linguistics 1.0.8

data/examples/generalize_sentence.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+#!/usr/bin/ruby
+
+BEGIN {
+	require 'pathname'
+	
+	basedir = Pathname.new( __FILE__ ).dirname.parent.expand_path
+	libdir = basedir + "lib"
+	$LOAD_PATH.unshift( libdir ) unless $LOAD_PATH.include?( libdir )
+}
+
+require 'linguistics'
+require 'readline'
+
+Linguistics.use( :en, :installProxy => true )
+
+def generalized_word( word )
+	$deferr.puts "    Traversing hypernyms for #{word}"
+	syn = word.synset or return word
+	nyms = syn.traverse( :hypernyms )
+	return word if nyms.empty?
+
+	general_subj = nyms[ nyms.length / 4 ]
+	$deferr.puts "      %d synsets returned. Picking %d (%s)" % [
+		nyms.length,
+		nyms.length / 4,
+		general_subj.words.first,
+	]
+	return general_subj.words.first
+end
+
+while input = Readline.readline( "Sentence to generalize: " )
+	sent = input.sentence
+
+	subj = sent.subject
+	obj = sent.object
+	verb = sent.verb
+	
+	input.sub!( /\b#{subj}\b/, generalized_word(subj) ) if subj
+	input.sub!( /\b#{obj}\b/, generalized_word(obj) ) if obj
+	input.sub!( /\b#{verb}\b/, generalized_word(verb) ) if verb
+
+	puts input
+end
+
+
+

data/lib/linguistics.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,366 @@
+#!/usr/bin/ruby
+
+require 'linguistics/iso639'
+
+# A language-independent framework for adding linguistics functions to Ruby
+# classes.
+# 
+# == Synopsis
+# 
+#   require 'linguistics'
+#	Linguistics::use( :en )
+#	MyClass::extend( Linguistics )
+#
+# == Authors
+# 
+# * Michael Granger <ged@FaerieMUD.org>
+# 
+# :include: LICENSE
+#
+#--
+#
+# Please see the file LICENSE in the base directory for licensing details.
+#
+module Linguistics
+
+	### Class constants
+
+	# Release version
+	VERSION = '1.0.8'
+
+	# Language module implementors should do something like:
+	#   Linguistics::DefaultLanguages.push( :ja ) # or whatever
+	# so that direct requiring of a language module sets the default.
+	DefaultLanguages = []
+
+	# The list of Classes to add linguistic behaviours to.
+	DefaultExtClasses = [String, Numeric, Array]
+
+
+	#################################################################
+	###	I N F L E C T O R   C L A S S   F A C T O R Y
+	#################################################################
+
+	### A class which is inherited from by proxies for classes being extended
+	### with one or more linguistic interfaces. It provides on-the-fly creation
+	### of linguistic methods when the <tt>:installProxy</tt> option is passed
+	### to the call to Linguistics#use.
+	class LanguageProxyClass
+
+		### Class instance variable + accessor. Contains the module which knows
+		### the specifics of the language the languageProxy class is providing
+		### methods for.
+		@langmod = nil
+		class << self
+			attr_accessor :langmod
+		end
+
+
+		### Create a new LanguageProxy for the given +receiver+.
+		def initialize( receiver )
+			@receiver = receiver
+		end
+
+
+		######
+		public
+		######
+
+		### Overloaded to take into account the proxy method.
+		def respond_to?( sym )
+			self.class.langmod.respond_to?( sym ) || super
+		end
+
+
+		### Autoload linguistic methods defined in the module this object's
+		### class uses for inflection.
+		def method_missing( sym, *args, &block )
+			return super unless self.class.langmod.respond_to?( sym )
+
+			self.class.module_eval %{
+				def #{sym}( *args, &block )
+					self.class.langmod.#{sym}( @receiver, *args, &block )
+				end
+			}, "{Autoloaded: " + __FILE__ + "}", __LINE__
+
+			self.method( sym ).call( *args, &block )
+		end
+
+
+		### Returns a human-readable representation of the languageProxy for
+		### debugging, logging, etc.
+		def inspect
+			"<%s languageProxy for %s object %s>" % [
+				self.class.langmod.language,
+				@receiver.class.name,
+				@receiver.inspect,
+			]
+		end
+
+	end
+
+
+	### Extend the specified target object with one or more language proxy
+	### methods, each of which provides access to one or more linguistic methods
+	### for that language.
+	def self::extend_object( obj )
+		case obj
+		when Class
+			# $stderr.puts "Extending %p" % obj if $DEBUG
+			self::install_language_proxy( obj )
+		else
+			sclass = (class << obj; self; end)
+			# $stderr.puts "Extending a object's metaclass: %p" % obj if $DEBUG
+			self::install_language_proxy( sclass )
+		end
+
+		super
+	end
+
+
+	### Extend the including class with linguistics proxy methods.
+	def self::included( mod )
+		# $stderr.puts "Including Linguistics in %p" % mod if $DEBUG
+		mod.extend( self ) unless mod == Linguistics
+	end
+
+
+	### Make an languageProxy class that encapsulates all of the inflect operations
+	### using the given language module.
+	def self::make_language_proxy( mod )
+		# $stderr.puts "Making language proxy for mod %p" % [mod]
+		Class::new( LanguageProxyClass ) {
+			@langmod = mod
+		}
+	end
+
+
+	### Install the language proxy
+	def self::install_language_proxy( klass, languages=DefaultLanguages )
+		languages.replace( DefaultLanguages ) if languages.empty?
+
+		# Create an languageProxy class for each language specified
+		languages.each do |lang|
+			# $stderr.puts "Extending the %p class with %p" %
+			#	[ klass, lang ] if $DEBUG
+
+			# Load the language module (skipping to the next if it's already
+			# loaded), make a languageProxy class that delegates to it, and
+			# figure out what the languageProxy method will be called.
+			mod = load_language( lang.to_s.downcase )
+			ifaceMeth = mod.name.downcase.sub( /.*:/, '' )
+			languageProxyClass = make_language_proxy( mod )
+
+			# Install a hash for languageProxy classes and an accessor for the
+			# hash if it's not already present.
+			if !klass.class_variables.include?( "@@__languageProxy_class" )
+				klass.module_eval %{
+					@@__languageProxy_class = {}
+					def self::__languageProxy_class; @@__languageProxy_class; end
+				}, __FILE__, __LINE__
+			end
+
+			# Merge the current languageProxy into the hash
+			klass.__languageProxy_class.merge!( ifaceMeth => languageProxyClass )
+
+			# Set the language-code proxy method for the class unless it has one
+			# already
+			unless klass.instance_methods(true).include?( ifaceMeth )
+				klass.module_eval %{
+					def #{ifaceMeth}
+						@__#{ifaceMeth}_languageProxy ||=
+							self.class.__languageProxy_class["#{ifaceMeth}"].
+							new( self )
+					end
+				}, __FILE__, __LINE__
+			end
+		end
+	end
+
+
+
+	### Install a regular proxy method in the given klass that will delegate
+	### calls to missing method to the languageProxy for the given +language+.
+	def self::install_delegator_proxy( klass, langcode )
+		raise ArgumentError, "Missing langcode" if langcode.nil?
+
+		# Alias any currently-extant
+		if klass.instance_methods( false ).include?( "method_missing" )
+			klass.module_eval %{
+				alias_method :__orig_method_missing, :method_missing
+			}
+		end
+
+		# Add the #method_missing method that auto-installs delegator methods
+		# for methods supported by the linguistic proxy objects.
+		klass.module_eval %{
+			def method_missing( sym, *args, &block )
+
+				# If the linguistic delegator answers the message, install a
+				# delegator method and call it.
+				if self.send( :#{langcode} ).respond_to?( sym )
+
+					# $stderr.puts "Installing linguistic delegator method \#{sym} " \
+					#	"for the '#{langcode}' proxy"
+					self.class.module_eval %{
+						def \#{sym}( *args, &block )
+							self.#{langcode}.\#{sym}( *args, &block )
+						end
+					}
+					self.method( sym ).call( *args, &block )
+
+				# Otherwise either call the overridden proxy method if there is
+				# one, or just let our parent deal with it.
+				else
+					if self.respond_to?( :__orig_method_missing )
+						return self.__orig_method_missing( sym, *args, &block )
+					else
+						super( sym, *args, &block )
+					end
+				end
+			end
+		}
+	end
+
+
+
+	#################################################################
+	###	L A N G U A G E - I N D E P E N D E N T   F U N C T I O N S
+	#################################################################
+
+
+	### Handle auto-magic usage
+	def self::const_missing( sym )
+		load_language( sym.to_s.downcase )
+	end
+
+
+	###############
+	module_function
+	###############
+
+	### Add linguistics functions for the specified languages to Ruby's core
+	### classes. The interface to all linguistic functions for a given language
+	### is through a method which is the same the language's international 2- or
+	### 3-letter code (ISO 639). You can also specify a Hash of configuration
+	### options which control which classes are extended:
+	###
+	### [<b>:classes</b>]
+	###   Specify the classes which are to be extended. If this is not specified,
+	###   the Class objects in Linguistics::DefaultExtClasses (an Array) are
+	###   extended.
+	### [<b>:installProxy</b>]
+	###   Install a proxy method in each of the classes which are to be extended
+	###   which will search for missing methods in the languageProxy for the
+	###   language code specified as the value. This allows linguistics methods
+	###   to be called directly on extended objects directly (e.g.,
+	###   12.en.ordinal becomes 12.ordinal). Obviously, methods which would
+	###   collide with the object's builtin methods will need to be invoked
+	###   through the languageProxy. Any existing proxy methods in the extended
+	###   classes will be preserved.
