diversity of
+industries, have gradually changed from the ordinary to the scientific
+type of management. At least 50,000 workmen in the United States are now
+employed under this system; and they are receiving from 30 per cent to
+100 per cent higher wages daily than are paid to men of similar caliber
+with whom they are surrounded, while the companies employing them are
+more prosperous than ever before. In these companies the output, per man
+and per machine, has on an average been doubled. During all these years
+there has never been a single strike among the men working under this
+system. In place of the suspicious watchfulness and the more or less
+open warfare which characterizes the ordinary types of management, there
+is universally friendly cooperation between the management and the men.
+
+Several papers have been written, describing the expedients which have
+been adopted and the details which have been developed under scientific
+management and the steps to be taken in changing from the ordinary to
+the scientific type. But unfortunately most of the readers of these
+papers have mistaken the mechanism for the true essence. Scientific
+management fundamentally consists of certain broad general principles, a
+certain philosophy, which can be applied in many ways, and a description
+of what any one man or men may believe to be the best mechanism for
+applying these general principles should in no way be confused with the
+principles themselves.
+
+It is not here claimed that any single panacea exists for all of the
+troubles of the working-people or of employers. As long as some people
+are born lazy or inefficient, and others are born greedy and brutal, as
+long as vice and crime are with us, just so long will a certain amount
+of poverty, misery, and unhappiness be with us Also. No system of
+management, no single expedient--within the control of any man or any
+set of men can insure continuous prosperity to either workmen or
+employers. Prosperity depends upon so many factors entirely beyond the
+control of any one set of men, any state, or even any one country, that
+certain periods will inevitably come when both sides must suffer, more
+or less. It is claimed, however, that under scientific management the
+intermediate periods will be far more prosperous, far happier, and more
+free from discord and dissension. And also, that the periods will be
+fewer, shorter and the suffering less. And this will be particularly
+true in any one town, any one section of the country, or any one state
+which first substitutes the principles of scientific management for the
+rule of thumb.
+
+That these principles are certain to come into general use practically
+throughout the civilized world, sooner or later, the writer is
+profoundly convinced, and the sooner they come the better for all the
+people.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT
+
+The writer has found that there are three questions uppermost in the
+minds of men when they become interested in scientific management.
+
+First. Wherein do the principles of scientific management differ
+essentially from those of ordinary management?
+
+Second. Why are better results attained under scientific management than
+under the other types?
+
+Third. Is not the most important problem that of getting the right man
+at the head of the company? And if you have the right man cannot the
+choice of the type of management be safely left to him?
+
+One of the principal objects of the following pages will be to give a
+satisfactory answer to these questions.
+
+
+THE FINEST TYPE OF ORDINARY MANAGEMENT
+
+Before starting to illustrate the principles of scientific management,
+or "task management" as it is briefly called, it seems desirable to
+outline what the writer believes will be recognized as the best type of
+management which is in common use. This is done so that the great
+difference between the best of the ordinary management and scientific
+management may be fully appreciated.
+
+In an industrial establishment which employs say from 500 to 1000
+workmen, there will be found in many cases at least twenty to thirty
+different trades. The workmen in each of these trades have had their
+knowledge handed down to them by word of mouth, through the many years
+in which their trade has been developed from the primitive condition, in
+which our far-distant ancestors each one practiced the rudiments of many
+different trades, to the present state of great and growing subdivision
+of labor, in which each man specializes upon some comparatively small
+class of work.
+
+The ingenuity of each generation has developed quicker and better
+methods for doing every element of the work in every trade. Thus the
+methods which are now in use may in a broad sense be said to be an
+evolution representing the survival of the fittest and best of the ideas
+which have been developed since the starting of each trade. However,
+while this is true in a broad sense, only those who are intimately
+acquainted with each of these trades are fully aware of the fact that in
+hardly any element of any trade is there uniformity in the methods which
+are used. Instead of having only one way which is generally accepted as
+a standard, there are in daily use, say, fifty or a hundred different
+ways of doing each element of the work. And a little thought will make
+it clear that this must inevitably be the case, since our methods have
+been handed down from man to man by word of mouth, or have, in most
+cases, been almost unconsciously learned through personal observation.
+Practically in no instances have they been codified or systematically
+analyzed or described. The ingenuity and experience of each
+generation--of each decade, even, have without doubt handed over better
+methods to the next. This mass of rule-of-thumb or traditional knowledge
+may be said to be the principal asset or possession of every tradesman.
+Now, in the best of the ordinary types of management, the managers
+recognize frankly the fact that the 500 or 1000 workmen, included in the
+twenty to thirty trades, who are under them, possess this mass of
+traditional knowledge, a large part of which is not in the possession of
+the management. The management, of course, includes foremen and
+superintendents, who themselves have been in most cases first-class
+workers at their trades. And yet these foremen and superintendents know,
+better than any one else, that their own knowledge and personal skill
+falls far short of the combined knowledge and dexterity of all the
+workmen under them. The most experienced managers therefore frankly
+place before their workmen the problem of doing the work in the best and
+most economical way. They recognize the task before them as that of
+inducing each workman to use his best endeavors, his hardest work, all
+his traditional knowledge, his skill, his ingenuity, and his
+good-will--in a word, his "initiative," so as to yield the largest
+possible return to his employer. The problem before the management,
+then, may be briefly said to be that of obtaining the best initiative of
+every workman. And the writer uses the word "initiative" in its broadest
+sense, to cover all of the good qualities sought for from the men.
+
+On the other hand, no intelligent manager would hope to obtain in any
+full measure the initiative of his workmen unless he felt that he was
+giving them something more than they usually receive from their
+employers. Only those among the readers of this paper who have been
+managers or who have worked themselves at a trade realize how far the
+average workman falls short of giving his employer his full initiative.
+It is well within the mark to state that in nineteen out of twenty
+industrial establishments the workmen believe it to be directly against
+their interests to give their employers their best initiative, and that
+instead of working hard to do the largest possible amount of work and
+the best quality of work for their employers, they deliberately work as
+slowly as they dare while they at the same time try to make those over
+them believe that they are working fast.*
+
+[*Footnote: The writer has tried to make the reason for this unfortunate
+state of things clear in a paper entitled "Shop Management," read before
+the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.]
+
+The writer repeats, therefore, that in order to have any hope of
+obtaining the initiative of his workmen the manager must give some
+special incentive to his men beyond that which is given to the average
+of the trade. This incentive can be given in several different ways, as,
+for example, the hope of rapid promotion or advancement; higher wages,
+either in the form of generous piece-work prices or of a premium or
+bonus of some kind for good and rapid work; shorter hours of labor;
+better surroundings and working conditions than are ordinarily given,
+etc., and, above all, this special incentive should be accompanied by
+that personal consideration for, and friendly contact with, his workmen
+which comes only from a genuine and kindly interest in the welfare of
+those under him. It is only by giving a special inducement or
+"incentive" of this kind that the employer can hope even approximately
+to get the "initiative" of his workmen. Under the ordinary type of
+management the necessity for offering the workman a special inducement
+has come to be so generally recognized that a large proportion of those
+most interested in the subject look upon the adoption of some one of the
+modern schemes for paying men (such as piece work, the premium plan, or
+the bonus plan, for instance) as practically the whole system of
+management. Under scientific management, however, the particular pay
+system which is adopted is merely one of the subordinate elements.
+
+Broadly speaking, then, the best type of management in ordinary use may
+be defined as management in which the workmen give their best initiative
+and in return receive some special incentive from their employers. This
+type of management will be referred to as the management of "initiative
+and incentive" in contradistinction to scientific management, or task
+management, with which it is to be compared.
+
+The writer hopes that the management of "initiative and incentive" will
+be recognized as representing the best type in ordinary use, and in fact
+he believes that it will be hard to persuade the average manager that
+anything better exists in the whole field than this type. The task which
+the writer has before him, then, is the difficult one of trying to prove
+in a thoroughly convincing way that there is another type of management
+which is not only better but overwhelmingly better than the management
+of "initiative and incentive."
+
+The universal prejudice in favor of the management of "initiative and
+incentive" is so strong that no mere theoretical advantages which can be
+pointed out will be likely to convince the average manager that any
+other system is better. It will be upon a series of practical
+illustrations of the actual working of the two systems that the writer
+will depend in his efforts to prove that scientific management is so
+greatly superior to other types. Certain elementary principles, a
+certain philosophy, will however be recognized as the essence of that
+which is being illustrated in all of the practical examples which will
+be given. And the broad principles in which the scientific system
+differs from the ordinary or "rule-of-thumb" system are so simple in
+their nature that it seems desirable to describe them before starting
+with the illustrations.
+
+Under the old type of management success depends almost entirely upon
+getting the "initiative" of the workmen, and it is indeed a rare case in
+which this initiative is really attained. Under scientific management
+the "initiative" of the workmen (that is, their hard work, their
+good-will, and their ingenuity) is obtained with absolute uniformity and
+to a greater extent than is possible under the old system; and in
+addition to this improvement on the part of the men, the managers assume
+new burdens, new duties, and responsibilities never dreamed of in the
+past. The managers assume, for instance, the burden of gathering
+together all of the traditional knowledge which in the past has been
+possessed by the workmen and then of classifying, tabulating, and
+reducing this knowledge to rules, laws, and formulae which are immensely
+helpful to the workmen in doing their daily work. In addition to
+developing a science in this way, the management take on three other
+types of duties which involve new and heavy burdens for themselves.
+
+These new duties are grouped under four heads:
+
+First. They develop a science for each element of a man's work, which
+replaces the old rule-of.-thumb method.
+
+Second. They scientifically select and then train, teach, and develop
+the workman, whereas in the past he chose his own work and trained
+himself as best he could.
+
+Third. They heartily cooperate with the men so as to insure all of the
+work being done in accordance with the principles of the science which
+has been developed.
+
+Fourth. There is an almost equal division of the work and the
+responsibility between the management and the workmen. The management
+take over all work for which they are better fitted than the workmen,
+while in the past almost all of the work and the greater part of the
+responsibility were thrown upon the men.
+
+It is this combination of the initiative of the workmen, coupled with
+the new types of work done by the management, that makes scientific
+management so much more efficient than the old plan.
+
+Three of these elements exist in many cases, under the management of
+"initiative and incentive," in a small and rudimentary way, but they
+are, under this management, of minor importance, whereas under
+scientific management they form the very essence of the whole system.
+
+The fourth of these elements, "an almost equal division of the
+responsibility between the management and the workmen," requires further
+explanation. The philosophy of the management of initiative and
+incentive makes it necessary for each workman to bear almost the entire
+responsibility for the general plan as well as for each detail of his
+work, and in many cases for his implements as well. In addition to this
+he must do all of the actual physical labor. The development of a
+science, on the other hand, involves the establishment of many rules,
+laws, and formulae which replace the judgment of the individual workman
+and which can be effectively used only after having been systematically
+recorded, indexed, etc. The practical use of scientific data also calls
+for a room in which to keep the books, records*, etc., and a desk for
+the planner to work at.
+
+[*Footnote: For example, the records containing the data used under
+scientific management in an ordinary machine-shop fill thousands of
+pages.]
+
+Thus all of the planning which under the old system was done by the
+workman, as a result of his personal experience, must of necessity under
+the new system be done by the management in accordance with the laws of
+the science; because even if the workman was well suited to the
+development and use of scientific data, it would be physically
+impossible for him to work at his machine and at a desk at the same
+time. It is also clear that in most cases one type of man is needed to
+plan ahead and an entirely different type to execute the work.
+
+The man in the planning room, whose specialty under scientific
+management is planning ahead, invariably finds that the work can be done
+better and more economically by a subdivision of the labor; each act of
+each mechanic, for example, should be preceded by various preparatory
+acts done by other men. And all of this involves, as we have said, "an
+almost equal division of the responsibility and the work between the
+management and the workman."
+
+To summarize: Under the management of "initiative and incentive"
+practically the whole problem is "up to the workman," while under
+scientific management fully one-half of the problem is "up to the
+management."
+
+Perhaps the most prominent single element in modern scientific
+management is the task idea. The work of every workman is fully planned
+out by the management at least one day in advance, and each man receives
+in most cases complete written instructions, describing in detail the
+task which he is to accomplish, as well as the means to be used in doing
+the work. And the work planned in advance in this way constitutes a task
+which is to be solved, as explained above, not by the workman alone, but
+in almost all cases by the joint effort of the workman and the
+management. This task specifies not only what is to be done but how it
+is to be done and the exact time allowed for doing it. And whenever the
+workman succeeds in doing his task right, and within the time limit
+specified, he receives an addition of from 30 per cent to 100 per cent
+to his ordinary wages. These tasks are carefully planned, so that both
+good and careful work are called for in their performance, but it should
+be distinctly understood that in no case is the workman called upon to
+work at a pace which would be injurious to his health. The task is
+always so regulated that the man who is well suited to his job will
+thrive while working at this rate during a long term of years and grow
+happier and more prosperous, instead of being overworked. Scientific
+management consists very largely in preparing for and carrying out these
+tasks.
+
+The writer is fully aware that to perhaps most of the readers of this
+paper the four elements which differentiate the new management from the
+old will at first appear to be merely high-sounding phrases; and he
+would again repeat that he has no idea of convincing the reader of their
+value merely through announcing their existence. His hope of carrying
+conviction rests upon demonstrating the tremendous force and effect of
+these four elements through a series of practical illustrations. It will
+be shown, first, that they can be applied absolutely to all classes of
+work, from the most elementary to the most intricate; and second, that
+when they are applied, the results must of necessity be overwhelmingly
+greater than those which it is possible to attain under the management
+of initiative and incentive.
+
+The first illustration is that of handling pig iron, and this work is
+chosen because it is typical of perhaps the crudest and most elementary
+form of labor which is performed by man. This work is done by men with
+no other implements than their hands. The pig-iron handler stoops down,
+picks up a pig weighing about 92 pounds, walks for a few feet or yards
+and then drops it on to the ground or upon a pile. This work is so crude
+and elementary in its nature that the writer firmly believes that it
+would be possible to train an intelligent, gorilla so as to become a
+more efficient pig-iron handler than any man can be. Yet it will be
+shown that the science of handling pig iron is so great and amounts to
+so much that it is impossible for the man who is best suited to this
+type of work to understand the principles of this science, or even to
+work in accordance with these principles without the aid of a man better
+educated than he is. And the further illustrations to be given will make
+it clear that in almost all of the mechanic arts the science which
+underlies each workman's act is so great and amounts to so much that the
+workman who is best suited actually to do the work is incapable (either
+through lack of education or through insufficient mental capacity) of
+understanding this science. This is announced as a general principle,
+the truth of which will become apparent as one illustration after
+another is given. After showing these four elements in the handling of
+pig iron, several illustrations will be given of their application to
+different kinds of work in the field of the mechanic arts, at intervals
+in a rising scale, beginning with the simplest and ending with the more
+intricate forms of labor.
+
+One of the first pieces of work undertaken by us, when the writer
+started to introduce scientific management into the Bethlehem Steel
+Company, was to handle pig iron on task work. The opening of the Spanish
+War found some 80,000 tons of pig iron placed in small piles in an open
+field adjoining the works. Prices for pig iron had been so low that it
+could not be sold at a profit, and it therefore had been stored. With
+the opening of the Spanish War the price of pig iron rose, and this
+large accumulation of iron was sold. This gave us a good opportunity to
+show the workmen, as well as the owners and managers of the works, on a
+fairly large scale the advantages of task work over the old-fashioned
+day work and piece work, in doing a very elementary class of work.
+
+The Bethlehem Steel Company had five blast furnaces, the product of
+which had been handled by a pig-iron gang for many years. This gang, at
+this time, consisted of about 75 men. They were good, average pig-iron
+handlers, were under an excellent foreman who himself had been a
+pig-iron handler, and the work was done, on the whole, about as fast and
+as cheaply as it was anywhere else at that time.
+
+A railroad switch was run out into the field, right along the edge of
+the piles of pig iron. An inclined plank was placed against the side of
+a car, and each man picked up from his pile a pig of iron weighing about
+92 pounds, walked up the inclined plank and dropped it on the end of the
+car.
+
+We found that this gang were loading on the average about 12 and a half
+long tons per man per day. We were surprised to find, after studying the
+matter, that a first-class pig-iron handler ought to handle between 47,
+and 48 long tons per day, instead of 12 and a half tons. This task
+seemed to us so very large that we were obliged to go over our work
+several times before we were absolutely sure that we were right. Once we
+were sure, however, that 47 tons was a proper day's work for a
+first-class pig-iron handler, the task which faced us as managers under
+the modern scientific plan was clearly before us. It was our duty to see
+that the 80,000 tons of pig iron was loaded on to the cars at the rate
+of 47 tons per man per day, in place of 12 and a half tons, at which
+rate the work was then being done. And it was further our duty to see
+that this work was done without bringing on a strike among the men,
+without any quarrel with the men, and to see that the men were happier
+and better contented when loading at the new rate of 47 tons than they
+were when loading at the old rate of 12 and a half tons.
+
+Our first step was the scientific selection of the workman. In dealing
+with workmen under this type of management, it is an inflexible rule to
+talk to and deal with only one man at a time, since each workman has his
+own special abilities and limitations, and since we are not dealing with
+men in masses, but are trying to develop each individual man to his
+highest state of efficiency and prosperity. Our first step was to find
+the proper workman to begin with. We therefore carefully watched and
+studied these 75 men for three or four days, at the end of which time we
+had picked out four men who appeared to be physically able to handle pig
+iron at the rate of 47 tons per day. A careful study was then made of
+each of these men. We looked up their history as far back as practicable
+and thorough inquiries were made as to the character, habits, and the
+ambition of each of them. Finally we selected one from among the four as
+the most likely man to start with. He was a little Pennsylvania Dutchman
+who had been observed to trot back home for a mile or so after his work
+in the evening about as fresh as he was when he came trotting down to
+work in the morning. We found that upon wages of $1.15 a day he had
+succeeded in buying a small plot of ground, and that he was engaged in
+putting up the walls of a little house for himself in the morning before
+starting to work and at night after leaving. He also had the reputation
+of being exceedingly "close," that is, of placing a very high value on a
+dollar. As one man whom we talked to about him said, "A penny looks
+about the size of a cart-wheel to him." This man we will call Schmidt.
+
+The task before us, then, narrowed itself down to getting Schmidt to
+handle 47 tons of pig iron per day and making him glad to do it. This
+was done as follows. Schmidt was called out from among the gang of
+pig-iron handlers and talked to somewhat in this way:
+
+"Schmidt, are you a high-priced man?"
+
+"Vell, I don't know vat you mean."
+
+"Oh yes, you do. What I want to know is whether you are a high-priced
+man or not."
+
+"Vell, I don't know vat you mean."
+
+"Oh, come now, you answer my questions. What I want to find out is
+whether you are a high-priced man or one of these cheap fellows here.
+What I want to find out is whether you want to earn $1.85 a day or
+whether you are satisfied with $1.15, just the same as all those cheap
+fellows are getting."
+
+"Did I vant $1.85 a day? Vas dot a high-priced man? Vell, yes, I vas a
+high-priced man."
+
+"Oh, you're aggravating me. Of course you want $1.85 a day--every one
+wants it! You know perfectly well that that has very little to do with
+your being a high-priced man. For goodness' sake answer my questions,
+and don't waste any more of my time. Now come over here. You see that
+pile of pig iron?"
+
+"Yes."
+
+"You see that car?"
+
+"Yes."
+
+"Well, if you are a high-priced man, you will load that pig iron on that
+car tomorrow for $1.85. Now do wake up and answer my question. Tell me
+whether you are a high-priced man or not."
+
+"Vell, did I got $1.85 for loading dot pig iron on dot car to-morrow?"
+
+"Yes, of course you do, and you get $1.85 for loading a pile like that
+every day right through the year. That is what a high-priced man does,
+and you know it just as well as I do."
+
+"Vell, dot's all right. I could load dot pig iron on the car to-morrow
+for $1.85, and I get it every day, don't I?"
+
+"Certainly you do--certainly you do."
+
+"Vell, den, I vas a high-priced man."
+
+"Now, hold on, hold on. You know just as well as I do that a high-priced
+man has to do exactly as he's told from morning till night. You have
+seen this man here before, haven't you?"
+
+"No, I never saw him."
+
+"Well, if you are a high-priced man, you will do exactly as this man
+tells you tomorrow, from morning till night. When he tells you to pick
+up a pig and walk, you pick it up and you walk, and when he tells you to
+sit down and rest, you sit down. You do that right straight through the
+day. And what's more, no back talk. Now a high-priced man does just what
+he's told to do, and no back talk. Do you understand that? When this man
+tells you to walk, you walk; when he tells you to sit down, you sit
+down, and you don't talk back at him. Now you come on to work here
+to-morrow morning and I'll know before night whether you are really a
+high-priced man or not."
+
+This seems to be rather rough talk. And indeed it would be if applied to
+an educated mechanic, or even an intelligent laborer. With a man of the
+mentally sluggish type of Schmidt it is appropriate and not unkind,
+since it is effective in fixing his attention on the high wages which he
+wants and away from what, if it were called to his attention, he
+probably would consider impossibly hard work.
+
+What would Schmidt's answer be if he were talked to in a manner which is
+usual under the management of "initiative and incentive"? say, as
+follows:
+
+"Now, Schmidt, you are a first-class pig-iron handler and know your
+business well. You have been handling at the rate of 12 and a half tons
+per day. I have given considerable study to handling pig iron, and feel
+sure that you could do a much larger day's work than you have been
+doing. Now don't you think that if you really tried you could handle 47
+tons of pig iron per day, instead of 12 and a half tons?"
+
+What do you think Schmidt's answer would be to this?
+
+Schmidt started to work, and all day long, and at regular intervals, was
+told by the man who stood over him with a watch, "Now pick up a pig and
+walk. Now sit down and rest. Now walk--now rest," etc. He worked when
+he was told to work, and rested when he was told to rest, and at
+half-past five in the afternoon had his 47 and a half tons loaded on the
+car. And he practically never failed to work at this pace and do the
+task that was set him during the three years that the writer was at
+Bethlehem. And throughout this time he averaged a little more than $1.85
+per day, whereas before he had never received over $1.15 per day, which
+was the ruling rate of wages at that time in Bethlehem. That is, he
+received 60 per cent. higher wages than were paid to other men who were
+not working on task work. One man after another was picked out and
+trained to handle pig iron at the rate of 47 and a half tons per day
+until all of the pig iron was handled at this rate, and the men were
+receiving 60 per cent. more wages than other workmen around them.
+
+The writer has given above a brief description of three of the four
+elements which constitute the essence of scientific management: first,
+the careful selection of the workman, and, second and third, the method
+of first inducing and then training and helping the workman to work
+according to the scientific method. Nothing has as yet been said about
+the science of handling pig iron. The writer trusts, however, that
+before leaving this illustration the reader will be thoroughly convinced
+that there is a science of handling pig iron, and further that this
+science amounts to so much that the man who is suited to handle pig iron
+cannot possibly understand it, nor even work in accordance with the laws
+of this science, without the help of those who are over him.
+
+The writer came into the machine-shop of the Midvale Steel Company in
+1878, after having served an apprenticeship as a pattern-maker and as a
+machinist. This was close to the end of the long period of depression
+following the panic of 1873, and business was so poor that it was
+impossible for many mechanics to get work at their trades. For this
+reason he was obliged to start as a day laborer instead of working as a
+mechanic. Fortunately for him, soon after he came into the shop the
+clerk of the shop was found stealing. There was no one else available,
+and so, having more education than the other laborers (since he had been
+prepared for college) he was given the position of clerk. Shortly after
+this he was given work as a machinist in running one of the lathes, and,
+as he turned out rather more work than other machinists were doing on
+similar lathes, after several months was made gang boss over the lathes.
+
+Almost all of the work of this shop had been done on piece work for
+several years. As was usual then, and in fact as is still usual in most
+of the shops in this country, the shop was really run by the workmen,
+and not by the bosses. The workmen together had carefully planned just
+how fast each job should be done, and they had set a pace for each
+machine throughout the shop, which was limited to about one-third of a
+good day's work. Every new workman who came into the shop was told at
+once by the other men exactly how much of each kind of work he was to
+do, and unless he obeyed these instructions he was sure before long to
+be driven out of the place by the men.
+
+As soon as the writer was made gang-boss, one after another of the men
+came to him and talked somewhat as follows:
+
+"Now, Fred we're very glad to see that you've been made gang-boss. You
+know the game all right, and we're sure that you're not likely to be a
+piece-work hog. You come along with us, and every-thing will be all
+right, but if you try breaking any of these rates you can be mighty sure
+that we'll throw you over the fence."
+
+The writer told them plainly that he was now working on the side of the
+management, and that he proposed to do whatever he could to get a fair
+day's work out of the lathes. This immediately started a war; in most
+cases a friendly war, because the men who were under him were his
+personal friends, but none the less a war, which as time went on grew
+more and more bitter. The writer used every expedient to make them do a
+fair day's work, such as discharging or lowering the wages of the more
+stubborn men who refused to make any improvement, and such as lowering
+the piece-work price, hiring green men, and personally teaching them how
+to do the work, with the promise from them that when they had learned
+how, they would then do a fair day's work. While the men constantly
+brought such pressure to bear (both inside and outside the works) upon
+all those who started to increase their output that they were finally
+compelled to do about as the rest did, or else quit. No one who has not
+had this experience can have an idea of the bitterness which is
+gradually developed in such a struggle. In a war of this kind the
+workmen have one expedient which is usually effective. They use their
+ingenuity to contrive various ways in which the machines which they are
+running are broken or damaged--apparently by accident, or in the regular
+course of work--and this they always lay at the door of the foreman, who
+has forced them to drive the machine so hard that it is overstrained and
+is being ruined. And there are few foremen indeed who are able to stand
+up against the combined pressure of all of the men in the shop. In this
+case the problem was complicated by the fact that the shop ran both day
+and night.
+
+The writer had two advantages, however, which are not possessed by the
+ordinary foreman, and these came, curiously enough, from the fact that
+he was not the son of a working man.
+
+First, owing to the fact that he happened not to be of working parents,
+the owners of the company believed that he had the interest of the works
+more at heart than the other workmen, and they therefore had more
+confidence in his word than they did in that of the machinists who were
+under him. So that, when the machinists reported to the Superintendent
+that the machines were being smashed up because an incompetent foreman
+was overstraining them, the Superintendent accepted the word of the
+writer when he said that these men were deliberately breaking their
+machines as a part of the piece-work war which was going on, and he also
+allowed the writer to make the only effective answer to this Vandalism
+on the part of the men, namely: "There will be no more accidents to the
+machines in this shop. If any part of a machine is broken the man in
+charge of it must pay at least a part of the cost of its repair, and the
+fines collected in this way will all be handed over to the mutual
+beneficial association to help care for sick workmen." This soon stopped
+the willful breaking of machines.
+
+Second. If the writer had been one of the workmen, and had lived where
+they lived, they would have brought such social pressure to bear upon
+him that it would have been impossible to have stood out against them.
+He would have been called "scab" and other foul names every time he
+appeared on the street, his wife would have been abused, and his
+children would have been stoned. Once or twice he was begged by some of
+his friends among the workmen not to walk home, about two and a half
+miles along the lonely path by the side of the railway. He was told that
+if he continued to do this it would be at the risk of his life. In all
+such cases, however, a display of timidity is apt to increase rather
+than diminish the risk, so the writer told these men to say to the other
+men in the shop that he proposed to walk home every night right up that
+railway track; that he never had carried and never would carry any
+weapon of any kind, and that they could shoot and be d------.
+
+After about three years of this kind of struggling, the output of the
+machines had been materially increased, in many cases doubled, and as a
+result the writer had been promoted from one gang-boss-ship to another
+until he became foreman of the shop. For any right-minded man, however,
+this success is in no sense a recompense for the bitter relations which
+he is forced to maintain with all of those around him. Life which is one
+continuous struggle with other men is hardly worth living. His workman
+friends came to him continually and asked him, in a personal, friendly
+way, whether he would advise them, for their own best interest, to turn
+out more work. And, as a truthful man, he had to tell them that if he
+were in their place he would fight against turning out any more work,
+just as they were doing, because under the piece-work system they would
+be allowed to earn no more wages than they had been earning, and yet
+they would be made to work harder.
+
+Soon after being made foreman, therefore, he decided to make a
+determined effort to in some way change the system of management, so
+that the interests of the workmen and the management should become the
+same, instead of antagonistic. This resulted, some three years later, in
+the starting of the type of management which is described in papers
+presented to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers entitled "A
+Piece-Rate System" and "Shop Management."
+
+In preparation for this system the writer realized that the greatest
+obstacle to harmonious cooperation between the workmen and the
+management lay in the ignorance of the management as to what really
+constitutes a proper day's work for a workman. He fully realized that
+although he was foreman of the shop, the combined knowledge and skill of
+the workmen who were under him was certainly ten times as great as his
+own. He therefore obtained the permission of Mr. William Sellers, who
+was at that time the President of the Midvale Steel Company, to spend
+some money in a careful, scientific study of the time required to do
+various kinds of work.
+
+Mr. Sellers allowed this more as a reward for having, to a certain
+extent, "made good" as foreman of the shop in getting more work out of
+the men, than for any other reason. He stated, however, that he did not
+believe that any scientific study of this sort would give results of
+much value.
+
+Among several investigations which were undertaken at this time, one was
+an attempt to find some rule, or law, which would enable a foreman to
+know in advance how much of any kind of heavy laboring work a man who
+was well suited to his job ought to do in a day; that is, to study the
+tiring effect of heavy labor upon a first-class man. Our first step was
+to employ a young college graduate to look up all that had been written
+on the subject in English, German, and French. Two classes of
+experiments had been made: one by physiologists who were studying the
+endurance of the human animal, and the other by engineers who wished to
+determine what fraction of a horse-power a man-power was. These
+experiments had been made largely upon men who were lifting loads by
+means of turning the crank of a winch from which weights were suspended,
+and others who were engaged in walking, running, and lifting weights in
+various ways. However, the records of these investigations were so
+meager that no law of any value could be deduced from them. We therefore
+started a series of experiments of our own.
+
+Two first-class laborers were selected, men who had proved themselves to
+be physically powerful and who were also good steady workers. These men
+were paid double wages during the experiments, and were told that they
+must work to the best of their ability at all times, and that we should
+make certain tests with them from time to time to find whether they were
+"soldiering" or not, and that the moment either one of them started to
+try to deceive us he would be discharged. They worked to the best of
+their ability throughout the time that they were being observed.
+
+Now it must be clearly understood that in these experiments we were not
+trying to find the maximum work that a man could do on a short spurt or
+for a few days, but that our endeavor was to learn what really
+constituted a full day's work for a first-class man; the best day's work
+that a man could properly do, year in and year out, and still thrive
+under. These men were given all kinds of tasks, which were carried out
+each day under the close observation of the young college man who was
+conducting the experiments, and who at the same time noted with a
+stop-watch the proper time for all of the motions that were made by the
+men. Every element in any way connected with the work which we believed
+could have a bearing on the result was carefully studied and recorded.
+What we hoped ultimately to determine was what fraction of a horse-power
+a man was able to exert, that is, how many foot-pounds of work a man
+could do in a day.
+
+After completing this series of experiments, therefore, each man's work
+for each day was translated into foot-pounds of energy, and to our
+surprise we found that there was no constant or uniform relation between
+the foot-pounds of energy which the man exerted during a day and the
+tiring effect of his work. On some kinds of work the man would be tired
+out when doing perhaps not more than one-eighth of a horse-power, while
+in others he would be tired to no greater extent by doing half a
+horse-power of work.
+
+We failed, therefore, to find any law which was an accurate guide to the
+maximum day's work for a first-class workman.
+
+A large amount of very valuable data had been obtained, which enabled us
+to know, for many kinds of labor, what was a proper day's work. It did
+not seem wise, however, at this time to spend any more money in trying
+to find the exact law which we were after. Some years later, when more
+money was available for this purpose, a second series of experiments was
+made, similar to the first, but some what more thorough.
+
+This, however, resulted as the first experiments, in obtaining valuable
+information but not in the development of a law. Again, some years
+later, a third series of experiments was made, and this time no trouble
+was spared in our endeavor to make the work thorough. Every minute
+element which could in anyway affect the problem was carefully noted and
+studied, and two college men devoted about three months to the
+experiments. After this data was again translated into foot-pounds of
+energy exerted for each man each day, it became perfectly clear that
+there is no direct relation between the horse-power which a man
+exerts (that is, his foot-pounds of energy per day) and the tiring effect
+of the work on the man. The writer, however, was quite as firmly
+convinced as ever that some definite, clear-cut law existed as to what
+constitutes a full day's work for a first-class laborer, and our data
+had been so carefully collected and recorded that he felt sure that the
+necessary information was included somewhere in the records. The problem
+of developing this law from the accumulated facts was therefore handed
+over to Mr. Carl G. Barth, who is a better mathematician than any of the
+rest of us, and we decided to investigate the problem in a new way, by
+graphically representing each element of the work through plotting
+curves, which should give us, as it were, a bird's-eye view of every
+element. In a comparatively short time Mr. Barth had discovered the law
+governing the tiring effect of heavy labor on a first-class man. And it
+is so simple in its nature that it is truly remarkable that it should
+not have been discovered and clearly understood years before. The law
+which was developed is as follows:
+
+The law is confined to that class of work in which the limit of a man's
+capacity is reached because he is tired out. It is the law of heavy
+laboring, corresponding to the work of the cart horse, rather than that
+of the trotter. Practically all such work consists of a heavy pull or a
+push on the man's arms, that is, the man's strength is exerted by either
+lifting or pushing something which he grasps in his hands. And the law
+is that for each given pull or push on the man's arms it is possible for
+the workman to be under load for only a definite percentage of the day.