+	def use( *languages )
+		config = {}
+		config = languages.pop if languages.last.is_a?( Hash )
+
+		classes = config.key?( :classes ) ? config[:classes] : DefaultExtClasses
+		classes = [ classes ] unless classes.is_a?( Array )
+
+		# Install the languageProxy in each class.
+		classes.each {|klass|
+
+			# Create an languageProxy class for each installed language
+			install_language_proxy( klass, languages )
+
+			# Install the delegator proxy if configured
+			if config[:installProxy]
+				case config[:installProxy]
+				when Symbol
+					langcode = config[:installProxy]
+				when String
+					langcode = config[:installProxy].intern
+				when TrueClass
+					langcode = languages[0] || DefaultLanguages[0] || :en
+				else
+					raise ArgumentError,
+						"Unexpected value %p for :installProxy" %
+						config[:installProxy]
+				end
+
+				install_delegator_proxy( klass, langcode )
+			end
+		}
+	end
+
+
+
+	### Support Lingua::EN::Inflect-style globals in a threadsafe way by using
+	### Thread-local variables.
+
+	### Set the default count for all unspecified plurals to +val+. Setting is
+	### local to calling thread.
+	def num=( val )
+		Thread.current[:persistent_count] = val
+	end
+	alias_method :NUM=, :num=
+
+	### Get the default count for all unspecified plurals. Setting is local to
+	### calling thread.
+	def num
+		Thread.current[:persistent_count]
+	end
+	alias_method :NUM, :num
+
+	
+	### Set the 'classical pluralizations' flag to +val+. Setting is local to
+	### calling thread.
+	def classical=( val )
+		Thread.current[:classical_plurals] = val
+	end
+
+	### Return the value of the 'classical pluralizations' flag. Setting is
+	### local to calling thread.
+	def classical?
+		Thread.current[:classical_plurals] ? true : false
+	end
+
+
+	#######
+	private
+	#######
+
+	### Try to load the module that implements the given language, returning
+	### the Module object if successful.
+	def self::load_language( lang )
+		raise "Unknown language code '#{lang}'" unless
+			LanguageCodes.key?( lang )
+
+		# Sort all the codes for the specified language, trying the 2-letter
+		# versions first in alphabetical order, then the 3-letter ones
+		msgs = []
+		mod = LanguageCodes[ lang ][:codes].sort {|a,b|
+			(a.length <=> b.length).nonzero? ||
+			(a <=> b)
+		}.each do |code|
+			unless Linguistics::const_defined?( code.upcase )
+				begin
+					require "linguistics/#{code}"
+				rescue LoadError => err
+					msgs << "Tried 'linguistics/#{code}': #{err.message}\n"
+					next
+				end
+			end
+
+			break Linguistics::const_get( code.upcase ) if
+				Linguistics::const_defined?( code.upcase )
+		end
+
+		if mod.is_a?( Array )
+			raise LoadError,
+				"Failed to load language extension %s:\n%s" %
+				[ lang, msgs.join ]
+		end
+		return mod
+	end
+
+end # class linguistics
+

data/lib/linguistics/en.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,1728 @@
+#!/usr/bin/ruby
+# 
+# = Linguistics::EN
+#
+# This module contains English-language linguistic functions for the Linguistics
+# module. It can be either loaded directly, or by passing some variant of 'en'
+# or 'eng' to the Linguistics::use method.
+#
+# The functions contained by the module provide:
+#
+# == Plural Inflections
+# 
+# Plural forms of all nouns, most verbs, and some adjectives are provided. Where
+# appropriate, "classical" variants (for example: "brother" -> "brethren",
+# "dogma" -> "dogmata", etc.) are also provided.
+#
+# These can be accessed via the #plural, #plural_noun, #plural_verb, and
+# #plural_adjective methods.
+#
+# == Indefinite Articles
+#
+# Pronunciation-based "a"/"an" selection is provided for all English words, and
+# most initialisms.
+#
+# See: #a, #an, and #no.
+#
+# == Numbers to Words
+#
+# Conversion from Numeric values to words are supported using the American
+# "thousands" system. E.g., 2561 => "two thousand, five hundred and sixty-one".
+#
+# See the #numwords method.
+#
+# == Ordinals
+#
+# It is also possible to inflect numerals (1,2,3) and number words ("one",
+# "two", "three") to ordinals (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and ordinates ("first", "second",
+# "third").
+#
+# == Conjunctions
+#
+# This module also supports the creation of English conjunctions from Arrays of
+# Strings or objects which respond to the #to_s message. Eg.,
+#
+#   %w{cow pig chicken cow dog cow duck duck moose}.en.conjunction
+#     ==> "three cows, two ducks, a pig, a chicken, a dog, and a moose"
+#
+# == Infinitives
+#
+# Returns the infinitive form of English verbs:
+#
+#  "dodging".en.infinitive
+#    ==> "dodge"
+#
+#
+# == Authors
+# 
+# * Michael Granger <ged@FaerieMUD.org>
+# 
+# == Acknowledgements
+#
+# The inflection functions of this module were adapted from Damien Conway's
+# Lingua::EN::Inflect Perl module:
+#
+#   Copyright (c) 1997-2000, Damian Conway. All Rights Reserved.
+#   This module is free software. It may be used, redistributed
+#     and/or modified under the same terms as Perl itself.
+#
+# The conjunctions code was adapted from the Lingua::Conjunction Perl module
+# written by Robert Rothenberg and Damian Conway, which has no copyright
+# statement included.
+#
+# :include: LICENSE
+#
+#--
+#
+# Please see the file LICENSE in the base directory for licensing details.
+#
+module Linguistics::EN
+
+	# Load in the secondary modules and add them to Linguistics::EN.
+	require 'linguistics/en/infinitive'
+	require 'linguistics/en/wordnet'
+	require 'linguistics/en/linkparser'
+
+	# Add 'english' to the list of default languages
+	Linguistics::DefaultLanguages.push( :en )
+
+
+	#################################################################
+	###	U T I L I T Y   F U N C T I O N S
+	#################################################################
+
+	### Wrap one or more parts in a non-capturing alteration Regexp
+	def self::matchgroup( *parts )
+		re = parts.flatten.join("|")
+		"(?:#{re})"
+	end
+
+
+	@lprintf_formatters = {}
+	class << self
+		attr_accessor :lprintf_formatters
+	end
+
+	### Add the specified method (which can be either a Method object or a
+	### Symbol for looking up a method)
+	def self::def_lprintf_formatter( name, meth )
+		meth = self.method( meth ) unless meth.is_a?( Method )
+		self.lprintf_formatters[ name ] = meth
+	end
+
+
+
+	#################################################################
+	###	C O N S T A N T S
+	#################################################################
+
+	# :stopdoc:
+
+	#
+	# Plurals
+	#
+
+	PL_sb_irregular_s = {
+		"ephemeris"	=> "ephemerides",
+		"iris"		=> "irises|irides",
+		"clitoris"	=> "clitorises|clitorides",
+		"corpus"	=> "corpuses|corpora",
+		"opus"		=> "opuses|opera",
+		"genus"		=> "genera",
+		"mythos"	=> "mythoi",
+		"penis"		=> "penises|penes",
+		"testis"	=> "testes",
+	}
+
+	PL_sb_irregular_h = {
+		"child"		=> "children",
+		"brother"	=> "brothers|brethren",
+		"loaf"		=> "loaves",
+		"hoof"		=> "hoofs|hooves",
+		"beef"		=> "beefs|beeves",
+		"money"		=> "monies",
+		"mongoose"	=> "mongooses",
+		"ox"		=> "oxen",
+		"cow"		=> "cows|kine",
+		"soliloquy"	=> "soliloquies",
+		"graffito"	=> "graffiti",
+		"prima donna"	=> "prima donnas|prime donne",
+		"octopus"	=> "octopuses|octopodes",
+		"genie"		=> "genies|genii",
+		"ganglion"	=> "ganglions|ganglia",
+		"trilby"	=> "trilbys",
+		"turf"		=> "turfs|turves",
+	}.update( PL_sb_irregular_s )
+	PL_sb_irregular = matchgroup PL_sb_irregular_h.keys
+
+
+	# Classical "..a" -> "..ata"