+For example, when pig iron is being handled (each pig weighing 92
+pounds), a first-class workman can only be under load 43 per cent of the
+day. He must be entirely free from load during 57 per cent of the day.
+And as the load becomes lighter, the percentage of the day under which
+the man can remain under load increases. So that, if the workman is
+handling a half-pig, weighing 46 pounds, he can then be under load 58
+per cent of the day, and only has to rest during 42 per cent. As the
+weight grows lighter the man can remain under load during a larger and
+larger percentage of the day, until finally a load is reached which he
+can carry in his hands all day long without being tired out. When that
+point has been arrived at this law ceases to be useful as a guide to a
+laborer's endurance, and some other law must be found which indicates
+the man's capacity for work.
+
+When a laborer is carrying a piece of pig iron weighing 92 pounds in his
+hands, it tires him about as much to stand still under the load as it
+does to walk with it, since his arm muscles are under the same severe
+tension whether he is moving or not. A man, however, who stands still
+under a load is exerting no horse-power whatever, and this accounts for
+the fact that no constant relation could be traced in various kinds of
+heavy laboring work between the foot-pounds of energy exerted and the
+tiring effect of the work on the man. It will also be clear that in all
+work of this kind it is necessary for the arms of the workman to be
+completely free from load (that is, for the workman to rest) at frequent
+intervals. Throughout the time that the man is under a heavy load the
+tissues of his arm muscles are in process of degeneration, and frequent
+periods of rest are required in order that the blood may have a chance
+to restore these tissues to their normal condition.
+
+To return now to our pig-iron handlers at the Bethlehem Steel Company.
+If Schmidt had been allowed to attack the pile of 47 tons of pig iron
+without the guidance or direction of a man who understood the art, or
+science, of handling pig iron, in his desire to earn his high wages he
+would probably have tired himself out by 11 or 12 o'clock in the day. He
+would have kept so steadily at work that his muscles would not have had
+the proper periods of rest absolutely needed for recuperation, and he
+would have been completely exhausted early in the day. By having a man,
+however, who understood this law, stand over him and direct his work,
+day after day, until he acquired the habit of resting at proper
+intervals, he was able to work at an even gait all day long without
+unduly tiring himself.
+
+Now one of the very first requirements for a man who is fit to handle
+pig iron as a regular occupation that he shall be so stupid and so
+phlegmatic that he more nearly resembles in his mental make-up the ox
+than any other type. The man who is mentally alert and intelligent is
+for this very reason entirely unsuited to what would, for him, be the
+grinding monotony of work of this character. Therefore the workman who
+is best suited to handling pig iron is unable to understand the real
+science of doing this class of work. He is so stupid that the word
+"percentage" has no meaning to him, and he must consequently be trained
+by a man more intelligent than himself into the habit of working in
+accordance with the laws of this science before he can be successful.
+
+The writer trusts that it is now clear that even in the case of the most
+elementary form of labor that is known, there is a science, and that
+when the man best suited to this class of work has been carefully
+selected, when the science of doing the work has been developed, and
+when the carefully selected man has been trained to work in accordance
+with this science, the results obtained must of necessity be
+overwhelmingly greater than those which are possible under the plan of
+"initiative and incentive."
+
+Let us, however, again turn to the case of these pig-iron handlers, and
+see whether, under the ordinary type of management, it would not have
+been possible to obtain practically the same results.
+
+The writer has put the problem before many good managers, and asked them
+whether, under premium work, piece work, or any of the ordinary plans of
+management, they would be likely even to approximate 47 tons* per man per
+day, and not a man has suggested that an output of over 18 to 25 tons
+could be attained by any of the ordinary expedients. It will be remembered
+that the Bethlehem men were loading only 12 1/2 tons per man.
+
+[*Footnote: Many people have questioned the accuracy of the statement
+that first-class workmen can load 47 1/2 tons of pig iron from the ground
+on to a car in a day. For those who are skeptical, therefore, the following
+data relating to this work are given:
+
+First. That our experiments indicated the existence of the following
+law: that a first-class laborer, suited to such work as handling pig
+iron, could be under load only 42 per cent of the day and must be free
+from load 58 per cent of the day.
+
+Second. That a man in loading pig iron from piles placed on the ground
+in an open field on to a car which stood on a track adjoining these
+piles, ought to handle (and that they did handle regularly) 47 1/2 long
+tons (2240 pounds per ton) per day.
+
+That the price paid for loading this pig iron was 3.9 cents per ton, and
+that the men working at it averaged $1.85 per day, whereas, in the past,
+they had been paid only $1.15 per day.
+
+In addition to these facts, the following are given:
+
+  47 1/2 long tons equal 106,400 pounds of pig iron per day.
+  At 92 pounds per pig, equals 1156 pigs per day.
+  42 per cent. of a day under load equals 600 minutes; multiplied by
+  0.42 equals 252 minutes under load.
+  252 minutes divided by 1156 pigs equals 0.22 minutes per pig under
+  load.
+
+A pig-iron handler walks on the level at the rate of one foot in 0.006
+minutes. The average distance of the piles of pig iron from the car was
+36 feet. It is a fact, however, that many of the pig-iron handlers ran
+with their pig as soon as they reached the inclined plank. Many of them
+also would run down the plank after loading the car. So that when the
+actual loading went on, many of them moved at a faster rate than is
+indicated by the above figures. Practically the men were made to take a
+rest, generally by sitting down, after loading ten to twenty pigs. This
+rest was in addition to the time which it took them to walk back from
+the car to the pile. It is likely that many of those who are skeptical
+about the possibility of loading this amount of pig iron do not realize
+that while these men were walking back they were entirely free from
+load, and that therefore their muscles had, during that time, the
+opportunity for recuperation. It will be noted that with an average
+distance of 36 feet of the pig iron from the car, these men walked about
+eight miles under load each day and eight miles free from load.
+
+If any one who is interested in these figures will multiply them and
+divide them, one into the other, in various ways, he will find that all
+of the facts stated check up exactly.]
+
+To go into the matter in more detail, however: As to the scientific
+selection of the men, it is a fact that in this gang of 75 pig-iron
+handlers only about one man in eight was physically capable of handling
+47 1/2 tons per day. With the very best of intentions, the other seven
+out of eight men were physically unable to work at this pace. Now the
+one man in eight who was able to do this work was in no sense superior
+to the other men who were working on the gang. He merely happened to be
+a man of the type of the ox,--no rare specimen of humanity, difficult to
+find and therefore very highly prized. On the contrary, he was a man so
+stupid that he was unfitted to do most kinds of laboring work, even. The
+selection of the man, then, does not involve finding some extraordinary
+individual, but merely picking out from among very ordinary men the few
+who are especially suited to this type of work. Although in this
+particular gang only one man in eight was suited to doing the work, we
+had not the slightest difficulty in getting all the men who were
+needed--some of them from inside of the works and others from the
+neighboring country--who were exactly suited to the job.
+
+Under the management of "initiative and incentive" the attitude of the
+management is that of "putting the work up to the workmen." What
+likelihood would there be, then, under the old type of management, of
+these men properly selecting themselves for pig-iron handling? Would
+they be likely to get rid of seven men out of eight from their own gang
+and retain only the eighth man? No! And no expedient could be devised
+which would make these men properly select themselves. Even if they
+fully realized the necessity of doing so in order to obtain high wages
+(and they are not sufficiently intelligent properly to grasp this
+necessity), the fact that their friends or their brothers who were
+working right alongside of them would temporarily be thrown out of a job
+because they were not suited to this kind of work would entirely prevent
+them from properly selecting themselves, that is, from removing the
+seven out of eight men on the gang who were unsuited to pig-iron
+handling.
+
+As to the possibility, under the old type of management, of inducing
+these pig-iron handlers (after they had been properly selected) to work
+in accordance with the science of doing heavy laboring, namely, having
+proper scientifically determined periods of rest in close sequence to
+periods of work. As has been indicated before, the essential idea of the
+ordinary types of management is that each workman has become more
+skilled in his own trade than it is possible for any one in the
+management to be, and that, therefore, the details of how the work shall
+best be done must be left to him. The idea, then, of taking one man
+after another and training him under a competent teacher into new
+working habits until he continually and habitually works in accordance
+with scientific laws, which have been developed by some one else, is
+directly antagonistic to the old idea that each workman can best
+regulate his own way of doing the work. And besides this, the man suited
+to handling pig iron is too stupid properly to train himself. Thus it
+will be seen that with the ordinary types of management the development
+of scientific knowledge to replace rule of thumb, the scientific
+selection of the men, and inducing the men to work in accordance with
+these scientific principles are entirely out of the question. And this
+because the philosophy of the old management puts the entire
+responsibility upon the workmen, while the philosophy of the new places
+a great part of it upon the management.
+
+With most readers great sympathy will be aroused because seven out of
+eight of these pig-iron handlers were thrown out of a job. This sympathy
+is entirely wasted, because almost all of them were immediately given
+other jobs with the Bethlehem Steel Company. And indeed it should be
+understood that the removal of these men from pig-iron handling, for
+which they were unfit, was really a kindness to themselves, because it
+was the first step toward finding them work for which they were
+peculiarly fitted, and at which, after receiving proper training, they
+could permanently and legitimately earn higher wages.
+
+Although the reader may be convinced that there is a certain science
+back of the handling of pig iron, still it is more than likely that he
+is still skeptical as to the existence of a science for doing other
+kinds of laboring. One of the important objects of this paper is to
+convince its readers that every single act of every workman can be
+reduced to a science. With the hope of fully convincing the reader of
+this fact, therefore, the writer proposes to give several more simple
+illustrations from among the thousands which are at hand.
+
+For example, the average man would question whether there is much of any
+science in the work of shoveling. Yet there is but little doubt, if any
+intelligent reader of this paper were deliberately to set out to find
+what may be called the foundation of the science of shoveling, that with
+perhaps 15 to 20 hours of thought and analysis he would be almost sure
+to have arrived at the essence of this science. On the other hand, so
+completely are the rule-of-thumb ideas still dominant that the writer
+has never met a single shovel contractor to whom it had ever even
+occurred that there was such a thing as the science of shoveling. This
+science is so elementary as to be almost self-evident.
+
+For a first-class shoveler there is a given shovel load at which he will
+do his biggest day's work. What is this shovel load? Will a first-class
+man do more work per day with a shovel load of 5 pounds, 10 pounds, 15
+pounds, 20, 25, 30, or 40 pounds? Now this is a question which can be
+answered only through carefully made experiments. By first selecting two
+or three first-class shovelers, and paying them extra wages for doing
+trustworthy work, and then gradually varying the shovel load and having
+all the conditions accompanying the work carefully observed for several
+weeks by men who were used to experimenting, it was found that a
+first-class man would do his biggest day's work with a shovel load of
+about 21 pounds. For instance, that this man would shovel a larger
+tonnage per day with a 21-pound load than with a 24-pound load or than
+with an 18-pound load on his shovel. It is, of course, evident that no
+shoveler can always take a load of exactly 21 pounds on his shovel, but
+nevertheless, although his load may vary 3 or 4 pounds one way or the
+other, either below or above the 21 pounds, he will do his biggest day's
+work when his average for the day is about 21 pounds.
+
+The writer does not wish it to be understood that this is the whole of
+the art or science of shoveling. There are many other elements, which
+together go to make up this science. But he wishes to indicate the
+important effect which this one piece of scientific knowledge has upon
+the work of shoveling.
+
+At the works of the Bethlehem Steel Company, for example, as a result of
+this law, instead of allowing each shoveler to select and own his own
+shovel, it became necessary to provide some 8 to 10 different kinds of
+shovels, etc., each one appropriate to handling a given type of material
+not only so as to enable the men to handle an average load of 21 pounds,
+but also to adapt the shovel to several other requirements which become
+perfectly evident when this work is studied as a science. A large shovel
+tool room was built, in which were stored not only shovels but carefully
+designed and standardized labor implements of all kinds, such as picks,
+crowbars, etc. This made it possible to issue to each workman a shovel
+which would hold a load of 21 pounds of whatever class of material they
+were to handle: a small shovel for ore, say, or a large one for ashes.
+Iron ore is one of the heavy materials which are handled in a works of
+this kind, and rice coal, owing to the fact that it is so slippery on
+the shovel, is one of the lightest materials. And it was found on
+studying the rule-of-thumb plan at the Bethlehem Steel Company, where
+each shoveler owned his own shovel, that he would frequently go from
+shoveling ore, with a load of about 30 pounds per shovel, to handling
+rice coal, with a load on the same shovel of less than 4 pounds. In the
+one case, he was so overloaded that it was impossible for him to do a
+full day's work, and in the other case he was so ridiculously
+underloaded that it was manifestly impossible to even approximate a
+day's work.
+
+Briefly to illustrate some of the other elements which go to make up
+the science of shoveling, thousands of stop-watch observations were made
+to study just how quickly a laborer, provided in each case with the
+proper type of shovel, can push his shovel into the pile of materials
+and then draw it out properly loaded. These observations were made first
+when pushing the shovel into the body of the pile. Next when shoveling
+on a dirt bottom, that is, at the outside edge of the pile, and next
+with a wooden bottom, and finally with an iron bottom. Again a similar
+accurate time study was made of the time required to swing the shovel
+backward and then throw the load for a given horizontal distance,
+accompanied by a given height. This time study was made for various
+combinations of distance and height. With data of this sort before him,
+coupled with the law of endurance described in the case of the pig-iron
+handlers, it is evident that the man who is directing shovelers can
+first teach them the exact methods which should be employed to use their
+strength to the very best advantage, and can then assign them daily
+tasks which are so just that the workman can each day be sure of earning
+the large bonus which is paid whenever he successfully performs this
+task.
+
+There were about 600 shovelers and laborers of this general class in the
+yard of the Bethlehem Steel Company at this time. These men were
+scattered in their work over a yard which was, roughly, about two miles
+long and half a mile wide. In order that each workman should be given
+his proper implement and his proper instructions for doing each new job,
+it was necessary to establish a detailed system for directing men in
+their work, in place of the old plan of handling them in large groups,
+or gangs, under a few yard foremen. As each workman came into the works
+in the morning, he took out of his own special pigeonhole, with his
+number on the outside, two pieces of paper, one of which stated just
+what implements he was to get from the tool room and where he was to
+start to work, and the second of which gave the history of his previous
+day's work; that is, a statement of the work which he had done, how much
+he had earned the day before, etc. Many of these men were foreigners and
+unable to read and write, but they all knew at a glance the essence of
+this report, because yellow paper showed the man that he had failed to
+do his full task the day before, and informed him that he had not earned
+as much as $1.85 a day, and that none but high-priced men would be
+allowed to stay permanently with this gang. The hope was further
+expressed that he would earn his full wages on the following day. So
+that whenever the men received white slips they knew that everything was
+all right, and whenever they received yellow slips they realized that
+they must do better or they would be shifted to some other class of
+work.
+
+Dealing with every workman as a separate individual in this way involved
+the building of a labor office for the superintendent and clerks who
+were in charge of this section of the work. In this office every
+laborer's work was planned out well in advance, and the workmen were all
+moved from place to place by the clerks with elaborate diagrams or maps
+of the yard before them, very much as chessmen are moved on a
+chess-board, a telephone and messenger system having been installed for
+this purpose. In this way a large amount of the time lost through having
+too many men in one place and too few in another, and through waiting
+between jobs, was entirely eliminated. Under the old system the workmen
+were kept day after day in comparatively large gangs, each under a
+single foreman, and the gang was apt to remain of pretty nearly the same
+size whether there was much or little of the particular kind of work on
+hand which this foreman had under his charge, since each gang had to be
+kept large enough to handle whatever work in its special line was likely
+to come along.
+
+When one ceases to deal with men in large gangs or groups, and proceeds
+to study each workman as an individual, if the workman fails to do his
+task, some competent teacher should be sent to show him exactly how his
+work can best be done, to guide, help, and encourage him, and, at the
+same time, to study his possibilities as a workman. So that, under the
+plan which individualizes each workman, instead of brutally discharging
+the man or lowering his wages for failing to make good at once, he is
+given the time and the help required to make him proficient at his
+present job, or he is shifted to another class of work for which he is
+either mentally or physically better suited.
+
+All of this requires the kindly cooperation of the management, and
+involves a much more elaborate organization and system than the
+old-fashioned herding of men in large gangs. This organization
+consisted, in this case, of one set of men, who were engaged in the
+development of the science of laboring through time study, such as has
+been described above; another set of men, mostly skilled laborers
+themselves, who were teachers, and who helped and guided the men in
+their work; another set of tool-room men who provided them with the
+proper implements and kept them in perfect order, and another set of
+clerks who planned the work well in advance, moved the men with the
+least loss of time from one place to another, and properly recorded each
+man's earnings, etc. And this furnishes an elementary illustration of
+what has been referred to as cooperation between the management and the
+workmen.