+	PL_sb_C_a_ata = matchgroup %w[
+		anathema bema carcinoma charisma diploma
+		dogma drama edema enema enigma lemma
+		lymphoma magma melisma miasma oedema
+		sarcoma schema soma stigma stoma trauma
+		gumma pragma
+	].collect {|word| word[0...-1]}
+
+	# Unconditional "..a" -> "..ae"
+	PL_sb_U_a_ae = matchgroup %w[
+		alumna alga vertebra persona
+	]
+
+	# Classical "..a" -> "..ae"
+	PL_sb_C_a_ae = matchgroup %w[
+		amoeba antenna formula hyperbola
+		medusa nebula parabola abscissa
+		hydra nova lacuna aurora .*umbra
+		flora fauna
+	]
+
+	# Classical "..en" -> "..ina"
+	PL_sb_C_en_ina = matchgroup %w[
+		stamen	foramen	lumen
+	].collect {|word| word[0...-2] }
+
+	# Unconditional "..um" -> "..a"
+	PL_sb_U_um_a = matchgroup %w[
+		bacterium	agendum	desideratum	erratum
+		stratum	datum	ovum		extremum
+		candelabrum
+	].collect {|word| word[0...-2] }
+
+	# Classical "..um" -> "..a"
+	PL_sb_C_um_a = matchgroup %w[
+		maximum	minimum	momentum	optimum
+		quantum	cranium	curriculum	dictum
+		phylum	aquarium	compendium	emporium
+		enconium	gymnasium	honorarium	interregnum
+		lustrum 	memorandum	millenium 	rostrum 
+		spectrum	speculum	stadium	trapezium
+		ultimatum	medium	vacuum	velum 
+		consortium
+	].collect {|word| word[0...-2]}
+
+	# Unconditional "..us" -> "i"
+	PL_sb_U_us_i = matchgroup %w[
+		alumnus	alveolus	bacillus	bronchus
+		locus	nucleus	stimulus	meniscus
+	].collect {|word| word[0...-2]}
+
+	# Classical "..us" -> "..i"
+	PL_sb_C_us_i = matchgroup %w[
+		focus	radius	genius
+		incubus	succubus	nimbus
+		fungus	nucleolus	stylus
+		torus	umbilicus	uterus
+		hippopotamus
+	].collect {|word| word[0...-2]}
+
+	# Classical "..us" -> "..us"  (assimilated 4th declension latin nouns)
+	PL_sb_C_us_us = matchgroup %w[
+		status apparatus prospectus sinus
+		hiatus impetus plexus
+	]
+
+	# Unconditional "..on" -> "a"
+	PL_sb_U_on_a = matchgroup %w[
+		criterion	perihelion	aphelion
+		phenomenon	prolegomenon	noumenon
+		organon	asyndeton	hyperbaton
+	].collect {|word| word[0...-2]}
+
+	# Classical "..on" -> "..a"
+	PL_sb_C_on_a = matchgroup %w[
+		oxymoron
+	].collect {|word| word[0...-2]}
+
+	# Classical "..o" -> "..i"  (but normally -> "..os")
+	PL_sb_C_o_i_a = %w[
+		solo		soprano	basso	alto
+		contralto	tempo	piano
+	]
+	PL_sb_C_o_i = matchgroup PL_sb_C_o_i_a.collect{|word| word[0...-1]}
+
+	# Always "..o" -> "..os"
+	PL_sb_U_o_os = matchgroup( %w[
+		albino	archipelago	armadillo
+		commando	crescendo	fiasco
+		ditto	dynamo	embryo
+		ghetto	guano	inferno
+		jumbo	lumbago	magneto
+		manifesto	medico	octavo
+		photo	pro		quarto	
+		canto	lingo	generalissimo
+		stylo	rhino
+	] | PL_sb_C_o_i_a )
+
+
+	# Unconditional "..[ei]x" -> "..ices"
+	PL_sb_U_ex_ices = matchgroup %w[
+		codex	murex	silex
+	].collect {|word| word[0...-2]}
+	PL_sb_U_ix_ices = matchgroup %w[
+		radix	helix
+	].collect {|word| word[0...-2]}
+
+	# Classical "..[ei]x" -> "..ices"
+	PL_sb_C_ex_ices = matchgroup %w[
+		vortex	vertex	cortex	latex
+		pontifex	apex		index	simplex
+	].collect {|word| word[0...-2]}
+	PL_sb_C_ix_ices = matchgroup %w[
+		appendix
+	].collect {|word| word[0...-2]}
+
+
+	# Arabic: ".." -> "..i"
+	PL_sb_C_i = matchgroup %w[
+		afrit	afreet	efreet
+	]
+
+
+	# Hebrew: ".." -> "..im"
+	PL_sb_C_im = matchgroup %w[
+		goy		seraph	cherub
+	]
+
+	# Unconditional "..man" -> "..mans"
+	PL_sb_U_man_mans = matchgroup %w[
+		human
+		Alabaman Bahaman Burman German
+		Hiroshiman Liman Nakayaman Oklahoman
+		Panaman Selman Sonaman Tacoman Yakiman
+		Yokohaman Yuman
+	]
+
+
+	PL_sb_uninflected_s = [
+		# Pairs or groups subsumed to a singular...
+		"breeches", "britches", "clippers", "gallows", "hijinks",
+		"headquarters", "pliers", "scissors", "testes", "herpes",
+		"pincers", "shears", "proceedings", "trousers",
+
+		# Unassimilated Latin 4th declension
+		"cantus", "coitus", "nexus",
+
+		# Recent imports...
+		"contretemps", "corps", "debris",
+		".*ois",
+
+		# Diseases
+		".*measles", "mumps",
+
+		# Miscellaneous others...
+		"diabetes", "jackanapes", "series", "species", "rabies",
+		"chassis", "innings", "news", "mews",
+	]
+
+
+	# Don't inflect in classical mode, otherwise normal inflection
+	PL_sb_uninflected_herd = matchgroup %w[
+		wildebeest swine eland bison buffalo
+		elk moose rhinoceros
+	]
+
+	PL_sb_uninflected = matchgroup [
+
+		# Some fish and herd animals
+		".*fish", "tuna", "salmon", "mackerel", "trout",
+		"bream", "sea[- ]bass", "carp", "cod", "flounder", "whiting", 
+
+		".*deer", ".*sheep", 
+
+		# All nationals ending in -ese
+		"Portuguese", "Amoyese", "Borghese", "Congoese", "Faroese",
+		"Foochowese", "Genevese", "Genoese", "Gilbertese", "Hottentotese",
+		"Kiplingese", "Kongoese", "Lucchese", "Maltese", "Nankingese",
+		"Niasese", "Pekingese", "Piedmontese", "Pistoiese", "Sarawakese",
+		"Shavese", "Vermontese", "Wenchowese", "Yengeese",
+		".*[nrlm]ese",
+
+		# Some words ending in ...s (often pairs taken as a whole)
+		PL_sb_uninflected_s,
+
+		# Diseases
+		".*pox",
+
+		# Other oddities
+		"graffiti", "djinn"
+	]
+
+
+	# Singular words ending in ...s (all inflect with ...es)
+	PL_sb_singular_s = matchgroup %w[
+		.*ss
+		acropolis aegis alias arthritis asbestos atlas
+		bathos bias bronchitis bursitis caddis cannabis
+		canvas chaos cosmos dais digitalis encephalitis
+		epidermis ethos eyas gas glottis hepatitis
+		hubris ibis lens mantis marquis metropolis
+		neuritis pathos pelvis polis rhinoceros
+		sassafras tonsillitis trellis .*us
+	]
+
+	PL_v_special_s = matchgroup [
+		PL_sb_singular_s,
+		PL_sb_uninflected_s,
+		PL_sb_irregular_s.keys,
+		'(.*[csx])is',
+		'(.*)ceps',
+		'[A-Z].*s',
+	]
+
+	PL_sb_postfix_adj = '(' + {
+
+		'general' => ['(?!major|lieutenant|brigadier|adjutant)\S+'],
+		'martial' => ["court"],
+
+	}.collect {|key,val|
+		matchgroup( matchgroup(val) + "(?=(?:-|\\s+)#{key})" )
+	}.join("|") + ")(.*)"
+
+
+	PL_sb_military = %r'major|lieutenant|brigadier|adjutant|quartermaster'
+	PL_sb_general = %r'((?!#{PL_sb_military.source}).*?)((-|\s+)general)'
+
+	PL_prep = matchgroup %w[
+		about above across after among around at athwart before behind
+		below beneath beside besides between betwixt beyond but by
+		during except for from in into near of off on onto out over
+		since till to under until unto upon with
+	]
+
+	PL_sb_prep_dual_compound = %r'(.*?)((?:-|\s+)(?:#{PL_prep}|d[eu])(?:-|\s+))a(?:-|\s+)(.*)'
+	PL_sb_prep_compound = %r'(.*?)((-|\s+)(#{PL_prep}|d[eu])((-|\s+)(.*))?)'
+
+
+	PL_pron_nom_h = {
+		#	Nominative		Reflexive
+		"i"		=> "we",	"myself"   =>	"ourselves",
+		"you"	=> "you",	"yourself" =>	"yourselves",
+		"she"	=> "they",	"herself"  =>	"themselves",
+		"he"	=> "they",	"himself"  =>	"themselves",
+		"it"	=> "they",	"itself"   =>	"themselves",
+		"they"	=> "they",	"themself" =>	"themselves",
+
+		#	Possessive
+		"mine"	 => "ours",
+		"yours"	 => "yours",
+		"hers"	 => "theirs",
+		"his"	 => "theirs",
+		"its"	 => "theirs",
+		"theirs" => "theirs",
+	}
+	PL_pron_nom = matchgroup PL_pron_nom_h.keys
+
+	PL_pron_acc_h = {
+		#	Accusative		Reflexive
+		"me"	=> "us",	"myself"   =>	"ourselves",
+		"you"	=> "you",	"yourself" =>	"yourselves",
+		"her"	=> "them",	"herself"  =>	"themselves",
+		"him"	=> "them",	"himself"  =>	"themselves",
+		"it"	=> "them",	"itself"   =>	"themselves",
+		"them"	=> "them",	"themself" =>	"themselves",
+	}
+	PL_pron_acc = matchgroup PL_pron_acc_h.keys
+
+	PL_v_irregular_pres_h = {
+		#	1St pers. sing.		2nd pers. sing.		3rd pers. singular
+		#				3rd pers. (indet.)	