+
+The question which naturally presents itself is whether an elaborate
+organization of this sort can be made to pay for itself; whether such an
+organization is not top-heavy. This question will best be answered by a
+statement of the results of the third year of working under this plan.
+
+
+                                   Old Plan           New Plan Task Work
+  The number of yard laborers
+  was reduced from between         400 & 600 down to about 140
+  Average number of tons per
+  man per day                      16                       59
+  Average earnings per man
+  per day                          $1.15                 $1.88
+  Average cost of handling a
+  ton of 2240 lbs                  $0.072               $0.033
+
+And in computing the low cost of $0.033 per ton, the office and
+tool-room expenses, and the wages of all labor superintendents, foremen,
+clerks, time-study men, etc., are included.
+
+During this year the total saving of the new plan over the old amounted
+to $36,417.69, and during the six months following, when all of the work
+of the yard was on task work, the saving was at the rate of between
+$75,000 and $80,000 per year.
+
+Perhaps the most important of all the results attained was the effect on
+the workmen themselves. A careful inquiry into the condition of these
+men developed the fact that out of the 140 workmen only two were said to
+be drinking men. This does not, of course, imply that many of them did
+not take an occasional drink. The fact is that a steady drinker would
+find it almost impossible to keep up with the pace which was set, so
+that they were practically all sober. Many, if not most of them, were
+saving money, and they all lived better than they had before. These men
+constituted the finest body of picked laborers that the writer has ever
+seen together, and they looked upon the men who were over them, their
+bosses and their teachers, as their very best friends; not as nigger
+drivers, forcing them to work extra hard for ordinary wages, but as
+friends who were teaching them and helping them to earn much higher
+wages than they had ever earned before.
+
+It would have been absolutely impossible for any one to have stirred up
+strife between these men and their employers. And this presents a very
+simple though effective illustration of what is meant by the words
+"prosperity for the employee, coupled with prosperity for the employer,"
+the two principal objects of management. It is evident also that this
+result has been brought about by the application of the four fundamental
+principles of scientific management.
+
+As another illustration of the value of a scientific study of the
+motives which influence workmen in their daily work, the loss of
+ambition and initiative will be cited, which takes place in workmen when
+they are herded into gangs instead of being treated as separate
+individuals. A careful analysis had demonstrated the fact that when
+workmen are herded together in gangs, each man in the gang becomes far
+less efficient than when his personal ambition is stimulated; that when
+men work in gangs, their individual efficiency falls almost invariably
+down to or below the level of the worst man in the gang; and that they
+are all pulled down instead of being elevated by being herded together.
+For this reason a general order had been issued in the Bethlehem Steel
+Works that not more than four men were to be allowed to work in a labor
+gang without a special permit, signed by the General Superintendent of
+the works, this special permit to extend for one week only. It was
+arranged that as far as possible each laborer should be given a separate
+individual task. As there were about 5000 men at work in the
+establishment, the General Superintendent had so much to do that there
+was but little time left for signing these special permits.
+
+After gang work had been by this means broken up, an unusually fine set
+of ore shovelers had been developed, through careful selection and
+individual, scientific training. Each of these men was given a separate
+car to unload each day, and his wages depended upon his own personal
+work. The man who unloaded the largest amount of ore was paid the
+highest wages, and an unusual opportunity came for demonstrating the
+importance of individualizing each workman. Much of this ore came from
+the Lake Superior region, and the same ore was delivered both in
+Pittsburgh and in Bethlehem in exactly similar cars. There was a
+shortage of ore handlers in Pittsburgh, and hearing of the fine gang of
+laborers that had been developed at Bethlehem, one of the Pittsburgh
+steel works sent an agent to hire the Bethlehem men. The Pittsburgh men
+offered 4 9/10 cents a ton for unloading exactly the same ore, with the
+same shovels, from the same cars, that were unloaded in Bethlehem for 3
+2/10 cents a ton. After carefully considering this situation, it was
+decided that it would be unwise to pay more than 3 2/10 cents per ton
+for unloading the Bethlehem cars, because, at this rate, the Bethlehem
+laborers were earning a little over $1.85 per man per day, and this
+price was 60 per cent more than the ruling rate of wages around
+Bethlehem.
+
+A long series of experiments, coupled with close observation, had
+demonstrated the fact that when workmen of this caliber are given a
+carefully measured task, which calls for a big day's work on their part,
+and that when in return for this extra effort they are paid wages up to
+60 per cent beyond the wages usually paid, that this increase in wages
+tends to make them not only more thrifty but better men in every way;
+that they live rather better, begin to save money, become more sober,
+and work more steadily. When, on the other hand, they receive much more
+than a 60 per cent increase in wages, many of them will work irregularly
+and tend to become more or less shiftless, extravagant, and dissipated.
+Our experiments showed, in other words, that it does not do for most men
+to get rich too fast.
+
+After deciding, for this reason, not to raise the wages of our ore
+handlers, these men were brought into the office one at a time, and
+talked to somewhat as follows:
+
+"Now, Patrick, you have proved to us that you are a high-priced man. You
+have been earning every day a little more than $1.85, and you are just
+the sort of man that we want to have in our ore-shoveling gang. A man
+has come here from Pittsburgh, ho is offering 4 9/10 cents per ton for
+handling ore while we can pay only 3 9/10 cents per ton. I think,
+therefore, that you had better apply to this man for a job. Of course,
+you know we are very sorry to have you leave us, but you have proved
+yourself a high-priced man, and we are very glad to see you get this
+chance of earning more money. Just remember, however, that at any time
+in the future, when you get out of a job, you can always come right back
+to us. There will always be a job for a high-priced man like you in our
+gang here."
+
+Almost all of the ore handlers took this advice, and went to Pittsburgh,
+but in about six weeks most of them were again back in Bethlehem
+unloading ore at the old rate of 3 2/10 cents a ton. The writer had the
+following talk with one of these men after he had returned:
+
+"Patrick, what are you doing back here? I thought we had gotten rid of
+you."
+
+"'Well, Sir, I'll tell you how it was. When we got out there Jimmy and I
+were put on to a car with eight other men. We started to shovel the ore
+out just the same as we do here. After about half an hour I saw a little
+devil alongside of me doing pretty near nothing, so I said to him, 'Why
+don't you go to work? Unless we get the ore out of this car we won't get
+any money on pay-day.' He turned to me and said, 'Who in ------ are
+you?'
+
+"'Well,' I said, 'that's none of your business'; and the little devil
+stood up to me and said, 'You'll be minding your own business, or I'll
+throw you off this car!' 'Well, I could have spit on him and drowned
+him, but the rest of the men put down their shovels and looked as if
+they were going to back him up; so I went round to Jimmy and said (so
+that the whole gang could hear it), 'Now, Jimmy, you and I will throw a
+shovel full whenever this little devil throws one, and not another
+shovel full.' So we watched him, and only shoveled when he shoveled.
+
+"When pay-day came around, though, we had less money than we got here at
+Bethlehem. After that Jimmy and I went in to the boss, and asked him for
+a car to ourselves, the same as we got at Bethlehem, but he told us to
+mind our own business. And when another pay-day came around we had less
+money than we got here at Bethlehem, so Jimmy and I got the gang
+together and brought them all back here to work again."
+
+When working each man for himself, these men were able to earn higher
+wages at 3 2/10 cents a ton than they could earn when they were paid 4
+9/10 cents a ton on gang work; and this again shows the great gain which
+results from working according to even the most elementary of scientific
+principles. But it also shows that in the application of the most
+elementary principles it is necessary for the management to do their
+share of the work in cooperating with the workmen. The Pittsburgh
+managers knew just how the results had been attained at Bethlehem, but
+they were unwilling to go to the small trouble and expense required to
+plan ahead and assign a separate car to each shoveler, and then keep an
+individual record of each man's work, and pay him just what he had
+earned.
+
+Bricklaying is one of the oldest of our trades.
+
+For hundreds of years there has been little or no improvement made in
+the implements and materials used in this trade, nor in fact in the
+method of laying bricks. In spite of the millions of men who have
+practiced this trade, no great improvement has been evolved for many
+generations. Here, then, at least one would expect to find but little
+gain possible through scientific analysis and study. Mr. Frank B.
+Gilbreth, a member of our Society, who had himself studied bricklaying
+in his youth, became interested in the principles of scientific
+management, and decided to apply them to the art of bricklaying. He made
+an intensely interesting analysis and study of each movement of the
+bricklayer, and one after another eliminated all unnecessary movements
+and substituted fast for slow motions. He experimented with every minute
+element which in any way affects the speed and the tiring of the
+bricklayer.
+
+He developed the exact position which each of the feet of the bricklayer
+should occupy with relation to the wall, the mortar box, and the pile of
+bricks, and so made it unnecessary for him to take a step or two toward
+the pile of bricks and back again each time a brick is laid.
+
+He studied the best height for the mortar box and brick pile, and then
+designed a scaffold, with a table on it, upon which all of the materials
+are placed, so as to keep the bricks, the mortar, the man, and the wall
+in their proper relative positions. These scaffolds are adjusted, as the
+wall grows in height, for all of the bricklayers by a laborer especially
+detailed for this purpose, and by this means the bricklayer is saved the
+exertion of stooping down to the level of his feet for each brick and
+each trowel full of mortar and then straightening up again. Think of the
+waste of effort that has gone on through all these years, with each
+bricklayer lowering his body, weighing, say, 150 pounds, down two feet
+and raising it up again every time a brick (weighing about 5 pounds) is
+laid in the wall! And this each bricklayer did about one thousand times
+a day.
+
+As a result of further study, after the bricks are unloaded from the
+cars, and before bringing them to the bricklayer, they are carefully
+sorted by a laborer, and placed with their best edge up on a simple
+wooden frame, constructed so as to enable him to take hold of each brick
+in the quickest time and in the most advantageous position. In this way
+the bricklayer avoids either having to turn the brick over or end for
+end to examine it before laying it, and he saves, also, the time taken
+in deciding which is the best edge and end to place on the outside of
+the wall. In most cases, also, he saves the time taken in disentangling
+the brick from a disorderly pile on the scaffold. This "pack" of bricks
+(as Mr. Gilbreth calls his loaded wooden frames) is placed by the helper
+in its proper position on the adjustable scaffold close to the mortar
+box.
+
+We have all been used to seeing bricklayers tap each brick after it is
+placed on its bed of mortar several times with the end of the handle of
+the trowel so as to secure the right thickness for the joint. Mr.
+Gilbreth found that by tempering the mortar just right, the bricks could
+be readily bedded to the proper depth by a downward pressure of the hand
+with which they are laid. He insisted that his mortar mixers should give
+special attention to tempering the mortar, and so save the time consumed
+in tapping the brick.
+
+Through all of this minute study of the motions to be made by the
+bricklayer in laying bricks under standard conditions, Mr. Gilbreth has
+reduced his movements from eighteen motions per brick to five, and even
+in one case to as low as two motions per brick. He has given all of the
+details of this analysis to the profession in the chapter headed "Motion
+Study," of his book entitled "Bricklaying System," published by Myron C.
+Clerk Publishing Company, New York and Chicago; E. F. N. Spon, of
+London.
+
+An analysis of the expedients used by Mr. Gilbreth in reducing the
+motions of his bricklayers from eighteen to five shows that this
+improvement has been made in three different ways:
+
+First. He has entirely dispensed with certain movements which the
+bricklayers in the past believed were necessary, but which a careful
+study and trial on his part have shown to be useless.
+
+Second. He has introduced simple apparatus, such as his adjustable
+scaffold and his packets for holding the bricks, by means of which, with
+a very small amount of cooperation from a cheap laborer, he entirely
+eliminates a lot of tiresome and time-consuming motions which are
+necessary for the brick-layer who lacks the scaffold and the packet.
+
+Third. He teaches his bricklayers to make simple motions with both
+hands at the same time, where before they completed a motion with the
+right hand and followed it later with one from the left hand.
+
+For example, Mr. Gilbreth teaches his brick-layer to pick up a brick in
+the left hand at the same instant that he takes a trowel full of mortar
+with the right hand. This work with two hands at the same time is, of
+course, made possible by substituting a deep mortar box for the old
+mortar board (on which the mortar spread out so thin that a step or two
+had to be taken to reach it) and then placing the mortar box and the
+brick pile close together, and at the proper height on his new scaffold.
+
+These three kinds of improvements are typical of the ways in which
+needless motions can be entirely eliminated and quicker types of
+movements substituted for slow movements when scientific motion study,
+as Mr. Gilbreth calls his analysis, time study, as the writer has called
+similar work, are, applied in any trade.
+
+Most practical men would (knowing the opposition of almost all tradesmen
+to making any change in their methods and habits), however, be skeptical
+as to the possibility of actually achieving any large results from a
+study of this sort. Mr. Gilbreth reports that a few months ago, in a
+large brick building which he erected, he demonstrated on a commercial
+scale the great gain which is possible from practically applying his
+scientific study. With union bricklayers, in laying a factory wall,
+twelve inches thick, with two kinds of brick, faced and ruled joints on
+both sides of the wall, he averaged, after his selected workmen had
+become skilful in his new methods, 350 bricks per man per hour; whereas
+the average speed of doing this work with the old methods was, in that
+section of the country, 120 bricks per man per hour. His bricklayers
+were taught his new method of bricklaying by their foreman. Those who
+failed to profit by their teaching were dropped, and each man, as he
+became proficient under the new method, received a substantial (not a
+small) increase in his wages. With a view to individualizing his workmen
+and stimulating each man to do his best, Mr. Gilbreth also developed an
+ingenious method for measuring and recording the number of bricks laid
+by each man, and for telling each workman at frequent intervals how many
+bricks he had succeeded in laying.
+
+It is only when this work is compared with the conditions which prevail
+under the tyranny of some of our misguided bricklayers' unions that the
+great waste of human effort which is going on will be realized. In one
+foreign city the bricklayers' union have restricted their men to 275
+bricks per day on work of this character when working for the city, and
+375 per day when working for private owners. The members of this union
+are probably sincere in their belief that this restriction of output is
+a benefit to their trade. It should be plain to all men, however, that
+this deliberate loafing is almost criminal, in that it inevitably
+results in making every workman's family pay higher rent for their
+housing, and also in the end drives work and trade away from their city,
+instead of bringing it to it.
+
+Why is it, in a trade which has been continually practiced since before
+the Christian era, and with implements practically the same as they now
+are, that this simplification of the bricklayer's movements, this great
+gain, has not been made before?
+
+It is highly likely that many times during all of these years individual
+bricklayers have recognized the possibility of eliminating each of these
+unnecessary motions. But even if, in the past, he did invent each one of
+Mr. Gilbreth's improvements, no bricklayer could alone increase his
+speed through their adoption because it will be remembered that in all
+cases several bricklayers work together in a row and that the walls all
+around a building must grow at the same rate of speed. No one
+bricklayer, then, can work much faster than the one next to him. Nor has
+any one workman the authority to make other men cooperate with him to do
+faster work. It is only through enforced standardization of methods,
+enforced adoption of the best implements and working conditions, and
+enforced cooperation that this faster work can be assured. And the duty
+of enforcing the adoption of standards and of enforcing-this cooperation
+rests with the management alone. The management must supply continually
+one or more teachers to show each new man the new and simpler motions,
+and the slower men must be constantly watched and helped until they have
+risen to their proper speed. All of those who, after proper teaching,
+either will not or cannot work in accordance with the new methods and at
+the higher speed must be discharged by the management. The management
+must also recognize the broad fact that workmen will not submit to this
+more rigid standardization and will not work extra hard, unless they
+receive extra pay for doing it.
+
+All of this involves an individual study of and treatment for each man,
+while in the past they have been handled in large groups.
+
+The management must also see that those who prepare the bricks and the
+mortar and adjust the scaffold, etc., for the bricklayers, cooperate
+with them by doing their work just right and always on time; and they
+must also inform each bricklayer at frequent intervals as to the
+progress he is making, so that he may not unintentionally fall off in
+his pace. Thus it will be seen that it is the assumption by the
+management of new duties and new kinds of work never done by employers
+in the past that makes this great improvement possible, and that,
+without this new help from the management, the workman even with full
+knowledge of the new methods and with the best of intentions could not
+attain these startling results.
+
+Mr. Gilbreth's method of bricklaying furnishes a simple illustration of
+true and effective cooperation. Not the type of cooperation in which a
+mass of workmen on one side together cooperate with the management; but
+that in which several men in the management (each one in his own
+particular way) help each workman individually, on the one hand, by
+studying his needs and his shortcomings and teaching him better and
+quicker methods, and, on the other hand, by seeing that all other
+workmen with whom he comes in contact help and cooperate with him by
+doing their part of the work right and fast.
+
+The writer has gone thus fully into Mr. Gilbreth's method in order that
+it may be perfectly clear that this increase in output and that this
+harmony could not have been attained under the management of "initiative
+and incentive" (that is, by putting the problem up to the workman and
+leaving him to solve it alone) which has been the philosophy of the
+past. And that his success has been due to the use of the four elements
+which constitute the essence of scientific management.