+		"am"	=> "are",	"are"	=> "are",	"is"	 => "are",
+		"was"	=> "were",	"were"	=> "were",	"was"	 => "were",
+		"have"  => "have",	"have"  => "have",	"has"	 => "have",
+	}
+	PL_v_irregular_pres = matchgroup PL_v_irregular_pres_h.keys
+
+	PL_v_ambiguous_pres_h = {
+		#	1st pers. sing.		2nd pers. sing.		3rd pers. singular
+		#				3rd pers. (indet.)	
+		"act"	=> "act",	"act"	=> "act",	"acts"	  => "act",
+		"blame"	=> "blame",	"blame"	=> "blame",	"blames"  => "blame",
+		"can"	=> "can",	"can"	=> "can",	"can"	  => "can",
+		"must"	=> "must",	"must"	=> "must",	"must"	  => "must",
+		"fly"	=> "fly",	"fly"	=> "fly",	"flies"	  => "fly",
+		"copy"	=> "copy",	"copy"	=> "copy",	"copies"  => "copy",
+		"drink"	=> "drink",	"drink"	=> "drink",	"drinks"  => "drink",
+		"fight"	=> "fight",	"fight"	=> "fight",	"fights"  => "fight",
+		"fire"	=> "fire",	"fire"	=> "fire",	"fires"   => "fire",
+		"like"	=> "like",	"like"	=> "like",	"likes"   => "like",
+		"look"	=> "look",	"look"	=> "look",	"looks"   => "look",
+		"make"	=> "make",	"make"	=> "make",	"makes"   => "make",
+		"reach"	=> "reach",	"reach"	=> "reach",	"reaches" => "reach",
+		"run"	=> "run",	"run"	=> "run",	"runs"    => "run",
+		"sink"	=> "sink",	"sink"	=> "sink",	"sinks"   => "sink",
+		"sleep"	=> "sleep",	"sleep"	=> "sleep",	"sleeps"  => "sleep",
+		"view"	=> "view",	"view"	=> "view",	"views"   => "view",
+	}
+	PL_v_ambiguous_pres = matchgroup PL_v_ambiguous_pres_h.keys
+
+	PL_v_irregular_non_pres = matchgroup %w[
+		did had ate made put 
+		spent fought sank gave sought
+		shall could ought should
+	]
+
+	PL_v_ambiguous_non_pres = matchgroup %w[
+		thought saw bent will might cut
+	]
+
+	PL_count_zero = matchgroup %w[
+		0 no zero nil
+	]
+
+	PL_count_one = matchgroup %w[
+		1 a an one each every this that
+	]
+
+	PL_adj_special_h = {
+		"a"    => "some",	"an"   =>  "some",
+		"this" => "these",	"that" => "those",
+	}
+	PL_adj_special = matchgroup PL_adj_special_h.keys
+
+	PL_adj_poss_h = {
+		"my"    => "our",
+		"your"	=> "your",
+		"its"	=> "their",
+		"her"	=> "their",
+		"his"	=> "their",
+		"their"	=> "their",
+	}
+	PL_adj_poss = matchgroup PL_adj_poss_h.keys
+
+
+	#
+	# Numerals, ordinals, and numbers-to-words
+	#
+
+	# Numerical inflections
+	Nth = {
+		0 => 'th',
+		1 => 'st',
+		2 => 'nd',
+		3 => 'rd',
+		4 => 'th',
+		5 => 'th',
+		6 => 'th',
+		7 => 'th',
+		8 => 'th',
+		9 => 'th',
+		11 => 'th',
+		12 => 'th',
+		13 => 'th',
+	}
+
+	# Ordinal word parts
+	Ordinals = {
+		'ty' => 'tieth',
+		'one' => 'first',
+		'two' => 'second',
+		'three' => 'third',
+		'five' => 'fifth',
+		'eight' => 'eighth',
+		'nine' => 'ninth',
+		'twelve' => 'twelfth',
+	}
+	OrdinalSuffixes = Ordinals.keys.join("|") + "|"
+	Ordinals[""] = 'th'
+
+	# Numeral names
+	Units = [''] + %w[one two three four five six seven eight nine]
+	Teens = %w[ten eleven twelve thirteen fourteen
+			  fifteen sixteen seventeen eighteen nineteen]
+	Tens  = ['',''] + %w[twenty thirty forty fifty sixty seventy eighty ninety]
+	Thousands = [' ', ' thousand'] + %w[
+		m b tr quadr quint sext sept oct non dec undec duodec tredec
+		quattuordec quindec sexdec septemdec octodec novemdec vigint
+	].collect {|prefix| ' ' + prefix + 'illion'}
+
+	# A collection of functions for transforming digits into word
+	# phrases. Indexed by the number of digits being transformed; e.g.,
+	# <tt>NumberToWordsFunctions[2]</tt> is the function for transforming
+	# double-digit numbers.
+	NumberToWordsFunctions = [
+		proc {|*args| raise "No digits (#{args.inspect})"},
+
+		# Single-digits
+		proc {|zero,x|
+			(x.nonzero? ? to_units(x) : "#{zero} ")
+		},
+
+		# Double-digits
+		proc {|zero,x,y|
+			if x.nonzero?
+				to_tens( x, y )
+			elsif y.nonzero?
+				"#{zero} " + NumberToWordsFunctions[1].call( zero, y )
+			else
+				([zero] * 2).join(" ")
+			end
+		},
+
+		# Triple-digits
+		proc {|zero,x,y,z|
+			NumberToWordsFunctions[1].call(zero,x) + 
+			NumberToWordsFunctions[2].call(zero,y,z)
+		}
+	]
+
+
+	#
+	# Indefinite Articles
+	#
+
+	# This pattern matches strings of capitals starting with a "vowel-sound"
+	# consonant followed by another consonant, and which are not likely
+	# to be real words (oh, all right then, it's just magic!)
+	A_abbrev = %{
+		(?! FJO | [HLMNS]Y.  | RY[EO] | SQU
+		  | ( F[LR]? | [HL] | MN? | N | RH? | S[CHKLMNPTVW]? | X(YL)?) [AEIOU])
+		[FHLMNRSX][A-Z]
+	}
+
+	# This pattern codes the beginnings of all english words begining with a
+	# 'y' followed by a consonant. Any other y-consonant prefix therefore
+	# implies an abbreviation.
+	A_y_cons = 'y(b[lor]|cl[ea]|fere|gg|p[ios]|rou|tt)'
+
+	# Exceptions to exceptions
+	A_explicit_an = matchgroup(	"euler", "hour(?!i)", "heir", "honest", "hono" )
+
+
+	#
+	# Configuration defaults
+	#
+
+	# Default configuration arguments for the #numwords function
+	NumwordDefaults = {
+		:group		=> 0,
+		:comma		=> ', ',
+		:and		=> ' and ',
+		:zero		=> 'zero',
+		:decimal	=> 'point',
+		:asArray	=> false,
+	}
+
+	# Default ranges for #quantify
+	SeveralRange = 2..5
+	NumberRange = 6..19
+	NumerousRange = 20..45
+	ManyRange = 46..99
+
+	# Default configuration arguments for the #quantify function
+	QuantifyDefaults = {
+		:joinword	=> " of ",
+	}
+
+	# Default configuration arguments for the #conjunction (junction, what's
+	# your) function.
+	ConjunctionDefaults = {
+		:separator		=> ', ',
+		:altsep			=> '; ',
+		:penultimate	=> true,
+		:conjunctive	=> 'and',
+		:combine		=> true,
+		:casefold		=> true,
+		:generalize		=> false,
+		:quantsort		=> true,
+	}
+
+
+	#
+	# Title case
+	#
+
+	# "In titles, capitalize the first word, the last word, and all words in
+	# between except articles (a, an, and the), prepositions under five letters
+	# (in, of, to), and coordinating conjunctions (and, but). These rules apply
+	# to titles of long, short, and partial works as well as your own papers"
+	# (Anson, Schwegler, and Muth. The Longman Writer's Companion 240).
+
+	# Build the list of exceptions to title-capitalization
+	Articles = %w[a and the]
+	ShortPrepositions = ["amid", "at", "but", "by", "down", "from", "in",
+		"into", "like", "near", "of", "off", "on", "onto", "out", "over",
+		"past", "save", "with", "till", "to", "unto", "up", "upon", "with"]
+	CoordConjunctions = %w[and but as]
+	TitleCaseExceptions = Articles | ShortPrepositions | CoordConjunctions
+
+
+	# :startdoc:
+
+	#################################################################
+	###	" B A C K E N D "   F U N C T I O N S
+	#################################################################
+
+
+	###############
+	module_function
+	###############
+
+	### Debugging output
+	def debug_msg( *msgs ) # :nodoc:
+		$stderr.puts msgs.join(" ") if $DEBUG
+	end
+
+
+	### Normalize a count to either 1 or 2 (singular or plural)
+	def normalize_count( count, default=2 )
+		return default if count.nil? # Default to plural
+		if /^(#{PL_count_one})$/i =~ count.to_s ||
+				Linguistics::classical? &&
+				/^(#{PL_count_zero})$/ =~ count.to_s
+			return 1
+		else
+			return default
+		end
+	end
+
+
+	### Do normal/classical switching and match capitalization in <tt>inflected</tt> by
+	### examining the <tt>original</tt> input.
+	def postprocess( original, inflected )
+		inflected.sub!( /([^|]+)\|(.+)/ ) {
+			Linguistics::classical? ? $2 : $1
+		}
+
+		case original
+		when "I"
+			return inflected
+		when /^[A-Z]+$/
+			return inflected.upcase
+		when /^[A-Z]/
+			# Can't use #capitalize, as it will downcase the rest of the string,
+			# too.
+			inflected[0,1] = inflected[0,1].upcase
+			return inflected
+		else
+			return inflected
+		end
+	end
+
+
+	### Pluralize nouns
+	def pluralize_noun( word, count=nil )
+		value = nil
+		count ||= Linguistics::num
+		count = normalize_count( count )
+
+		return word if count == 1
+
+		# Handle user-defined nouns
+		#if value = ud_match( word, PL_sb_user_defined )
+		#	return value
+		#end
+
+		# Handle empty word, singular count and uninflected plurals
+		case word
+		when ''
+			return word
+		when /^(#{PL_sb_uninflected})$/i
+			return word
+		else
+			if Linguistics::classical? &&
+			   /^(#{PL_sb_uninflected_herd})$/i =~ word
+				return word
+			end
+		end
+
+		# Handle compounds ("Governor General", "mother-in-law", "aide-de-camp", etc.)
+		case word
+		when /^(?:#{PL_sb_postfix_adj})$/i
+			value = $2
+			return pluralize_noun( $1, 2 ) + value
+
+		when /^(?:#{PL_sb_prep_dual_compound})$/i
+			value = [ $2, $3 ] 
+			return pluralize_noun( $1, 2 ) + value[0] + pluralize_noun( value[1] )
+
+		when /^(?:#{PL_sb_prep_compound})$/i
+			value = $2 
+			return pluralize_noun( $1, 2 ) + value
+
+		# Handle pronouns
+		when /^((?:#{PL_prep})\s+)(#{PL_pron_acc})$/i
+			return $1 + PL_pron_acc_h[ $2.downcase ]
+
+		when /^(#{PL_pron_nom})$/i
+			return PL_pron_nom_h[ word.downcase ]
+
+		when /^(#{PL_pron_acc})$/i
+			return PL_pron_acc_h[ $1.downcase ]
+
+		# Handle isolated irregular plurals 
+		when /(.*)\b(#{PL_sb_irregular})$/i
+			return $1 + PL_sb_irregular_h[ $2.downcase ]
+
+		when /(#{PL_sb_U_man_mans})$/i
+			return "#{$1}s"
+
+		# Handle families of irregular plurals
+		when /(.*)man$/i ;					return "#{$1}men"
+		when /(.*[ml])ouse$/i ;				return "#{$1}ice"
+		when /(.*)goose$/i ;				return "#{$1}geese"
+		when /(.*)tooth$/i ;				return "#{$1}teeth"
+		when /(.*)foot$/i ;					return "#{$1}feet"
+
+		# Handle unassimilated imports
+		when /(.*)ceps$/i ;					return word
+		when /(.*)zoon$/i ;					return "#{$1}zoa"
+		when /(.*[csx])is$/i ;				return "#{$1}es"
+		when /(#{PL_sb_U_ex_ices})ex$/i;	return "#{$1}ices"
+		when /(#{PL_sb_U_ix_ices})ix$/i;	return "#{$1}ices"
+		when /(#{PL_sb_U_um_a})um$/i ;		return "#{$1}a"
+		when /(#{PL_sb_U_us_i})us$/i ;		return "#{$1}i"
+		when /(#{PL_sb_U_on_a})on$/i ;		return "#{$1}a"
+		when /(#{PL_sb_U_a_ae})$/i ;		return "#{$1}e"
+		end
+
+		# Handle incompletely assimilated imports
+		if Linguistics::classical?
+			case word
+			when /(.*)trix$/i ;				return "#{$1}trices"
+			when /(.*)eau$/i ;				return "#{$1}eaux"
+			when /(.*)ieu$/i ;				return "#{$1}ieux"
+			when /(.{2,}[yia])nx$/i ;		return "#{$1}nges"
+			when /(#{PL_sb_C_en_ina})en$/i; return "#{$1}ina"
+			when /(#{PL_sb_C_ex_ices})ex$/i;	return "#{$1}ices"
+			when /(#{PL_sb_C_ix_ices})ix$/i;	return "#{$1}ices"
+			when /(#{PL_sb_C_um_a})um$/i ;	return "#{$1}a"
+			when /(#{PL_sb_C_us_i})us$/i ;	return "#{$1}i"
+			when /(#{PL_sb_C_us_us})$/i ;	return "#{$1}"
+			when /(#{PL_sb_C_a_ae})$/i ;	return "#{$1}e"
+			when /(#{PL_sb_C_a_ata})a$/i ;	return "#{$1}ata"
+			when /(#{PL_sb_C_o_i})o$/i ;	return "#{$1}i"
+			when /(#{PL_sb_C_on_a})on$/i ;	return "#{$1}a"
+			when /#{PL_sb_C_im}$/i ;		return "#{word}im"
+			when /#{PL_sb_C_i}$/i ;			return "#{word}i"
+			end
+		end
+
+
+		# Handle singular nouns ending in ...s or other silibants
+		case word
+		when /^(#{PL_sb_singular_s})$/i;	return "#{$1}es"
+		when /^([A-Z].*s)$/;				return "#{$1}es"
+		when /(.*)([cs]h|[zx])$/i ;			return "#{$1}#{$2}es"
+		# when /(.*)(us)$/i ;				return "#{$1}#{$2}es"
+
+		# Handle ...f -> ...ves
+		when /(.*[eao])lf$/i ;				return "#{$1}lves"; 
+		when /(.*[^d])eaf$/i ;				return "#{$1}eaves"
+		when /(.*[nlw])ife$/i ;				return "#{$1}ives"
+		when /(.*)arf$/i ;					return "#{$1}arves"
+
+		# Handle ...y
+		when /(.*[aeiou])y$/i ;				return "#{$1}ys"
+		when /([A-Z].*y)$/ ;				return "#{$1}s"
+		when /(.*)y$/i ;					return "#{$1}ies"
+
+		# Handle ...o
+		when /#{PL_sb_U_o_os}$/i ;			return "#{word}s"
+		when /[aeiou]o$/i ;					return "#{word}s"
+		when /o$/i ;						return "#{word}es"
+
+		# Otherwise just add ...s
+		else
+			return "#{word}s"
+		end
+	end # def pluralize_noun
+
+
+
+	### Pluralize special verbs
+	def pluralize_special_verb( word, count )
+		count ||= Linguistics::num
+		count = normalize_count( count )
+
+		return nil if /^(#{PL_count_one})$/i =~ count.to_s
+
+		# Handle user-defined verbs
+		#if value = ud_match( word, PL_v_user_defined )
+		#	return value
+		#end
+
+		case word
+
+		# Handle irregular present tense (simple and compound)
+		when /^(#{PL_v_irregular_pres})((\s.*)?)$/i
+			return PL_v_irregular_pres_h[ $1.downcase ] + $2
+
+		# Handle irregular future, preterite and perfect tenses 
+		when /^(#{PL_v_irregular_non_pres})((\s.*)?)$/i
+			return word
+
+		# Handle special cases
+		when /^(#{PL_v_special_s})$/, /\s/
+			return nil
+
+		# Handle standard 3rd person (chop the ...(e)s off single words)
+		when /^(.*)([cs]h|[x]|zz|ss)es$/i
+			return $1 + $2
+		when /^(..+)ies$/i
+			return "#{$1}y"
+		when /^(.+)oes$/i
+			return "#{$1}o"
+		when /^(.*[^s])s$/i
+			return $1
+
+		# Otherwise, a regular verb (handle elsewhere)
+		else
+			return nil
+		end
+	end
+
+
+	### Pluralize regular verbs
+	def pluralize_general_verb( word, count )
+		count ||= Linguistics::num
+		count = normalize_count( count )
+
+		return word if /^(#{PL_count_one})$/i =~ count.to_s
+
+		case word
+
+		# Handle ambiguous present tenses  (simple and compound)
+		when /^(#{PL_v_ambiguous_pres})((\s.*)?)$/i
+			return PL_v_ambiguous_pres_h[ $1.downcase ] + $2
+
+		# Handle ambiguous preterite and perfect tenses
+		when /^(#{PL_v_ambiguous_non_pres})((\s.*)?)$/i
+			return word
+
+		# Otherwise, 1st or 2nd person is uninflected
+		else
+			return word
+		end
+	end
+
+
+	### Handle special adjectives
+	def pluralize_special_adjective( word, count )
+		count ||= Linguistics::num
+		count = normalize_count( count )
+
+		return word if /^(#{PL_count_one})$/i =~ count.to_s
+
+		# Handle user-defined verbs
+		#if value = ud_match( word, PL_adj_user_defined )
+		#	return value
+		#end
+
+		case word
+
+		# Handle known cases
+		when /^(#{PL_adj_special})$/i
+			return PL_adj_special_h[ $1.downcase ]
+
+		# Handle possessives
+		when /^(#{PL_adj_poss})$/i
+			return PL_adj_poss_h[ $1.downcase ]
+
+		when /^(.*)'s?$/
+			pl = plural_noun( $1 )
+			if /s$/ =~ pl
+				return "#{pl}'"
+			else
+				return "#{pl}'s"
+			end
+
+		# Otherwise, no idea
+		else
+			return nil
+		end
+	end
+
+
+	### Returns the given word with a prepended indefinite article, unless
+	### +count+ is non-nil and not singular.