+
+First. The development (by the management, not the workman) of the
+science of bricklaying, with rigid rules for each motion of every man,
+and the perfection and standardization of all implements and working
+conditions.
+
+Second. The careful selection and subsequent training of the bricklayers
+into first-class men, and the elimination of all men who refuse to or
+are unable to adopt the best methods.
+
+Third. Bringing the first-class bricklayer and the science of
+bricklaying together, through the constant help and watchfulness of the
+management, and through paying each man a large daily bonus for working
+fast and doing what he is told to do.
+
+Fourth. An almost equal division of the work and responsibility between
+the workman and the management. All day long the management work almost
+side by side with the men, helping, encouraging, and smoothing the way
+for them, while in the past they stood one side, gave the men but little
+help, and threw on to them almost the entire responsibility as to
+methods, implements, speed, and harmonious cooperation.
+
+Of these four elements, the first (the development of the science of
+bricklaying) is the most interesting and spectacular. Each of the three
+others is, however, quite as necessary for success.
+
+It must not be forgotten that back of all this, and directing it, there
+must be the optimistic, determined, and hard-working leader who can wait
+patiently as well as work.
+
+In most cases (particularly when the work to be done is intricate in its
+nature) the "development of the science" is the most important of the
+four great elements of the new management. There are instances, however,
+in which the "scientific selection of the workman" counts for more than
+anything else.
+
+A case of this type is well illustrated in the very simple though
+unusual work of inspecting bicycle balls.
+
+When the bicycle craze was at its height some years ago several million
+small balls made of hardened steel were used annually in bicycle
+bearings. And among the twenty or more operations used in making steel
+balls, perhaps the most important was that of inspecting them after
+final polishing so as to remove all fire-cracked or otherwise imperfect
+balls before boxing.
+
+The writer was given the task of systematizing the largest bicycle ball
+factory in this country. This company had been running for from eight to
+ten years on ordinary day work before he undertook its reorganization,
+so that the one hundred and twenty or more girls who were inspecting the
+balls were "old bands" and skilled at their jobs.
+
+It is impossible even in the most elementary work to change rapidly from
+the old independence of individual day work to scientific cooperation.
+
+In most cases, however, there exist certain imperfections in working
+conditions which can at once be improved with benefit to all concerned.
+
+In this instance it was found that the inspectors (girls) were working
+ten and one-half hours per day (with a Saturday half holiday.)
+
+Their work consisted briefly in placing a row of small polished steel
+balls on the back of the left hand, in the crease between two of the
+fingers pressed together, and while they were rolled over and over, they
+were minutely examined in a strong light, and with the aid of a magnet
+held in the right hand, the defective balls were picked out and thrown
+into especial boxes. Four kinds of defects were looked for-dented, soft,
+scratched, and fire-cracked--and they were mostly so minute as to be
+invisible to an eye not especially trained to this work. It required the
+closest attention and concentration, so that the nervous tension of the
+inspectors was considerable, in spite of the fact that they were
+comfortably seated and were not physically tired.
+
+A most casual study made it evident that a very considerable part of the
+ten and one-half hours during which the girls were supposed to work was
+really spent in idleness because the working period was too long. It is
+a matter of ordinary common sense to plan working hours so that the
+workers can really "work while they work" and "play while they play,"
+and not mix the two.
+
+Before the arrival of Mr. Sanford E. Thompson, who undertook a
+scientific study of the whole process, we decided, therefore, to shorten
+the working hours.
+
+The old foreman who had been over the inspecting room for years was
+instructed to interview one after another of the better inspectors and
+the more influential girls and persuade them that they could do just as
+much work in ten hours each day as they had been doing in ten and
+one-half hours. Each girl was told that the proposition was to shorten
+the day's work to ten hours and pay them the same day's pay they were
+receiving for the ten and one-half hours.
+
+In about two weeks the foreman reported that all of the girls he had
+talked to agreed that they could do their present work just as well in
+ten hours as in ten and one-half and that they approved of the change.
+
+The writer had not been especially noted for his tact so he decided that
+it would be wise for him to display a little more of this quality by
+having the girls vote on the new proposition. This decision was hardly
+justified, however, for when the vote was taken the girls were unanimous
+that 10 1/2 hours was good enough for them and they wanted no innovation
+of any kind.
+
+This settled the matter for the time being. A few months later tact was
+thrown to the winds and the working hours were arbitrarily shortened in
+successive steps to 10 hours, 9 1/2, 9, and 8 1/2 (the pay per day
+remaining the same); and with each shortening of the working day the
+output increased instead of diminishing.
+
+The change from the old to the scientific method in this department was
+made under the direction of Mr. Sanford E. Thompson, perhaps the most
+experienced man in motion and time study in this country, under the
+general superintendence of Mr. H. L. Gantt.
+
+In the Physiological departments of our universities experiments are
+regularly conducted to determine what is known as the "personal
+coefficient" of the man tested. This is done by suddenly bringing some
+object, the letter A or B for instance, within the range of vision of
+the subject, who, the instant he recognizes the letter has to do some
+definite thing, such as to press a particular electric button. The time
+which elapses from the instant the letter comes in view until the
+subject presses the button is accurately recorded by a delicate
+scientific instrument.
+
+This test shows conclusively that there is a great difference in the
+"personal coefficient" of different men. Some individuals are born with
+unusually quick powers of perception accompanied by quick responsive
+action. With some the message is almost instantly transmitted from the
+eye to the brain, and the brain equally quickly responds by sending the
+proper message to the hand.
+
+Men of this type are said to have a low "personal coefficient," while
+those of slow perception and slow action have a high "personal
+coefficient."
+
+Mr. Thompson soon recognized that the quality most needed for bicycle
+ball inspectors was a low personal coefficient. Of course the ordinary
+qualities of endurance and industry were also called for.
+
+For the ultimate good of the girls as well as the company, however, it
+became necessary to exclude, all girls who lacked a low "personal
+coefficient." And unfortunately this involved laying off many of the
+most intelligent, hardest working, and most trustworthy girls merely
+because they did not possess the quality of quick perception followed by
+quick action.
+
+While the gradual selection of girls was going on other changes were
+also being made.
+
+One of the dangers to be guarded against, when the pay of the man or
+woman is made in any way to depend on the quantity of the work done, is
+that in the effort to increase the quantity the quality is apt to
+deteriorate.
+
+It is necessary in almost all cases, therefore, to take definite steps
+to insure against any falling off in quality before moving in any way
+towards an increase in quantity.
+
+In the work of these particular girls quality was the very essence. They
+were engaged in picking out all defective balls.
+
+The first step, therefore, was to make it impossible for them to slight
+their work without being, found out. This was accomplished through what
+is known as over-inspection. Each one of four of the most trust-worthy
+girls was given each day a lot of balls to inspect which had been
+examined the day before by one of the regular inspectors; the number
+identifying the lot to be over-inspected having been changed by the
+foreman so that none of the over-inspectors knew whose work they were
+examining. In addition to this one of the lots inspected by the four
+over-inspectors was examined on the following day by the chief
+inspector, selected on account of her especial accuracy and integrity.
+
+An effective expedient was adopted for checking the honesty and accuracy
+of the over-inspection. Every two or three days a lot of balls was
+especially prepared by the foreman, who counted out a definite number of
+perfect balls, and added a recorded number of defective balls of each
+kind. Neither the inspectors nor the over-inspectors had any means of
+distinguishing this prepared lot from the regular commercial lots. And
+in this way all temptation to slight their work or make false returns
+was removed.
+
+After insuring in this way against deterioration in quality, effective
+means were at once adopted to increase the output. Improved day work was
+substituted for the old slipshod method. An accurate daily record was
+kept both as to the quantity and quality of the work done in order to
+guard against any personal prejudice on the part of the foreman and to
+insure absolute impartiality and justice for each inspector. In a
+comparatively short time this record enabled the foreman to stir the
+ambition of all the inspectors by increasing the wages of those who
+turned out a large quantity and good quality, while at the same time
+lowering the pay of those who did indifferent work and discharging
+others who proved to be incorrigibly slow or careless. A careful
+examination was then made of the way in which each girl spent her time
+and an accurate time study was undertaken, through the use of a
+stop-watch and record blanks, to determine how fast each kind of
+inspection should be done, and to establish the exact conditions under
+which each girl could do her quickest and best work, while at the same
+time guarding against giving her a task so severe that there was danger
+from over fatigue or exhaustion. This investigation showed that the
+girls spent a considerable part of their time either in partial
+idleness, talking and half working, or in actually doing nothing.
+
+Even when the hours of labor had been shortened from 10 1/2 to 8 1/2
+hours a close observation of the girls showed that after about an hour
+and one-half of consecutive work they began to get nervous. They
+evidently needed a rest. It is wise to stop short of the point at which
+overstrain begins, so we arranged for them to have a ten minutes period
+for recreation at the end of each hour and one quarter. During these
+recess periods (two of ten minutes each in the morning and two in the
+afternoon) they were obliged to stop work and were encouraged to leave
+their seats and get a complete change of occupation by walking around
+and talking, etc.
+
+In one respect no doubt some people will say that these girls were
+brutally treated. They were seated so far apart that they could not
+conveniently talk while at work.
+
+Shortening their hours of labor, however, and providing so far as we
+knew the most favorable working conditions made it possible for them to
+really work steadily instead of pretending to do so.
+
+And it is only after this stage in the reorganization is reached, when
+the girls have been properly selected and on the one hand such
+precautions have been taken as to guard against the possibility of
+over-driving them, while, on the other hand, the temptation to slight
+their work has been removed and the most favorable working conditions
+have been established, that the final step should be taken which insures
+them what they most want, namely, high wages, and the employers what
+they most want, namely, the maximum output and best quality of work,
+-which means a low labor cost.
+
+This step is to give each girl each day a carefully measured task which
+demands a full day's work from a competent operative, and also to give
+her a large premium or bonus whenever she accomplishes this task.
+
+This was done in this case through establishing what is known as
+differential rate piece work.*
+
+[*Footnote: See paper read before the American Society of Mechanical
+Engineers, by Fred. W. Taylor, Vol. XVI, p. 856, entitled "Piece Rate
+System."]
+
+Under this system the pay of each girl was increased in proportion to
+the quantity of her output and also still more in proportion to the
+accuracy of her work.
+
+As will be shown later, the differential rate (the lots inspected by the
+over-inspectors forming the basis for the differential) resulted in a
+large gain in the quantity of work done and at the same time in a marked
+improvement in the quality.
+
+Before they finally worked to the best advantage it was found to be
+necessary to measure the output of each girl as often as once every
+hour, and to send a teacher to each individual who was found to be
+falling behind to find what was wrong, to straighten her out, and to
+encourage and help her to catch up.
+
+There is a general principle back of this which should be appreciated by
+all of those who are especially interested in the management of men.
+
+A reward, if it is to be effective in stimulating men to do their best
+work, must come soon after the work has been done. But few men are able
+to look forward for more than a week or perhaps at most a month, and
+work hard for a reward which they are to receive at the end of this
+time.
+
+The average workman must be able to measure what he has accomplished and
+clearly see his reward at the end of each day if he is to do his best.
+And more elementary characters, such as the young girls inspecting
+bicycle balls, or children, for instance, should have proper
+encouragement either in the shape of personal attention from those over
+them or an actual reward in sight as often as once an hour.
+
+This is one of the principal reasons why cooperation or "profit-sharing"
+either through selling stock to the employees or through dividends on
+wages received at the end of the year, etc., have been at the best only
+mildly effective in stimulating men to work hard. The nice time which
+they are sure to have to-day if they take things easily and go slowly
+proves more attractive than steady hard work with a possible reward to
+be shared with others six months later. A second reason for the
+inefficiency of profit-sharing schemes had been that no form of
+cooperation has yet been devised in which each individual is allowed
+free scope for his personal ambition. Personal ambition always has been
+and will remain a more powerful incentive to exertion than a desire for
+the general welfare. The few misplaced drones, who do the loafing and
+share equally in the profits, with the rest, under cooperation are sure
+to drag the better men down toward their level.
+
+Other and formidable difficulties in the path of cooperative schemes
+are, the equitable division of the profits, and the fact that, while
+workmen are always ready to share the profits, they are neither able nor
+willing to share the losses. Further than this, in many cases, it is
+neither right nor just that they should share either the profits or the
+losses, since these may be due in great part to causes entirely beyond
+their influence or control, and to which they do not contribute.
+
+To come back to the girls inspecting bicycle balls, however, the final
+outcome of all the changes was that thirty-five girls did the work
+formerly done by one hundred and twenty. And that the accuracy of the
+work at the higher speed was two-thirds greater than at the former slow
+speed.
+
+The good that came to the girls was,
+
+First. That they averaged from 80 to 100 per cent higher wages than they
+formerly received.
+
+Second. Their hours of labor were shortened from 10 1/2 to 8 1/2 per day,
+with a Saturday half holiday. And they were given four recreation
+periods properly distributed through the day, which made overworking
+impossible for a healthy girl.
+
+Third. Each girl was made to feel that she was the object of especial
+care and interest on the part of the management, and that if anything
+went wrong with her she could always have a helper and teacher in the
+management to lean upon.
+
+Fourth. All young women should be given two consecutive days of rest
+(with pay) each month, to be taken whenever they may choose. It is my
+impression that these girls were given this privilege, although I am not
+quite certain on this point.
+
+The benefits which came to the company from these changes were:
+
+First. A substantial improvement in the quality of the product.
+
+Second. A material reduction in the cost of inspection, in spite of the
+extra expense involved in clerk work, teachers, time study,
+over-inspectors, and in paying higher wages.
+
+Third. That the most friendly relations existed between the management
+and the employees, which rendered labor troubles of any kind or a strike
+impossible.
+
+These good results were brought about by many changes which substituted
+favorable for unfavorable working conditions. It should be appreciated,
+however, that the one element which did more than all of the others was,
+the careful selection of girls with quick perception to replace those
+whose perceptions were slow--(the substitution of girls with a low
+personal coefficient for those whose personal coefficient was high)--the
+scientific selection of the workers.
+
+The illustrations have thus far been purposely confined to the more
+elementary types of work, so that a very strong doubt must still remain
+as to whether this kind of cooperation is desirable in the case of more
+intelligent mechanics, that is, in the case of men who are more capable
+of generalization, and who would therefore be more likely, of their own
+volition, to choose the more scientific and better methods. The
+following illustrations will be given for the purpose of demonstrating
+the fact that in the higher classes of work the scientific laws which
+are developed are so intricate that the high-priced mechanic needs (even
+more than the cheap laborer) the cooperation of men better educated than
+himself in finding the laws, and then in selecting, developing, and
+training him to work in accordance with these laws. These illustrations
+should make perfectly clear our original proposition that in practically
+all of the mechanic arts the science which underlies each workman's act
+is so great and amounts to so much that the workman who is best suited
+to actually doing the work is incapable, either through lack of
+education or through insufficient mental capacity, of understanding this
+science.
+
+A doubt, for instance, will remain in the minds perhaps of most readers
+(in the case of an establishment which manufactures the same machine,
+year in and year out, in large quantities, and in which, therefore, each
+mechanic repeats the same limited series of operations over and over
+again), whether the ingenuity of each workman and the help which he from
+time to time receives from his foreman will not develop such superior
+methods and such a personal dexterity that no scientific study which
+could be made would result in a material increase in efficiency.
+
+A number of years ago a company employing about three hundred men, which
+had been manufacturing the same machine for ten to fifteen years, sent
+for us to report as to whether any gain could be made through the
+introduction of scientific management. Their shops had been run for many
+years under a good superintendent and with excellent foremen and
+workmen, on piece work. The whole establishment was, without doubt, in
+better physical condition than the average machine-shop in this country.
+The superintendent was distinctly displeased when told that through the
+adoption of task management the output, with the same number of men and
+machines, could be more than doubled. He said that he believed that any
+such statement was mere boasting, absolutely false, and instead of
+inspiring him with confidence, he was disgusted that any one should make
+such an impudent claim. He, however, readily assented to the proposition
+that he should select any one of the machines whose output he considered
+as representing the average of the shop, and that we should then
+demonstrate on this machine that through scientific methods its output
+could be more than doubled.
+
+The machine selected by him fairly represented the work of the shop. It
+had been run for ten or twelve years past by a first-class mechanic who
+was more than equal in his ability to the average workmen in the
+establishment. In a shop of this sort in which similar machines are
+made over and over again, the work is necessarily greatly subdivided, so
+that no one man works upon more than a comparatively small number of
+parts during the year. A careful record was therefore made, in the
+presence of both parties, of the time actually taken in finishing each
+of the parts which this man worked upon. The total time required by him
+to finish each piece, as well as the exact speeds and feeds which he
+took, were noted and a record was kept of the time which he took in
+setting the work in the machine and removing it. After obtaining in this
+way a statement of what represented a fair average of the work done in
+the shop, we applied to this one machine the principles of scientific
+management.