+	def indef_article( word, count )
+		count ||= Linguistics::num
+		return "#{count} #{word}" if
+			count && /^(#{PL_count_one})$/i !~ count.to_s
+
+		# Handle user-defined variants
+		# return value if value = ud_match( word, A_a_user_defined )
+
+		case word
+
+		# Handle special cases
+		when /^(#{A_explicit_an})/i
+			return "an #{word}"
+
+		# Handle abbreviations
+		when /^(#{A_abbrev})/x
+			return "an #{word}"
+		when /^[aefhilmnorsx][.-]/i
+			return "an #{word}"
+		when /^[a-z][.-]/i
+			return "a #{word}"
+
+		# Handle consonants
+		when /^[^aeiouy]/i
+			return "a #{word}"
+
+		# Handle special vowel-forms
+		when /^e[uw]/i
+			return "a #{word}"
+		when /^onc?e\b/i
+			return "a #{word}"
+		when /^uni([^nmd]|mo)/i
+			return "a #{word}"
+		when /^u[bcfhjkqrst][aeiou]/i
+			return "a #{word}"
+
+		# Handle vowels
+		when /^[aeiou]/i
+			return "an #{word}"
+
+		# Handle y... (before certain consonants implies (unnaturalized) "i.." sound)
+		when /^(#{A_y_cons})/i
+			return "an #{word}"
+
+		# Otherwise, guess "a"
+		else
+			return "a #{word}"
+		end
+	end
+
+
+	### Transform the specified number of units-place numerals into a
+	### word-phrase at the given number of +thousands+ places.
+	def to_units( units, thousands=0 )
+		return Units[ units ] + to_thousands( thousands )
+	end
+
+
+	### Transform the specified number of tens- and units-place numerals into a
+	### word-phrase at the given number of +thousands+ places.
+	def to_tens( tens, units, thousands=0 )
+		unless tens == 1
+			return Tens[ tens ] + ( tens.nonzero? && units.nonzero? ? '-' : '' ) +
+				to_units( units, thousands )
+		else
+			return Teens[ units ] + to_thousands( thousands )
+		end
+	end
+
+
+	### Transform the specified number of hundreds-, tens-, and units-place
+	### numerals into a word phrase. If the number of thousands (+thousands+) is
+	### greater than 0, it will be used to determine where the decimal point is
+	### in relation to the hundreds-place number.
+	def to_hundreds( hundreds, tens=0, units=0, thousands=0, joinword=" and " )
+		joinword = ' ' if joinword.empty?
+		if hundreds.nonzero?
+			return to_units( hundreds ) + " hundred" +
+				(tens.nonzero? || units.nonzero? ? joinword : '') +
+				to_tens( tens, units ) +
+				to_thousands( thousands )
+		elsif tens.nonzero? || units.nonzero?
+			return to_tens( tens, units ) + to_thousands( thousands )
+		else
+			return nil
+		end
+	end
+
+	### Transform the specified number into one or more words like 'thousand',
+	### 'million', etc. Uses the thousands (American) system.
+	def to_thousands( thousands=0 )
+		parts = []
+		(0..thousands).step( Thousands.length - 1 ) {|i|
+			if i.zero?
+				parts.push Thousands[ thousands % (Thousands.length - 1) ]
+			else
+				parts.push Thousands.last
+			end
+		}
+
+		return parts.join(" ")
+	end
+
+
+	### Return the specified number +num+ as an array of number phrases.
+	def number_to_words( num, config )
+		return [config[:zero]] if num.to_i.zero?
+		chunks = []
+
+		# Break into word-groups if groups is set
+		if config[:group].nonzero?
+
+			# Build a Regexp with <config[:group]> number of digits. Any past
+			# the first are optional.
+			re = Regexp::new( "(\\d)" + ("(\\d)?" * (config[:group] - 1)) )
+
+			# Scan the string, and call the word-chunk function that deals with
+			# chunks of the found number of digits.
+			num.to_s.scan( re ) {|digits|
+				debug_msg "   digits = #{digits.inspect}"
+				fn = NumberToWordsFunctions[ digits.nitems ]
+				numerals = digits.flatten.compact.collect {|i| i.to_i}
+				debug_msg "   numerals = #{numerals.inspect}"
+				chunks.push fn.call( config[:zero], *numerals ).strip
+			}
+		else
+			phrase = num.to_s
+			phrase.sub!( /\A\s*0+/, '' )
+			mill = 0
+
+			# Match backward from the end of the digits in the string, turning
+			# chunks of three, of two, and of one into words.
+			mill += 1 while
+				phrase.sub!( /(\d)(\d)(\d)(?=\D*\Z)/ ) {
+					words = to_hundreds( $1.to_i, $2.to_i, $3.to_i, mill, 
+										 config[:and] )
+					chunks.unshift words.strip.squeeze(' ') unless words.nil?
+					''
+				}
+
+			phrase.sub!( /(\d)(\d)(?=\D*\Z)/ ) {
+				chunks.unshift to_tens( $1.to_i, $2.to_i, mill ).strip.squeeze(' ')
+				''
+			}
+			phrase.sub!( /(\d)(?=\D*\Z)/ ) {
+				chunks.unshift to_units( $1.to_i, mill ).strip.squeeze(' ')
+				''
+			}
+		end
+
+		return chunks
+	end
+
+
+	#################################################################
+	###	P U B L I C   F U N C T I O N S
+	#################################################################
+
+	### Return the name of the language this module is for.
+	def language( unused=nil )
+		"English"
+	end
+
+
+	### Return the plural of the given +phrase+ if +count+ indicates it should
+	### be plural.
+	def plural( phrase, count=nil )
+		phrase = numwords( phrase ) if phrase.is_a?( Numeric )
+
+		md = /\A(\s*)(.+?)(\s*)\Z/.match( phrase.to_s )
+		pre, word, post = md.to_a[1,3]
+		return phrase if word.nil? or word.empty?
+
+		plural = postprocess( word,
+			pluralize_special_adjective(word, count) ||
+			pluralize_special_verb(word, count) ||
+			pluralize_noun(word, count) )
+
+		return pre + plural + post
+	end
+	def_lprintf_formatter :PL, :plural
+
+
+	### Return the plural of the given noun +phrase+ if +count+ indicates it
+	### should be plural.
+	def plural_noun( phrase, count=nil )
+		md = /\A(\s*)(.+?)(\s*)\Z/.match( phrase.to_s )
+		pre, word, post = md.to_a[1,3]
+		return phrase if word.nil? or word.empty?
+
+		plural = postprocess( word, pluralize_noun(word, count) )
+		return pre + plural + post
+	end
+	def_lprintf_formatter :PL_N, :plural_noun
+
+
+	### Return the plural of the given verb +phrase+ if +count+ indicates it
+	### should be plural.
+	def plural_verb( phrase, count=nil )
+		md = /\A(\s*)(.+?)(\s*)\Z/.match( phrase.to_s )
+		pre, word, post = md.to_a[1,3]
+		return phrase if word.nil? or word.empty?
+
+		plural = postprocess( word,
+			pluralize_special_verb(word, count) ||
+			pluralize_general_verb(word, count) )
+		return pre + plural + post
+	end
+	def_lprintf_formatter :PL_V, :plural_verb
+
+
+	### Return the plural of the given adjectival +phrase+ if +count+ indicates
+	### it should be plural.
+	def plural_adjective( phrase, count=nil )
+		md = /\A(\s*)(.+?)(\s*)\Z/.match( phrase.to_s )
+		pre, word, post = md.to_a[1,3]
+		return phrase if word.nil? or word.empty?
+
+		plural = postprocess( word,
+			pluralize_special_adjective(word, count) || word )
+		return pre + plural + post
+	end
+	alias_method :plural_adj, :plural_adjective
+	def_lprintf_formatter :PL_ADJ, :plural_adjective
+
+
+	### Return the given phrase with the appropriate indefinite article ("a" or
+	### "an") prepended. 
+	def a( phrase, count=nil )
+		md = /\A(\s*)(.+?)(\s*)\Z/.match( phrase.to_s )
+		pre, word, post = md.to_a[1,3]
+		return phrase if word.nil? or word.empty?
+
+		result = indef_article( word, count )
+		return pre + result + post
+	end
+	alias_method :an, :a
+	def_lprintf_formatter :A, :a
+	def_lprintf_formatter :AN, :a
+
+
+	### Translate zero-quantified +phrase+ to "no +phrase.plural+"
+	def no( phrase, count=nil )
+		md = /\A(\s*)(.+?)(\s*)\Z/.match( phrase.to_s )
+		pre, word, post = md.to_a[1,3]
+		count ||= Linguistics::num || 0
+
+		unless /^#{PL_count_zero}$/ =~ count.to_s
+			return "#{pre}#{count} " + plural( word, count ) + post
+		else
+			return "#{pre}no " + plural( word, 0 ) + post
+		end
+	end
+	def_lprintf_formatter :NO, :no
+
+
+	### Participles
+	def present_participle( word )
+        plural = plural_verb( word.to_s, 2 )
+
+		plural.sub!( /ie$/, 'y' ) or
+			plural.sub!( /ue$/, 'u' ) or
+			plural.sub!( /([auy])e$/, '$1' ) or
+			plural.sub!( /i$/, '' ) or
+			plural.sub!( /([^e])e$/, "\\1" ) or
+			/er$/.match( plural ) or
+			plural.sub!( /([^aeiou][aeiouy]([bdgmnprst]))$/, "\\1\\2" )
+
+        return "#{plural}ing"
+	end
+	alias_method :part_pres, :present_participle
+	def_lprintf_formatter :PART_PRES, :present_participle
+
+
+
+	### Return the specified number as english words. One or more configuration
+	### values may be passed to control the returned String:
+	### 
+	### [<b>:group</b>]
+	###   Controls how many numbers at a time are grouped together. Valid values
+	###   are <code>0</code> (normal grouping), <code>1</code> (single-digit 
+	###   grouping, e.g., "one, two, three, four"), <code>2</code> 
+	###   (double-digit grouping, e.g., "twelve, thirty-four", or <code>3</code>
+	###   (triple-digit grouping, e.g., "one twenty-three, four").
+	### [<b>:comma</b>]
+	###   Set the character/s used to separate word groups. Defaults to 
+	###   <code>", "</code>.
+	### [<b>:and</b>]
+	###   Set the word and/or characters used where <code>' and ' </code>(the 
+	###   default) is normally used. Setting <code>:and</code> to 
+	###   <code>' '</code>, for example, will cause <code>2556</code> to be 
+	###   returned as "two-thousand, five hundred fifty-six" instead of 
+	###   "two-thousand, five hundred and fifty-six".
+	### [<b>:zero</b>]
+	###   Set the word used to represent the numeral <code>0</code> in the 
+	###   result. <code>'zero'</code> is the default.
+	### [<b>:decimal</b>]
+	###   Set the translation of any decimal points in the number; the default
+	###   is <code>'point'</code>.
+	### [<b>:asArray</b>]
+	###   If set to a true value, the number will be returned as an array of
+	###   word groups instead of a String.
+	def numwords( number, hashargs={} )
+		num = number.to_s
+		config = NumwordDefaults.merge( hashargs )
+		raise "Bad chunking option: #{config[:group]}" unless
+			config[:group].between?( 0, 3 )
+
+		# Array of number parts: first is everything to the left of the first
+		# decimal, followed by any groups of decimal-delimted numbers after that
+		parts = []
+
+		# Wordify any sign prefix
+		sign = (/\A\s*\+/ =~ num) ? 'plus' : (/\A\s*\-/ =~ num) ? 'minus' : ''
+
+		# Strip any ordinal suffixes
+		ord = true if num.sub!( /(st|nd|rd|th)\Z/, '' )
+
+		# Split the number into chunks delimited by '.'
+		chunks = if !config[:decimal].empty? then
+					 if config[:group].nonzero?
+						 num.split(/\./)
+					 else
+						 num.split(/\./, 2)
+					 end
+				 else
+					 [ num ]
+				 end
+
+		# Wordify each chunk, pushing arrays into the parts array
+		chunks.each_with_index {|chunk,section|
+			chunk.gsub!( /\D+/, '' )
+
+			# If there's nothing in this chunk of the number, set it to zero
+			# unless it's the whole-number part, in which case just push an
+			# empty array.
+			if chunk.empty?
+				if section.zero?
+					parts.push []
+					next 
+				end
+			end
+
+			# Split the number section into wordified parts unless this is the
+			# second or succeeding part of a non-group number
+			unless config[:group].zero? && section.nonzero?
+				parts.push number_to_words( chunk, config )
+			else
+				parts.push number_to_words( chunk, config.merge(:group => 1) )
+			end					
+		}
+
+		debug_msg "Parts => #{parts.inspect}"
+
+		# Turn the last word of the whole-number part back into an ordinal if
+		# the original number came in that way.
+		if ord && !parts[0].empty?
+			parts[0][-1] = ordinal( parts[0].last )
+		end
+
+		# If the caller's expecting an Array return, just flatten and return the
+		# parts array.
+		if config[:asArray]
+			unless sign.empty?
+				parts[0].unshift( sign )
+			end
+			return parts.flatten
+		end
+
+		# Catenate each sub-parts array into a whole number part and one or more
+		# post-decimal parts. If grouping is turned on, all sub-parts get joined
+		# with commas, otherwise just the whole-number part is.
+		if config[:group].zero?
+			if parts[0].length > 1
+
+				# Join all but the last part together with commas
+				wholenum = parts[0][0...-1].join( config[:comma] )
+
+				# If the last part is just a single word, append it to the
+				# wholenum part with an 'and'. This is to get things like 'three
+				# thousand and three' instead of 'three thousand, three'.
+				if /^\s*(\S+)\s*$/ =~ parts[0].last
+					wholenum += config[:and] + parts[0].last
+				else
+					wholenum += config[:comma] + parts[0].last
+				end
+			else
+				wholenum = parts[0][0]
+			end
+			decimals = parts[1..-1].collect {|part| part.join(" ")}
+
+			debug_msg "Wholenum: #{wholenum.inspect}; decimals: #{decimals.inspect}"
+
+			# Join with the configured decimal; if it's empty, just join with
+			# spaces.
+			unless config[:decimal].empty?
+				return sign + ([ wholenum ] + decimals).
+					join( " #{config[:decimal]} " ).strip
+			else
+				return sign + ([ wholenum ] + decimals).
+					join( " " ).strip
+			end
+		else
+			return parts.compact.
+				separate( config[:decimal] ).
+				delete_if {|el| el.empty?}.
+				join( config[:comma] ).
+				strip
+		end
+	end
+	def_lprintf_formatter :NUMWORDS, :numwords
+
+
+	### Transform the given +number+ into an ordinal word. The +number+ object
+	### can be either an Integer or a String.
+	def ordinal( number )
+		case number
+		when Integer
+			return number.to_s + (Nth[ number % 100 ] || Nth[ number % 10 ])
+
+		else
+			return number.to_s.sub( /(#{OrdinalSuffixes})\Z/ ) { Ordinals[$1] }
+		end
+	end
+	def_lprintf_formatter :ORD, :ordinal
+
+
+	### Transform the given +number+ into an ordinate word.
+	def ordinate( number )
+		numwords( number ).ordinal
+	end
+
+
+	### Return a phrase describing the specified +number+ of objects in the
+	### given +phrase+ in general terms. The following options can be used to 
+	### control the makeup of the returned quantity String:
+	### 
+    ### [<b>:joinword</b>]
+    ###   Sets the word (and any surrounding spaces) used as the word separating the
+    ###   quantity from the noun in the resulting string. Defaults to <tt>' of
+    ###   '</tt>.
+	def quantify( phrase, number=0, args={} )
+		num = number.to_i
+		config = QuantifyDefaults.merge( args )
+
+		case num
+		when 0
+			no( phrase )
+		when 1
+			a( phrase )
+		when SeveralRange
+			"several " + plural( phrase, num )
+		when NumberRange
+			"a number of " + plural( phrase, num )
+		when NumerousRange
+			"numerous " + plural( phrase, num )
+		when ManyRange
+			"many " + plural( phrase, num )
+		else
+
+			# Anything bigger than the ManyRange gets described like
+			# "hundreds of thousands of..." or "millions of..."
+			# depending, of course, on how many there are.
+			thousands, subthousands = Math::log10( num ).to_i.divmod( 3 )
+			stword =
+				case subthousands
+				when 2
+					"hundreds"
+				when 1
+					"tens"
+				else
+					nil
+				end
+			thword = plural( to_thousands(thousands).strip )
+			thword = nil if thword.empty?
+
+			[	# Hundreds (of)...
+				stword,
+
+				# thousands (of)
+				thword,
+
+				# stars.
+				plural(phrase, number)
+			].compact.join( config[:joinword] )
+		end
+	end
+	def_lprintf_formatter :QUANT, :quantify
+
+
+	# :TODO: Needs refactoring
+
+    ### Return the specified +obj+ (which must support the <tt>#collect</tt>
+    ### method) as a conjunction. Each item is converted to a String if it is
+    ### not already (using #to_s) unless a block is given, in which case it is
+    ### called once for each object in the array, and the stringified return
+    ### value from the block is used instead. Returning +nil+ causes that
+    ### particular element to be omitted from the resulting conjunction. The
+    ### following options can be used to control the makeup of the returned
+    ### conjunction String:
+    ### 
+    ### [<b>:separator</b>]
+    ###   Specify one or more characters to separate items in the resulting
+    ###   list. Defaults to <tt>', '</tt>.
+    ### [<b>:altsep</b>]
+    ###   An alternate separator to use if any of the resulting conjunction's
+    ###   clauses contain the <tt>:separator</tt> character/s. Defaults to <tt>'; '</tt>.
+    ### [<b>:penultimate</b>]
+    ###   Flag that indicates whether or not to join the last clause onto the
+    ###   rest of the conjunction using a penultimate <tt>:separator</tt>. E.g.,
+    ###     %w{duck, cow, dog}.en.conjunction
+    ###     # => "a duck, a cow, and a dog"
+    ###     %w{duck cow dog}.en.conjunction( :penultimate => false )
+    ###     "a duck, a cow and a dog"
+    ###   Default to <tt>true</tt>.
+    ### [<b>:conjunctive</b>]
+    ###   Sets the word used as the conjunctive (separating word) of the
+    ###   resulting string. Default to <tt>'and'</tt>.
+    ### [<b>:combine</b>]
+    ###   If set to <tt>true</tt> (the default), items which are indentical (after
+    ###   surrounding spaces are stripped) will be combined in the resulting
+    ###   conjunction. E.g.,
+    ###     %w{goose cow goose dog}.en.conjunction
+    ###     # => "two geese, a cow, and a dog"
+    ###     %w{goose cow goose dog}.en.conjunction( :combine => false )
+    ###     # => "a goose, a cow, a goose, and a dog"
+    ### [<b>:casefold</b>]
+    ###   If set to <tt>true</tt> (the default), then items are compared
+    ###   case-insensitively when combining them. This has no effect if
+    ###   <tt>:combine</tt> is <tt>false</tt>.