+
+By means of four quite elaborate slide-rules, which have been especially
+made for the purpose of determining the all-round capacity of
+metal-cutting machines, a careful analysis was made of every element of
+this machine in its relation to the work in hand. Its Pulling power at
+its various speeds, its feeding capacity, and its proper speeds were
+determined by means of the slide-rules, and changes were then made in
+the countershaft and driving pulleys so as to run it at its proper
+speed. Tools, made of high-speed steel, and of the proper shapes, were
+properly dressed, treated, and ground. (It should be understood,
+however, that in this case the high-speed steel which had heretofore
+been in general use in the shop was also used in our demonstration.) A
+large special slide-rule was then made, by means of which the exact
+speeds and feeds were indicated at which each kind of work could be done
+in the shortest possible time in this particular lathe. After preparing
+in this way so that the workman should work according to the new method,
+one after another, pieces of work were finished in the lathe,
+corresponding to the work which had been done in our preliminary trials,
+and the gain in time made through running the machine according to
+scientific principles ranged from two and one-half times the speed in
+the slowest instance to nine times the speed in the highest.
+
+The change from rule-of-thumb management to scientific management
+involves, however, not only a study of what is the proper speed for
+doing the work and a remodeling of the tools and the implements in the
+shop, but also a complete change in the mental attitude of all the men
+in the shop toward their work and toward their employers. The physical
+improvements in the machines necessary to insure large gains, and the
+motion, study followed by minute study with a stop-watch of the time in
+which each workman should do his work, can be made comparatively
+quickly. But the change in the mental attitude and in the habits of the
+three hundred or more workmen can be brought about only slowly and
+through a long series of object-lessons, which finally demonstrates to
+each man the great advantage which he will gain by heartily cooperating
+in his every-day work with the men in the management. Within three
+years, however, in this shop, the output had been more than doubled per
+man and per machine. The men had been carefully selected and in almost
+all cases promoted from a lower to a higher order of work, and so
+instructed by their teachers (the functional foremen) that they were
+able to earn higher wages than ever before. The average increase in the
+daily earnings of each man was about 35 per cent., while, at the same
+time, the sum total of the wages paid for doing a given amount of work
+was lower than before. This increase in the speed of doing the work, of
+course, involved a substitution of the quickest hand methods for the old
+independent rule-of-thumb methods, and an elaborate analysis of the hand
+work done by each man. (By hand work is meant such work as depends upon
+the manual dexterity and speed of a workman, and which is independent of
+the work done by the machine.) The time saved by scientific hand work
+was in many cases greater even than that saved in machine-work.
+
+It seems important to fully explain the reason why, with the aid of a
+slide-rule, and after having studied the art of cutting metals, it was
+possible for the scientifically equipped man, who had never before seen
+these particular jobs, and who had never worked on this machine, to do
+work from two and one-half to nine times as fast as it had been done
+before by a good mechanic who had spent his whole time for some ten to
+twelve years in doing this very work upon this particular machine. In a
+word, this was possible because the art of cutting metals involves a
+true science of no small magnitude, a science, in fact, so intricate
+that it is impossible for any machinist who is suited to running a lathe
+year in and year out either to understand it or to work according to its
+laws without the help of men who have made this their specialty. Men who
+are un-familiar with machine-shop work are prone to look upon the
+manufacture of each piece as a special problem, independent of any other
+kind of machine-work. They are apt to think, for instance, that the
+problems connected with making the parts of an engine require the
+especial study, one may say almost the life study, of a set of
+engine-making mechanics, and that these problems are entirely different
+from those which would be met with in machining lathe or planer parts.
+In fact, however, a study of those elements which are peculiar either to
+engine parts or to lathe parts is trifling, compared with the great
+study of the art, or science, of cutting metals, upon a knowledge of
+which rests the ability to do really fast machine-work of all kinds.
+
+The real problem is how to remove chips fast from a casting or a
+forging, and how to make the piece smooth and true in the shortest time,
+and it matters but little whether the piece being worked upon is part,
+say, of a marine engine, a printing-press, or an automobile. For this
+reason, the man with the slide rule, familiar with the science of
+cutting metals, who had never before seen this particular work, was able
+completely to distance the skilled mechanic who had made the parts of
+this machine his specialty for years.
+
+It is true that whenever intelligent and educated men find that the
+responsibility for making progress in any of the mechanic arts rests
+with them, instead of upon the workmen who are actually laboring at the
+trade, that they almost invariably start on the road which leads to the
+development of a science where, in the past, has existed mere
+traditional or rule-of-thumb knowledge. When men, whose education has
+given them the habit of generalizing and everywhere looking for laws,
+find themselves confronted with a multitude of problems, such as exist
+in every trade and which have a general similarity one to another, it is
+inevitable that they should try to gather these problems into certain
+logical groups, and then search for some general laws or rules to guide
+them in their solution. As has been pointed out, however, the underlying
+principles of the management of "initiative and incentive," that is, the
+underlying philosophy of this management, necessarily leaves the
+solution of all of these problems in the hands of each individual
+workman, while the philosophy of scientific management places their
+solution in the hands of the management. The workman's whole time is
+each day taken in actually doing the work with his hands, so that, even
+if he had the necessary education and habits of generalizing in his
+thought, he lacks the time and the opportunity for developing these
+laws, because the study of even a simple law involving say time study
+requires the cooperation of two men, the one doing the work while the
+other times him with a stop-watch. And even if the workman were to
+develop laws where before existed only rule-of-thumb knowledge, his
+personal interest would lead him almost inevitably to keep his
+discoveries secret, so that he could, by means of this special
+knowledge, personally do more work than other men and so obtain higher
+wages.
+
+Under scientific management, on the other hand, it becomes the duty and
+also the pleasure of those who are engaged in the management not only to
+develop laws to replace rule of thumb, but also to teach impartially all
+of the workmen who are under them the quickest ways of working. The
+useful results obtained from these laws are always so great that any
+company can well afford to pay for the time and the experiments needed
+to develop them. Thus under scientific management exact scientific
+knowledge and methods are everywhere, sooner or later, sure to replace
+rule of thumb, whereas under the old type of management working in
+accordance with scientific laws is an impossibility. The development of
+the art or science of cutting metals is an apt illustration of this
+fact. In the fall of 1880, about the time that the writer started to
+make the experiments above referred to, to determine what constitutes a
+proper day's work for a laborer, he also obtained the permission of Mr.
+William Sellers, the President of the Midvale Steel Company, to make a
+series of experiments to determine what angles and shapes of tools were
+the best for cutting steel, and also to try to determine the proper
+cutting speed for steel. At the time that these experiments were started
+it was his belief that they would not last longer than six months, and,
+in fact, if it had been known that a longer period than this would be
+required, the permission to spend a considerable sum of money in making
+them would not have been forthcoming.
+
+A 66-inch diameter vertical boring-mill was the first machine used in
+making these experiments, and large locomotive tires, made out of hard
+steel of uniform quality, were day after day cut up into chips in
+gradually learning how to make, shape, and use the cutting tools so that
+they would do faster work. At the end of six months sufficient
+practical information had been obtained to far more than repay the cost
+of materials and wages which had been expended in experimenting. And yet
+the comparatively small number of experiments which had been made served
+principally to make it clear that the actual knowledge attained was but
+a small fraction of that which still remained to be developed, and which
+was badly needed by us, in our daily attempt to direct and help the
+machinists in their tasks.
+
+Experiments in this field were carried on, with occasional interruption,
+through a period of about 26 years, in the course of which ten different
+experimental machines were especially fitted up to do this work. Between
+30,000 and 50,000 experiments were carefully recorded, and many other
+experiments were made, of which no record was kept. In studying these
+laws more than 800,000 pounds of steel and iron was cut up into chips
+with the experimental tools, and it is estimated that from $150,000 to
+$200,000 was spent in the investigation.
+
+Work of this character is intensely interesting to any one who has any
+love for scientific research. For the purpose of this paper, however, it
+should be fully appreciated that the motive power which kept these
+experiments going through many years, and which supplied the money and
+the opportunity for their accomplishment, was not an abstract search
+after scientific knowledge, but was the very practical fact that we
+lacked the exact information which was needed every day, in order to
+help our machinists to do their work in the best way and in the quickest
+time.
+
+All of these experiments were made to enable us to answer correctly the
+two questions which face every machinist each time that he does a piece
+of work in a metal-cutting machine, such as a lathe, planer, drill
+press, or milling machine. These two questions are:
+
+In order to do the work in the quickest time, At what cutting speed
+shall I run my machine? and
+
+What feed shall I use?
+
+They sound so simple that they would appear to call for merely the
+trained judgment of any good mechanic. In fact, however, after working
+26 years, it has been found that the answer in every case involves the
+solution of an intricate mathematical problem, in which the effect of
+twelve independent variables must be determined.
+
+Each of the twelve following variables has an important effect upon the
+answer. The figures which are given with each of the variables represent
+the effect of this element upon the cutting speed.
+
+For example, after the first variable (A) we quote,
+
+"The proportion is as I in the case of semi-hardened steel or chilled
+iron to 100 in the case of a very soft, low-carbon steel." The meaning
+of this quotation is that soft steel can be cut 100 times as fast as the
+hard steel or chilled iron. The ratios which are given, then, after each
+of these elements, indicate the wide range of judgment which practically
+every machinist has been called upon to exercise in the past in
+determining the best speed at which to run the machine and the best feed
+to use.
+
+(A) The quality of the metal which is to be cut; i.e., its hardness
+or other qualities which affect the cutting speed. The proportion is as
+1 in the case of semi-hardened steel or chilled iron to 100 in the case
+of very soft, low-carbon steel.
+
+(B) The chemical composition of the steel from which the tool is
+made, and the heat treatment of the tool. The proportion is as 1 in
+tools made from tempered carbon steel to 7 in the best high-speed tools.
+
+(C) The thickness of the shaving, or, the thickness of the spiral
+strip or band of metal which is to be removed by the tool. The
+proportion is as 1 with thickness of shaving 3/16 of an inch to 3 1/2
+with thickness of shaving 1/64 of an inch.
+
+(D) The shape or contour of the cutting edge of the tool. The
+proportion is as 1 in a thread tool to 6 in a broad-nosed cutting tool.
+
+(E) Whether a copious stream of water or other cooling medium is
+used on the tool. The proportion is as 1 for tool running dry to 1.41
+for tool cooled by a copious stream of water.
+
+(F) The depth of the cut. The proportion is as 1 with 1/2 inch depth
+of cut to 1.36 with 1/8 inch depth of cut.
+
+(G) The duration of the cut, i.e., the time which a tool must last under
+pressure of the shaving without being reground. The proportion is as 1
+when tool is to be ground every 1 1/2 hours to 1.20 when tool is to be
+ground every 20 minutes.
+
+(H) The lip and clearance angles of the tool. The proportion is as 1
+with lip angle of 68 degrees to 1.023 with lip angle of 61 degrees.
+
+(J) The elasticity of the work and of the tool on account of
+producing chatter. The proportion is as 1 with tool chattering to 1.15
+with tool running smoothly.
+
+(K) The diameter of the casting or forging which is being cut.
+
+(L) The pressure of the chip or shaving upon the cutting surface of the
+tool.
+
+(M) The pulling power and the speed and feed changes of the machine.
+
+It may seem preposterous to many people that it should have required a
+period of 26 years to investigate the effect of these twelve variables
+upon the cutting speed of metals. To those, however, who have had
+personal experience as experimenters, it will be appreciated that the
+great difficulty of the problem lies in the fact that it contains so
+many variable elements. And in fact the great length of time consumed in
+making each single experiment was caused by the difficulty of holding
+eleven variables constant and uniform throughout the experiment, while
+the effect of the twelfth variable was being investigated. Holding the
+eleven variables constant was far more difficult than the investigation
+of the twelfth element.
+
+As, one after another, the effect upon the cutting speed of each of
+these variables was investigated, in order that practical use could be
+made of this knowledge, it was necessary to find a mathematical formula
+which expressed in concise form the laws which had been obtained. As
+examples of the twelve formulae which were developed, the three
+following are given:
+
+        P = 45,000  D 14/15 F 3/4
+
+        V = 90/T 1/8
+
+        V = 11.9/ (F 0.665(48/3 D) 0.2373 + (2.4 / (18 + 24D))
+
+After these laws had been investigated and the various formulae which
+mathematically expressed them had been determined, there still remained
+the difficult task of how to solve one of these complicated mathematical
+problems quickly enough to make this knowledge available for every-day
+use. If a good mathematician who had these formula before him were to
+attempt to get the proper answer (i.e., to get the correct cutting speed
+and feed by working in the ordinary way) it would take him from two to
+six hours, say, to solve a single problem; far longer to solve the
+mathematical problem than would be taken in most cases by the workmen in
+doing the whole job in his machine. Thus a task of considerable
+magnitude which faced us was that of finding a quick solution of this
+problem, and as we made progress in its solution, the whole problem was
+from time to time presented by the writer to one after another of the
+noted mathematicians in this country. They were offered any reasonable
+fee for a rapid, practical method to be used in its solution. Some of
+these men merely glanced at it; others, for the sake of being courteous,
+kept it before them for some two or three weeks. They all gave us
+practically the same answer: that in many cases it was possible to,
+solve mathematical problems which contained four variables, and in some
+cases problems with five or six variables, but that it was manifestly
+impossible to solve a problem containing twelve variables in any other
+way than by the slow process of "trial and error."
+
+A quick solution was, however, so much of a necessity in our every-day
+work of running machine-shops, that in spite of the small encouragement
+received from the mathematicians, we continued at irregular periods,
+through a term of fifteen years, to give a large amount of time
+searching for a simple solution. Four or five men at various periods
+gave practically their whole time to this work, and finally, while we
+were at the Bethlehem Steel Company, the slide-rule was developed which
+is illustrated on Folder No. 11 of the paper "On the Art of Cutting
+Metals," and is described in detail in the paper presented by Mr. Carl
+G. Barth to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, entitled
+"Slide-rules for the Machine-shop, as a part of the Taylor System of
+Management" (Vol. XXV of The Transactions of the American Society of
+Mechanical Engineers). By means of this slide-rule, one of these
+intricate problems can be solved in less than a half minute by any good
+mechanics whether he understands anything about mathematics or not, thus
+making available for every-day, practical use the years of experimenting
+on the art of cutting metals. This is a good illustration of the fact
+that some way can always be found of making practical, everyday use of
+complicated scientific data, which appears to be beyond the experience
+and the range of the technical training of ordinary practical men. These
+slide-rules have been for years in constant daily use by machinists
+having no knowledge of mathematics.
+
+A glance at the intricate mathematical formula (see page 109) which
+represent the laws of cutting metals should clearly show the reason why
+it is impossible for any machinist, without the aid of these laws, and
+who depends upon his personal experience, correctly to guess at the
+answer to the two questions,
+
+    What speed shall I use?
+
+    What feed shall I use?
+
+even though he may repeat the same piece of work many times.
+
+To return to the case of the machinist who had been working for ten to
+twelve years in machining the same pieces over and over again, there was
+but a remote chance in any of the various kinds of work which this man
+did that he should hit upon the one best method of doing each piece of
+work out of the hundreds of possible methods which lay before him. In
+considering this typical case, it must also be remembered that the
+metal-cutting machines throughout our machine-shops have practically all
+been speeded by their makers by guesswork, and without the knowledge
+obtained through a study of the art of cutting metals. In the
+machine-shops systematized by us we have found that there is not one
+machine in a hundred which is speeded by its makers at anywhere near the
+correct cutting speed. So that, in order to compete with the science of
+cutting metals, the machinist, before he could use proper speeds, would
+first have to put new pulleys on the countershaft of his machine, and
+also make in most cases changes in the shapes and treatment of his
+tools, etc. Many of these changes are matters entirely beyond his
+control, even if he knows what ought to be done.
+
+If the reason is clear to the reader why the rule-of-thumb knowledge
+obtained by the machinist who is engaged on repeat work cannot possibly
+compete with the true science of cutting metals, it should be even more
+apparent why the high-class mechanic, who is called upon to do a great
+variety of work from day to day, is even less able to compete with this
+science. The high-class mechanic who does a different kind of work each
+day, in order to do each job in the quickest time, would need, in
+addition to a thorough knowledge of the art of cutting metals, a vast
+knowledge and experience in the quickest way of doing each kind of hand
+work. And the reader, by calling to mind the gain which was made by Mr.
+Gilbreth through his motion and time study in laying bricks, will
+appreciate the great possibilities for quicker methods of doing all
+kinds of hand work which lie before every tradesman after he has the
+help which comes from a scientific motion and time study of his work.
+
+For nearly thirty years past, time-study men connected with the
+management of machine-shops have been devoting their whole time to a
+scientific motion study, followed by accurate time study, with a
+stop-watch, of all of the elements connected with the machinist's work.
+When, therefore, the teachers, who form one section of the management,
+and who are cooperating with the working men, are in possession both of
+the science of cutting metals and of the equally elaborate motion-study
+and time-study science connected with this work, it is not difficult to
+appreciate why even the highest class mechanic is unable to do his best
+work without constant daily assistance from his teachers. And if this
+fact has been made clear to the reader, one of the important objects in
+writing this paper will have been realized.
+
+It is hoped that the illustrations which have been given make it
+apparent why scientific management must inevitably in all cases produce
+overwhelmingly greater results, both for the company and its employees,
+than can be obtained with the management of "initiative and incentive."
+And it should also be clear that these results have been attained, not
+through a marked superiority in the mechanism of one type of management
+over the mechanism of another, but rather through the substitution of
+one set of underlying principles for a totally different set of
+principles, by the substitution of one philosophy for another philosophy
+in industrial management.
+
+To repeat them throughout all of these illustrations, it will be seen
+that the useful results have hinged mainly upon (1) the substitution of
+a science for the individual judgment of the workman; (2) the scientific
+selection and development of the workman, after each man has been
+studied, taught, and trained, and one may say experimented with, instead
+of allowing the workmen to select themselves and develop in a haphazard
+way; and (3) the intimate cooperation of the management with the
+workmen, so that they together do the work in accordance with the
+scientific laws which have been developed, instead of leaving the
+solution of each problem in the hands of the individual workman. In
+applying these new principles, in place of the old individual effort of
+each workman, both sides share almost equally in the daily performance
+of each task, the management doing that part of the work for which they
+are best fitted, and the workmen the balance.
+
+It is for the illustration of this philosophy that this paper has been
+written, but some of the elements involved in its general principles
+should be further discussed.
+
+The development of a science sounds like a formidable undertaking, and
+in fact anything like a thorough study of a science such as that of
+cutting metals necessarily involves many years of work. The science of
+cutting metals, however, represents in its complication, and in the time
+required to develop it, almost an extreme case in the mechanic arts. Yet
+even in this very intricate science, within a few months after starting,
+enough knowledge had been obtained to much more than pay for the work of
+experimenting. This holds true in the case of practically all scientific
+development in the mechanic arts. The first laws developed for cutting
+metals were crude, and contained only a partial knowledge of the truth,
+yet this imperfect knowledge was vastly better than the utter lack of
+exact information or the very imperfect rule of thumb which existed
+before, and it enabled the workmen, with the help of the management, to
+do far quicker and better work.
+
+For example, a very short time was needed to discover one or two types
+of tools which, though imperfect as compared with the shapes developed
+years afterward, were superior to all other shapes and kinds in common
+use. These tools were adopted as standard and made possible an immediate
+increase in the speed of every machinist who used them. These types were
+superseded in a comparatively short time by still other tools which
+remained standard until they in their turn made way for later
+improvements.*
+
+[*Footnote: Time and again the experimenter in the mechanic arts will
+find himself face to face with the problem as to whether he had better
+make immediate practical use of the knowledge which he has attained, or
+wait until some positive finality in his conclusions has been reached.
+He recognizes clearly the fact that he has already made some definite
+progress, but sees the possibility (even the probability) of still
+further improvement. Each particular case must of course be
+independently considered, but the general conclusion we have reached is
+that in most instances it is wise to put one's conclusions as soon as
+possible to the rigid test of practical use. The one indispensable
+condition for such a test, however, is that the experimenter shall have
+full opportunity, coupled with sufficient authority, to insure a
+thorough and impartial trial. And this, owing to the almost universal
+prejudice in favor of the old, and to the suspicion of the new, is
+difficult to get.]
+
+The science which exists in most of the mechanic arts is, however, far
+simpler than the science of cutting metals. In almost all cases, in
+fact, the laws or rules which are developed are so simple that the
+average man would hardly dignify them with the name of a science. In
+most trades, the science is developed through a comparatively simple
+analysis and time study of the movements required by the workmen to do
+some small part of his work, and this study is usually made by a man
+equipped merely with a stop-watch and a properly ruled notebook.
+Hundreds of these "time-study men" are now engaged in developing
+elementary scientific knowledge where before existed only rule of thumb.
+Even the motion study of Mr. Gilbreth in bricklaying (described on pages
+77 to 84) involves a much more elaborate investigation than that which
+occurs in most cases. The general steps to be taken in developing a
+simple law of this class are as follows:
+
+First. Find, say, 10 or 15 different men (preferably in as many separate
+establishments and different parts of the country) who are especially
+skilful in doing the particular work to be analyzed.
+
+Second. Study the exact series of elementary operations or motions which
+each of these men uses in doing the work which is being investigated, as
+well as the implements each man uses.
+
+Third. Study with a stop-watch the time required to make each of these
+elementary movements and then select the quickest way of doing each
+element of the work.
+
+Fourth. Eliminate all false movements, slow movements, and useless
+movements.
+
+Fifth. After doing away with all unnecessary movements, collect into one
+series the quickest and best movements as well as the best implements.
+
+This one new method, involving that series of motions which can be made
+quickest and best, is then substituted in place of the ten or fifteen
+inferior series which were formerly in use. This best method becomes
+standard, and remains standard, to be taught first to the teachers (or
+functional foremen) and by them to every workman in the establishment
+until it is superseded by a quicker and better series of movements. In
+this simple way one element after another of the science is developed.
+
+In the same way each type of implement used in a trade is studied. Under
+the philosophy of the management of "initiative and incentive" each
+work-man is called upon to use his own best judgment, so as to do the
+work in the quickest time, and from this results in all cases a large
+variety in the shapes and types of implements which are used for any
+specific purpose. Scientific management requires, first, a careful
+investigation of each of the many modifications of the same implement,
+developed under rule of thumb; and second, after a time study has been
+made of the speed attainable with each of these implements, that the
+good points of several of them shall be united in a single standard
+implement, which will enable the workman to work faster and with greater
+ease than he could before. This one implement, then, is adopted as
+standard in place of the many different kinds before in use, and it
+remains standard for all workmen to use until superseded by an implement
+which has been shown, through motion and time study, to be still better.
+
+With this explanation it will be seen that the development of a science
+to replace rule of thumb is in most cases by no means a formidable
+under-taking, and that it can be accomplished by ordinary, every-day men
+without any elaborate scientific training; but that, on the other hand,
+the successful use of even the simplest improvement of this kind calls
+for records, system, and cooperation where in the past existed only
+individual effort.
+
+There is another type of scientific investigation which has been
+referred to several times in this paper, and which should receive
+special attention, namely, the accurate study of the motives which
+influence men. At first it may appear that this is a matter for
+individual observation and judgment, and is not a proper subject for
+exact scientific experiments. It is true that the laws which result from
+experiments of this class, owing to the fact that the very complex
+organism--the human being--is being experimented with, are subject to a
+larger number of exceptions than is the case with laws relating to
+material things. And yet laws of this kind, which apply to a large
+majority of men, unquestionably exist, and when clearly defined are of
+great value as a guide in dealing with men. In developing these laws,
+accurate, carefully planned and executed experiments, extending through
+a term of years, have been made, similar in a general way to the
+experiments upon various other elements which have been referred to in
+this paper. Perhaps the most important law belonging to this class, in
+its relation to scientific management, is the effect which the task idea
+has upon the efficiency of the workman. This, in fact, has become such
+an important element of the mechanism of scientific management, that by
+a great number of people scientific management has come to be known as
+"task management."
+
+There is absolutely nothing new in the task idea. Each one of us will
+remember that in his own case this idea was applied with good results in
+his school-boy days. No efficient teacher would think of giving a class
+of students an indefinite lesson to learn. Each day a definite,
+clear-cut task is set by the teacher before each scholar, stating that
+he must learn just so much of the subject; and it is only by this means
+that proper, systematic progress can be made by the students. The
+average boy would go very slowly if, instead of being given a task, he
+were told to do as much as he could. All of us are grown-up children,
+and it is equally true that the average workman will work with the
+greatest satisfaction, both to himself and to his employer, when he is
+given each day a definite task which he is to perform in a given time,
+and which constitutes a proper day's work for a good workman. This
+furnishes the workman with a clear-cut standard, by which he can
+throughout the day measure his own progress, and the accomplishment of
+which affords him the greatest satisfaction.
+
+The writer has described in other papers a series of experiments made
+upon workmen, which have resulted in demonstrating the fact that it is
+impossible, through any long period of time, to get work-men to work
+much harder than the average men around them, unless they are assured a
+large and a permanent increase in their pay. This series of experiments,
+however, also proved that plenty of workmen can be found who are willing
+to work at their best speed, provided they are given this liberal
+increase in wages. The workman must, however, be fully assured that this
+increase beyond the average is to be permanent. Our experiments have
+shown that the exact percentage of increase required to make a workman
+work at his highest speed depends upon the kind of work which the man is
+doing.
+
+It is absolutely necessary, then, when workmen are daily given a task
+which calls for a high rate of speed on their part, that they should
+also be insured the necessary high rate of pay whenever they are
+successful. This involves not only fixing for each man his daily task,
+but also paying him a large bonus, or premium, each time that he
+succeeds in doing his task in the given time. It is difficult to
+appreciate in full measure the help which the proper use of these two
+elements is to the workman in elevating him to the highest standard of
+efficiency and speed in his trade, and then keeping him there, unless
+one has seen first the old plan and afterward the new tried upon the
+same man. And in fact until one has seen similar accurate experiments
+made upon various grades of workmen engaged in doing widely different
+types of work. The remarkable and almost uniformly good results from the
+correct application of the task and the bonus must be seen to be
+appreciated.
+
+These two elements, the task and the bonus (which, as has been pointed
+out in previous papers, can be applied in several ways), constitute two
+of the most important elements of the mechanism of scientific
+management. They are especially important from the fact that they are,
+as it were, a climax, demanding before they can be used almost all of
+the other elements of the mechanism; such as a planning department,
+accurate time study, standardization of methods and implements, a
+routing system, the training of functional foremen or teachers, and in
+many cases instruction cards slide-rules, etc. (Referred to later in
+rather more detail on page 129.)
+
+The necessity for systematically teaching workmen how to work to the
+best advantage has been several times referred to. It seems desirable,
+therefore, to explain in rather more detail how this teaching is done.
+In the case of a machine-shop which is managed under the modern system,
+detailed written instructions as to the best way of doing each piece of
+work are prepared in advance, by men in the planning department. These
+instructions represent the combined work of several men in the planning
+room, each of whom has his own specialty, or function. One of them, for
+instance, is a specialist on the proper speeds and cutting tools to be
+used. He uses the slide-rules which have been above described as an aid,
+to guide him in obtaining proper speeds, etc. Another man analyzes the
+best and quickest motions to be made by the workman in setting the work
+up in the machine and removing it, etc. Still a third, through the
+time-study records which have been accumulated, makes out a timetable
+giving the proper speed for doing each element of the work. The
+directions of all of these men, however, are written on a single
+instruction card, or sheet.
+
+These men of necessity spend most of their time in the planning
+department, because they must be close to the records and data which
+they continually use in their work, and because this work requires the
+use of a desk and freedom from interruption. Human nature is such,
+however, that many of the workmen, if left to themselves, would pay but
+little attention to their written instructions. It is necessary,
+therefore, to provide teachers (called functional foremen) to see that
+the workmen both understand and carry out these written instructions.
+
+Under functional management, the old-fashioned single foreman is
+superseded by eight different men, each one of whom has his own special
+duties, and these men, acting as the agents for the planning department
+(see paragraph 234 to 245 of the paper entitled "Shop Management"), are
+the expert teachers, who are at all times in the shop, helping, and
+directing the workmen. Being each one chosen for his knowledge and
+personal skill in his specialty, they are able not only to tell the
+workman what he should do, but in case of necessity they do the work
+themselves in the presence of the workman, so as to show him not only
+the best but also the quickest methods.
+
+One of these teachers (called the inspector) sees to it that he
+understands the drawings and instructions for doing the work. He teaches
+him how to do work of the right quality; how to make it fine and exact
+where it should be fine, and rough and quick where accuracy is not
+required,--the one being just as important for success as the other. The
+second teacher (the gang boss) shows him how to set up the job in his
+machine, and teaches him to make all of his personal motions in the
+quickest and best way. The third (the speed boss) sees that the machine
+is run at the best speed and that the proper tool is used in the
+particular way which will enable the machine to finish its product in
+the shortest possible time. In addition to the assistance given by these
+teachers, the workman receives orders and help from four other men; from
+the "repair boss" as to the adjustment, cleanliness, and general care of
+his machine, belting, etc.; from the "time clerk," as to everything
+relating to his pay and to proper written reports and returns; from the
+"route clerk," as to the order in which he does his work and as to the
+movement of the work from one part of the shop to another; and, in case
+a workman gets into any trouble with any of his various bosses, the
+"disciplinarian" interviews him.
+
+It must be understood, of course, that all workmen engaged on the same
+kind of work do not require the same amount of individual teaching and
+attention from the functional foremen. The men who are new at a given
+operation naturally require far more teaching and watching than those
+who have been a long time at the same kind of jobs.
+
+Now, when through all of this teaching and this minute instruction the
+work is apparently made so smooth and easy for the workman, the first
+impression is that this all tends to make him a mere automaton, a wooden
+man. As the workmen frequently say when they first come under this
+system, "Why, I am not allowed to think or move without some one
+interfering or doing it for me!" The same criticism and objection,
+however, can be raised against all other modern subdivision of labor. It
+does not follow, for example, that the modern surgeon is any more narrow
+or wooden a man than the early settler of this country. The
+frontiersman, however, had to be not only a surgeon, but also an
+architect, house-builder, lumberman, farmer, soldier, and doctor, and he
+had to settle his law cases with a gun. You would hardly say that the
+life of the modern surgeon is any more narrowing, or that he is more of
+a wooden man than the frontiersman. The many problems to be met and
+solved by the surgeon are just as intricate and difficult and as
+developing and broadening in their way as were those of the
+frontiersman.
+
+And it should be remembered that the training of the surgeon has been
+almost identical in type with the teaching and training which is given
+to the workman under scientific management. The surgeon, all through his
+early years, is under the closest supervision of more experienced men,
+who show him in the minutest way how each element of his work is best
+done. They provide him with the finest implements, each one of which has
+been the subject of special study and development, and then insist upon
+his using each of these implements in the very best way. All of this
+teaching, however, in no way narrows him. On the contrary he is quickly
+given the very best knowledge of his predecessors; and, provided (as he
+is, right from the start) with standard implements and methods which
+represent the best knowledge of the world up to date, he is able to use
+his own originality and ingenuity to make real additions to the world's
+knowledge, instead of reinventing things which are old. In a similar way
+the workman who is cooperating with his many teachers under scientific
+management has an opportunity to develop which is at least as good as
+and generally better than that which he had when the whole problem was
+"up to him" and he did his work entirely unaided.
+
+If it were true that the workman would develop into a larger and finer
+man without all of this teaching, and without the help of the laws which
+have been formulated for doing his particular job, then it would follow
+that the young man who now comes to college to have the help of a
+teacher in mathematics, physics, chemistry, Latin, Greek, etc., would do
+better to study these things unaided and by himself. The only difference
+in the two cases is that students come to their teachers, while from the
+nature of the work done by the mechanic under scientific management, the
+teachers must go to him. What really happens is that, with the aid of
+the science which is invariably developed, and through the instructions
+from his teachers, each workman of a given intellectual capacity is
+enabled to do a much higher, more interesting, and finally more
+developing and more profitable kind of work than he was before able to
+do. The laborer who before was unable to do anything beyond, perhaps,
+shoveling and wheeling dirt from place to place, or carrying the work
+from one part of the shop to another, is in many cases taught to do the
+more elementary machinist's work, accompanied by the agreeable
+surroundings and the interesting variety and higher wages which go with
+the machinist's trade. The cheap machinist or helper, who before was
+able to run perhaps merely a drill press, is taught to do the more
+intricate and higher priced lathe and planer work, while the highly
+skilled and more intelligent machinists become functional foremen and
+teachers. And so on, right up the line.
+
+It may seem that with scientific management there is not the same
+incentive for the workman to use his ingenuity in devising new and
+better methods of doing the work, as well as in improving his
+implements, that there is with the old type of management. It is true
+that with scientific management the workman is not allowed to use
+whatever implements and methods he sees fit in the daily practice of his
+work. Every encouragement, however, should be given him to suggest
+improvements, both in methods and in implements. And whenever a workman
+proposes an improvement, it should be the policy of the management to
+make a careful analysis of the new method, and if necessary conduct a
+series of experiments to determine accurately the relative merit of the
+new suggestion and of the old standard. And whenever the new method is
+found to be markedly superior to the old, it should be adopted as the
+standard for the whole establishment. The workman should be given the
+full credit for the improvement, and should be paid a cash premium as a
+reward for his ingenuity. In this way the true initiative of the workmen
+is better attained under scientific management than under the old
+individual plan.
+
+The history of the development of scientific, management up to date,
+however, calls for a word of warning. The mechanism of management must
+not be mistaken for its essence, or underlying philosophy. Precisely the
+same mechanism will in one case produce disastrous results and in
+another the most beneficent. The same mechanism which will produce the
+finest results when made to serve the underlying principles of
+scientific management, will lead to failure and disaster if accompanied
+by the wrong spirit in those who are using it. Hundreds of people have
+already mistaken the mechanism of this system for its essence. Messrs.