+    ### [<b>:generalize</b>]
+    ###   If set to <tt>true</tt>, then quantities of combined items are turned into
+    ###   general descriptions instead of exact amounts.
+    ###     ary = %w{goose pig dog horse goose reindeer goose dog horse}
+    ###     ary.en.conjunction
+    ###     # => "three geese, two dogs, two horses, a pig, and a reindeer"
+    ###     ary.en.conjunction( :generalize => true )
+    ###     # => "several geese, several dogs, several horses, a pig, and a reindeer"
+    ###   See the #quantify method for specifics on how quantities are
+    ###   generalized. Generalization defaults to <tt>false</tt>, and has no effect if
+    ###   :combine is <tt>false</tt>.
+    ### [<b>:quantsort</b>]
+    ###   If set to <tt>true</tt> (the default), items which are combined in the
+    ###   resulting conjunction will be listed in order of amount, with greater
+    ###   quantities sorted first. If <tt>:quantsort</tt> is <tt>false</tt>, combined items
+    ###   will appear where the first instance of them occurred in the
+    ###   list. This sort is also the fallback for indentical quantities (ie.,
+    ###   items of the same quantity will be listed in the order they appeared
+    ###   in the source list).
+    ###
+	def conjunction( obj, args={} )
+		config = ConjunctionDefaults.merge( args )
+		phrases = []
+
+		# Transform items in the obj to phrases
+		if block_given?
+			phrases = obj.collect {|item| yield(item) }.compact
+		else
+			phrases = obj.collect {|item| item.to_s }
+		end
+
+		# No need for a conjunction if there's only one thing
+		return a(phrases[0]) if phrases.length < 2
+
+		# Set up a Proc to derive a collector key from a phrase depending on the
+		# configuration
+		keyfunc =
+			if config[:casefold]
+				proc {|key| key.downcase.strip}
+			else
+				proc {|key| key.strip}
+			end
+
+		# Count and delete phrases that hash the same when the keyfunc munges
+		# them into the same thing if we're combining (:combine => true).
+		collector = {}
+		if config[:combine]
+
+			phrases.each_index do |i|
+				# Stop when reaching the end of a truncated list
+				break if phrases[i].nil?
+
+				# Make the key using the configured key function
+				phrase = keyfunc[ phrases[i] ]
+
+				# If the collector already has this key, increment its count,
+				# eliminate the duplicate from the phrase list, and redo the loop.
+				if collector.key?( phrase )
+					collector[ phrase ] += 1
+					phrases.delete_at( i )
+					redo
+				end
+
+				collector[ phrase ] = 1
+			end
+		else
+			# If we're not combining, just make everything have a count of 1.
+			phrases.uniq.each {|key| collector[ keyfunc[key] ] = 1}
+		end
+
+		# If sort-by-quantity is turned on, sort the phrases first by how many
+		# there are (most-first), and then by the order they were specified in.
+		if config[:quantsort] && config[:combine]
+			origorder = {}
+			phrases.each_with_index {|phrase,i| origorder[ keyfunc[phrase] ] ||= i }
+			phrases.sort! {|a,b|
+				(collector[ keyfunc[b] ] <=> collector[ keyfunc[a] ]).nonzero? ||
+				(origorder[ keyfunc[a] ] <=> origorder[ keyfunc[b] ])
+			}
+		end
+
+		# Set up a filtering function that adds either an indefinite article, an
+		# indefinite quantifier, or a definite quantifier to each phrase
+		# depending on the configuration and the count of phrases in the
+		# collector.
+		filter =
+			if config[:generalize]
+				proc {|phrase, count| quantify(phrase, count) }
+			else
+				proc {|phrase, count|
+				if count > 1
+					"%s %s" % [
+						# :TODO: Make this threshold settable
+						count < 10 ? count.en.numwords : count.to_s,
+						plural(phrase, count)
+					]
+				else
+					a( phrase )
+				end
+			}
+			end
+
+		# Now use the configured filter to turn each phrase into its final
+		# form. Hmmm... square-bracket Lisp?
+		phrases.collect! {|phrase| filter[phrase, collector[ keyfunc[phrase] ]] }
+
+		# Prepend the conjunctive to the last element unless it's empty or
+		# there's only one element
+		phrases[-1].insert( 0, config[:conjunctive] + " " ) unless
+			config[:conjunctive].strip.empty? or
+			phrases.length < 2
+
+		# Concatenate the last two elements if there's no penultimate separator,
+		# and pick a separator based on how many phrases there are and whether
+		# or not there's already an instance of it in the phrases.
+		phrase_count = phrases.length
+		phrases[-2] << " " << phrases.pop unless config[:penultimate]
+		sep = config[:separator]
+		if phrase_count <= 2
+			sep = ' '
+		elsif phrases.find {|str| str.include?(config[:separator]) }
+			sep = config[:altsep]
+		end
+
+		return phrases.join( sep )
+	end
+	def_lprintf_formatter :CONJUNCT, :conjunction
+
+
+	### Turns a camel-case +string+ ("camelCaseToEnglish") to plain English
+	### ("camel case to english"). Each word is decapitalized.
+	def camel_case_to_english( string )
+		string.to_s.
+			gsub( /([A-Z])([A-Z])/ ) { "#$1 #$2" }.
+			gsub( /([a-z])([A-Z])/ ) { "#$1 #$2" }.downcase
+	end
+
+
+	### Turns an English language +string+ into a CamelCase word.
+	def english_to_camel_case( string )
+		string.to_s.gsub( /\s+([a-z])/ ) { $1.upcase }
+	end
+
+
+	### This method doesn't work quite right yet. It does okay for simple cases,
+	### but it misses more complex ones, e.g. 'as' used as a coordinating
+	### conjunction in "A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man". Perhaps after
+	### there's a working (non-leaking) LinkParser for Ruby, this can be fixed
+	### up. Until then it'll just be undocumented.
+
+	### Returns the given +string+ as a title-cased phrase.
+	def titlecase( string ) # :nodoc:
+
+		# Split on word-boundaries
+		words = string.split( /\b/ )
+
+		# Always capitalize the first and last words
+		words.first.capitalize!
+		words.last.capitalize!
+
+		# Now scan the rest of the tokens, skipping non-words and capitalization
+		# exceptions.
+		words.each_with_index do |word, i|
+
+			# Non-words
+			next unless /^\w+$/.match( word )
+
+			# Skip exception-words
+			next if TitleCaseExceptions.include?( word )
+
+			# Skip second parts of contractions
+			next if words[i - 1] == "'" && /\w/.match( words[i - 2] )
+
+			# Have to do it this way instead of capitalize! because that method
+			# also downcases all other letters.
+			word.gsub!( /^(\w)(.*)/ ) { $1.upcase + $2 }
+		end
+
+		return words.join
+	end
+
+
+	### Returns the proper noun form of a string by capitalizing most of the
+	### words.
+	###
+	### Examples:
+	###   English.proper_noun("bosnia and herzegovina") ->
+	###     "Bosnia and Herzegovina"
+	###   English.proper_noun("macedonia, the former yugoslav republic of") ->
+	###     "Macedonia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of"
+	###   English.proper_noun("virgin islands, u.s.") ->
+	###     "Virgin Islands, U.S."
+	def proper_noun( string )
+		return string.split(/([ .]+)/).collect {|word|
+			next word unless /^[a-z]/.match( word ) &&
+				! (%w{and the of}.include?( word ))
+			word.capitalize
+		}.join
+	end
+
+
+	### Format the given +fmt+ string by replacing %-escaped sequences with the
+	### result of performing a specified operation on the corresponding
+	### argument, ala Kernel.sprintf.
+	### %PL::
+	###   Plural.
+	### %A, %AN::
+	###   Prepend indefinite article.
+	### %NO::
+	###   Zero-quantified phrase.
+	### %NUMWORDS::
+	###   Convert a number into the corresponding words.
+	### %CONJUNCT::
+	###   Conjunction.
+	def lprintf( fmt, *args )
+		fmt.to_s.gsub( /%([A-Z_]+)/ ) do |match|
+			op = $1.to_s.upcase.to_sym
+			if self.lprintf_formatters.key?( op )
+				arg = args.shift
+				self.lprintf_formatters[ op ].call( arg )
+			else
+				raise "no such formatter %p" % op
+			end
+		end
+	end
+
+end # module Linguistics::EN
+
+
+### Add the #separate and #separate! methods to Array.
+class Array
+
+	### Returns a new Array that has had a new member inserted between all of
+	### the current ones. The value used is the given +value+ argument unless a
+	### block is given, in which case the block is called once for each pair of
+	### the Array, and the return value is used as the separator.
+	def separate( value=:__no_arg__, &block )
+		ary = self.dup
+		ary.separate!( value, &block )
+		return ary
+	end
+
+	### The same as #separate, but modifies the Array in place.
+	def separate!( value=:__no_arg__ )
+		raise ArgumentError, "wrong number of arguments: (0 for 1)" if
+			value == :__no_arg__ && !block_given?
+
+		(1..( (self.length * 2) - 2 )).step(2) do |i|
+			if block_given?
+				self.insert( i, yield(self[i-1,2]) )
+			else
+				self.insert( i, value )
+			end
+		end
+		self
+	end
+
+end
+