+Gantt, Barth and the writer have presented papers to, the American
+Society of Mechanical Engineers on the subject of scientific management.
+In these papers the mechanism which is used has been described at some
+length. As elements of this mechanism may be cited:
+
+Time study, with the implements and methods for properly making it.
+
+Functional or divided foremanship and its superiority to the
+old-fashioned single foreman.
+
+The standardization of all tools and implements used in the trades, and
+also of the acts or movements of workmen for each class of work.
+
+The desirability of a planning room or department.
+
+The "exception principle" in management.
+
+The use of slide-rules and similar timesaving implements.
+
+Instruction cards for the workman.
+
+The task idea in management, accompanied by a large bonus for the
+successful performance of the task.
+
+The "differential rate."
+
+Mnemonic systems for classifying manufactured products as well as
+implements used in manufacturing.
+
+A routing system.
+
+Modern cost system, etc., etc.
+
+These are, however, merely the elements or details of the mechanism of
+management. Scientific management, in its essence, consists of a certain
+philosophy, which results, as before stated, in a combination of the
+four great underlying principles of management:*
+
+[*Footnote: First. The development of a true science.
+Second. The scientific selection of the workman.
+Third. His scientific education and development.
+Fourth. Intimate friendly cooperation between the management and the men.]
+
+When, however the elements of this mechanism, such as time study,
+functional foremanship etc., are used without being accompanied by the
+true philosophy of management, the results are in many cases disastrous.
+And, unfortunately, even when men who are thoroughly in sympathy with
+the principles of scientific management undertake to change too rapidly
+from the old type to the new, without heeding the warnings of those who
+have had years of experience in making this change, they frequently meet
+with serious troubles, and sometimes with strikes, followed by failure.
+
+The writer, in his paper on "Shop Management," has called especial
+attention to the risks which managers run in attempting to change
+rapidly from the old to the new management in many cases, however, this
+warning has not been heeded. The physical changes which are needed, the
+actual time study which has to be made, the standardization of all
+implements connected with the work, the necessity for individually
+studying each machine and placing it in perfect order, all take time,
+but the faster these elements of the work are studied and improved, the
+better for the undertaking. On the other hand, the really great problem
+involved in a change from the management of "initiative and incentive"
+to scientific management consists in a complete revolution in the mental
+attitude and the habits of all of those engaged in the management, as
+well of the workmen. And this change can be brought about only gradually
+and through the presentation of many object-lessons to the workman,
+which, together with the teaching which he receives, thoroughly convince
+him of the superiority of the new over the old way of doing the work.
+This change in the mental attitude of the workman imperatively demands
+time. It is impossible to hurry it beyond a certain speed. The writer
+has over and over again warned those who contemplated making this change
+that it was a matter, even in a simple establishment, of from two to
+three years, and that in some cases it requires from four to five years.
+
+The first few changes which affect the workmen should be made
+exceedingly slowly, and only one workman at a time should be dealt with
+at the start. Until this single man has been thoroughly convinced that a
+great gain has come to him from the new method, no further change should
+be made. Then one man after another should be tactfully changed over.
+After passing the point at which from one.-fourth to one-third of the
+men in the employ of the company have been changed from the old to the
+new, very rapid progress can be made, because at about this time there
+is, generally, a complete revolution in the public opinion of the whole
+establishment and practically all of the workmen who are working under
+the old system become desirous to share in the benefits which they see
+have been received by those working under the new plan.
+
+Inasmuch as the writer has personally retired from the business of
+introducing this system of management (that is, from all work done in
+return for any money compensation), he does not hesitate again to
+emphasize the fact that those companies are indeed fortunate who can
+secure the services of experts who have had the necessary practical
+experience in introducing scientific management, and who have made a
+special study of its principles. It is not enough that a man should have
+been a manager in an establishment which is run under the new
+principles. The man who undertakes to direct the steps to be taken in
+changing from the old to the new (particularly in any establishment
+doing elaborate work) must have had personal experience in overcoming
+the especial difficulties which are always met with, and which are
+peculiar to this period of transition. It is for this reason that the
+writer expects to devote the rest of his life chiefly to trying to help
+those who wish to take up this work as their profession, and to advising
+the managers and owners of companies in general as to the steps which
+they should take in making this change.
+
+As a warning to those who contemplate adopting scientific management,
+the following instance is given. Several men who lacked the extended
+experience which is required to change without danger of strikes, or
+without interference with the success of the business, from the
+management of "initiative and incentive" to scientific management,
+attempted rapidly to increase the output in quite an elaborate
+establishment, employing between three thousand and four thousand men.
+Those who undertook to make this change were men of unusual ability, and
+were at the same time enthusiasts and I think had the interests of the
+workmen truly at heart. They were, however, warned by the writer, before
+starting, that they must go exceedingly slowly, and that the work of
+making the change in this establishment could not be done in less than
+from three to five years. This warning they entirely disregarded. They
+evidently believed that by using much of the mechanism of scientific
+management, in combination with the principles of the management of
+"initiative and incentive," instead of with these principles of
+scientific management, that they could do, in a year or two, what had
+been proved in the past to require at least double this time. The
+knowledge obtained from accurate time study, for example, is a powerful
+implement, and can be used, in one case to promote harmony between the
+workmen and the management, by gradually educating, training, and
+leading the workmen into new and better methods of doing the work, or,
+in the other case, it may be used more or less as a club to drive the
+workmen into doing a larger day's work for approximately the same pay
+that they received in the past. Unfortunately the men who had charge of
+this work did not take the time and the trouble required to train
+functional foremen, or teachers, who were fitted gradually to lead and
+educate the workmen. They attempted, through the old-style foreman,
+armed with his new weapon (accurate time study), to drive the workmen,
+against their wishes, and without much increase in pay, to work much
+harder, instead of gradually teaching and leading them toward new
+methods, and convincing them through object-lessons that task management
+means for them somewhat harder work, but also far greater prosperity.
+The result of all this disregard of fundamental principles was a series
+of strikes, followed by the down-fall of the men who attempted to make
+the change, and by a return to conditions throughout the establishment
+far worse than those which existed before the effort was made.
+
+This instance is cited as an object-lesson of the futility of using the
+mechanism of the new management while leaving out its essence, and also
+of trying to shorten a necessarily long operation in entire disregard of
+past experience. It should be emphasized that the men who undertook this
+work were both able and earnest, and that failure was not due to lack of
+ability on their part, but to their undertaking to do the impossible.
+These particular men will not again make a similar mistake, and it is
+hoped that their experience may act as a warning to others.
+
+In this connection, however, it is proper to again state that during the
+thirty years that we have been engaged in introducing scientific
+management there has not been a single strike from those who were
+working in accordance with its principles, even during the critical
+period when the change was being made from the old to the new. If proper
+methods are used by men who have had experience in this work, there is
+absolutely no danger from strikes or other troubles.
+
+The writer would again insist that in no case should the managers of an
+establishment ', the work of which is elaborate, undertake to change
+from the old to the new type unless the directors of the company fully
+understand and believe in the fundamental principles of scientific
+management and unless they appreciate all that is involved in making
+this change, particularly the time required, and unless they want
+scientific management greatly.
+
+Doubtless some of those who are especially interested in working men
+will complain because under scientific management the workman, when he
+is shown how to do twice as much work as he formerly did, is not paid
+twice his former wages, while others who are more interested in the
+dividends than the workmen will complain that under this system the men
+receive much higher wages than they did before.
+
+It does seem grossly unjust when the bare statement is made that the
+competent pig-iron handler, for instance, who has been so trained that
+he piles 3 6/10 times as much iron as the incompetent man formerly did,
+should receive an increase of only 60 per cent in wages.
+
+It is not fair, however, to form any final judgment until all of the
+elements in the case have been considered. At the first glance we see
+only two parties to the transaction, the workmen and their employers. We
+overlook the third great party, the whole people,--the consumers, who
+buy the product of the first two and who ultimately pay both the wages
+of the workmen and the profits of the employers.
+
+The rights of the people are therefore greater than those of either
+employer or employee. And this third great party should be given its
+proper share of any gain. In fact, a glance at industrial history shows
+that in the end the whole people receive the greater part of the benefit
+coming from industrial improvements. In the past hundred years, for
+example, the greatest factor tending toward increasing the output, and
+thereby the prosperity of the civilized world, has been the introduction
+of machinery to replace hand labor. And without doubt the greatest gain
+through this change has come to the whole people--the consumer.
+
+Through short periods, especially in the case of patented apparatus, the
+dividends of those who have introduced new machinery have been greatly
+increased, and in many cases, though unfortunately not universally, the
+employees have obtained materially higher wages, shorter hours, and
+better working conditions. But in the end the major part of the gain has
+gone to the whole people.
+
+And this result will follow the introduction of scientific management
+just as surely as it has the introduction of machinery.
+
+To return to the case of the pig-iron handler. We must assume, then,
+that the larger part of the gain which has come from his great increase
+in output will in the end go to the people in the form of cheaper
+pig-iron. And before deciding upon how the balance is to be divided
+between the workmen and the employer, as to what is just and fair
+compensation for the man who does the piling and what should be left for
+the company as profit, we must look at the matter from all sides.
+
+First. As we have before stated, the pig-iron handler is not an
+extraordinary man difficult to find, he is merely a man more or less of
+the type of the ox, heavy both mentally and physically.
+
+Second. The work which this man does tires him no more than any healthy
+normal laborer is tired by a proper day's work. (If this man is
+overtired by his work, then the task has been wrongly set and this is as
+far as possible from the object of scientific management.)
+
+Third. It was not due to this man's initiative or originality that he
+did his big day's work, but to the knowledge of the science of pig-iron
+handling developed and taught him by some one else.
+
+Fourth. It is just and fair that men of the same general grade (when
+their all-round capacities are considered) should be paid about the same
+wages when they are all working to the best of their abilities. (It
+would be grossly unjust to other laborers, for instance, to pay this man
+3 6/10 as high wages as other men of his general grade receive for an
+honest full day's work.)
+
+Fifth. As is explained (page 74), the 60 per cent increase in pay which
+he received was not the result of an arbitrary judgment of a foreman or
+superintendent, it was the result of a long series of careful
+experiments impartially made to determine what compensation is really
+for the man's true and best interest when all things are considered.
+
+Thus we see that the pig-iron handler with his 60 per cent increase in
+wages is not an object for pity but rather a subject for congratulation.
+
+After all, however, facts are in many cases more convincing than
+opinions or theories, and it is a significant fact that those workmen
+who have come under this system during the past thirty years have
+invariably been satisfied with the increase in pay, which they have
+received, while their employers have been equally pleased with their
+increase in dividends.
+
+The writer is one of those who believes that more and more will the
+third party (the whole people), as it becomes acquainted with the true
+facts, insist that justice shall be done to all three parties. It will
+demand the largest efficiency from both employers and employees. It will
+no longer tolerate the type of employer who has his eye on dividends
+alone, who refuses to do his full share of the work and who merely
+cracks his whip over the heads of his workmen and attempts to drive them
+into harder work for low pay. No more will it tolerate tyranny on the
+part of labor which demands one increase after another in pay and
+shorter hours while at the same time it becomes less instead of more
+efficient.
+
+And the means which the writer firmly believes will be adopted to bring
+about, first, efficiency both in employer and employs and then an
+equitable division of the profits of their joint efforts will be
+scientific management, which has for its sole aim the attainment of
+justice for all three parties through impartial scientific investigation
+of all the elements of the problem. For a time both sides will rebel
+against this advance. The workers will resent any interference with
+their old rule-of-thumb methods, and the management will resent being
+asked to take on new duties and burdens; but in the end the people
+through enlightened public opinion will force the new order of things
+upon both employer and employee.
+
+It will doubtless be claimed that in all that has been said no new fact
+has been brought to light that was not known to some one in the past.
+Very likely this is true. Scientific management does not necessarily
+involve any great invention, nor the discovery of new or startling
+facts. It does, however, involve a certain combination of elements which
+have not existed in the past, namely, old knowledge so collected,
+analyzed, grouped, and classified into laws and rules that it
+constitutes a science; accompanied by a complete change in the mental
+attitude of the working men as well as of those on the side of the
+management, toward each other, and toward their respective duties and
+responsibilities. Also, a new division of the duties between the two
+sides and intimate, friendly cooperation to an extent that is impossible
+under the philosophy of the old management. And even all of this in many
+cases could not exist without the help of mechanisms which have been
+gradually developed.
+
+It is no single element, but rather this whole combination, that
+constitutes scientific management, which may be summarized as:
+
+  Science, not rule of thumb.
+  Harmony, not discord.
+  Cooperation, not individualism.
+  Maximum output, in place of restricted output.
+  The development of each man to his greatest efficiency and prosperity.
+
+The writer wishes to again state that: "The time is fast going by for
+the great personal or individual achievement of any one man standing
+alone and without the help of those around him. And the time is coming
+when all great things will be done by that type of cooperation in which
+each man performs the function for which he is best suited, each man
+preserves his own individuality and is supreme in his particular
+function, and each man at the same time loses none of his originality
+and proper personal initiative, and yet is controlled by and must work
+harmoniously with many other men."
+
+The examples given above of the increase in output realized under the
+new management fairly represent the gain which is possible. They do not
+represent extraordinary or exceptional cases, and have been selected
+from among thousands of similar illustrations which might have been
+given.
+
+Let us now examine the good which would follow the general adoption of
+these principles.
+
+The larger profit would come to the whole world in general.
+
+The greatest material gain which those of the present generation have
+over past generations has come from the fact that the average man in
+this generation, with a given expenditure of effort, is producing two
+times, three times, even four times as much of those things that are of
+use to man as it was possible for the average man in the past to
+produce. This increase in the productivity of human effort is, of
+course, due to many causes, besides the increase in the personal
+dexterity of the man. It is due to the discovery of steam and
+electricity, to the introduction of machinery, to inventions, great and
+small, and to the progress in science and education. But from whatever
+cause this increase in productivity has come, it is to the greater
+productivity of each individual that the whole country owes its greater
+prosperity.
+
+Those who are afraid that a large increase in the productivity of each
+workman will throw other men out of work, should realize that the one
+element more than any other which differentiates civilized from
+uncivilized countries--prosperous from poverty--stricken peoples--is
+that the average man in the one is five or six times as productive as
+the other. It is also a fact that the chief cause for the large
+percentage of the unemployed in England (perhaps the most virile nation
+in the world), is that the workmen of England, more than in any other
+civilized country, are deliberately restricting their output because
+they are possessed by the fallacy that it is against their best interest
+for each man to work as hard as he can.
+
+The general adoption of scientific management would readily in the
+future double the productivity of the average man engaged in industrial
+work. Think of what this means to the whole country. Think of the
+increase, both in the necessities and luxuries of life, which becomes
+available for the whole country, of the possibility of shortening the
+hours of labor when this is desirable, and of the increased
+opportunities for education, culture, and recreation which this implies.
+But while the whole world would profit by this increase in production,
+the manufacturer and the workman will be far more interested in the
+especial local gain that comes to them and to the people immediately
+around them. Scientific management will mean, for the employers and the
+workmen who adopt it--and particularly for those who adopt it first--the
+elimination of almost all causes for dispute and disagreement between
+them. What constitutes a fair day's work will be a question for
+scientific investigation, instead of a subject to be bargained and
+haggled over. Soldiering will cease because the object for soldiering
+will no longer exist. The great increase in wages which accompanies this
+type of management will largely eliminate the wage question as a source
+of dispute. But more than all other causes, the close, intimate
+cooperation, the constant personal contact between the two sides, will
+tend to diminish friction and discontent. It is difficult for two people
+whose interests are the same, and who work side by side in accomplishing
+the same object, all day long, to keep up a quarrel.
+
+The low cost of production which accompanies a doubling of the output
+will enable the companies who adopt this management, particularly those
+who adopt it first, to compete far better than they were able to before,
+and this will so enlarge their markets that their men will have almost
+constant work even in dull times, and that they will earn larger profits
+at all times.
+
+This means increase in prosperity and diminution in poverty, not only
+for their men but for the whole community immediately around them.
+
+As one of the elements incident to this great gain in output, each
+workman has been systematically trained to his highest state of
+efficiency, and has been taught to do a higher class of work than he was
+able to do under the old types of management; and at the same time he
+has acquired a friendly mental attitude toward his employers and his
+whole working conditions, whereas before a considerable part of his time
+was spent in criticism, suspicious watchfulness, and sometimes in open
+warfare. This direct gain to all of those working under the system is
+without doubt the most important single element in the whole problem.
+
+Is not the realization of results such as these of far more importance
+than the solution of most of the problems which are now agitating both
+the English and American peoples? And is it not the duty of those who
+are acquainted with these facts, to exert themselves to make the whole
+community realize this importance?
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+        
+            *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT ***
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