hamster 1.0.1.pre.rc2 → 1.0.1.pre.rc3

data/lib/hamster/experimental/mutable_queue.rb

@@ -1,10 +1,10 @@
 require "forwardable"
-require "hamster/queue"
+require "hamster/deque"
 require "hamster/read_copy_update"
 
 module Hamster
   def self.mutable_queue(*items)
-    MutableQueue.new(queue(*items))
+    MutableQueue.new(deque(*items))
   end
 
   class MutableQueue

data/lib/hamster/hash.rb

@@ -3,50 +3,141 @@ require "forwardable"
 require "hamster/immutable"
 require "hamster/undefined"
 require "hamster/trie"
-require "hamster/list"
+require "hamster/set"
+require "hamster/vector"
 
 module Hamster
   def self.hash(pairs = nil, &block)
-    Hash.new(pairs, &block)
+    (pairs.nil? && block.nil?) ? EmptyHash : Hash.new(pairs, &block)
   end
 
+  # A `Hamster::Hash` maps from a set of unique keys to corresponding values,
+  # much like a dictionary maps from words to definitions. Given a key, it can
+  # efficiently store and retrieve values. Looking up a key given its value is also
+  # possible, but less efficient. If an existing key is stored again, the new value
+  # will replace that which was previously stored.
+  #
+  # It behaves much like Ruby's built-in Hash, which we will call RubyHash
+  # for clarity. Like RubyHash, `Hamster::Hash` uses `#hash` and `#eql?` to define
+  # equality between keys. Keys with the same `#hash` code, but which are not `#eql?`
+  # to each other, can coexist in the same `Hamster::Hash`. To retrieve a previously
+  # stored value, the key provided must have the same `#hash` code and be `#eql?`
+  # to the one used for storage.
+  #
+  # A `Hamster::Hash` can be created in several ways:
+  #
+  #     Hamster.hash('Jane Doe' => 10, 'Jim Doe' => 6)
+  #     Hamster::Hash.new(font_size: 10, font_family: 'Arial')
+  #     Hamster::Hash[first_name: 'John', last_name: 'Smith']
+  #
+  # If you want to write your own class which inherits from `Hamster::Hash`, you can
+  # use either of the latter 2 forms of initialization.
+  #
+  # Note that any `Enumerable` object which yields 2-element `[key, value]` arrays
+  # can be used to initialize a `Hamster::Hash`. So this is also possible:
+  #
+  #     Hamster::Hash.new([[:first_name, 'John'], [:last_name, 'Smith']])
+  #
+  # Like RubyHash, key/value pairs can be added using {#store}. Unlike RubyHash,
+  # a new hash is returned, and the existing one is left unchanged:
+  #
+  #     hash = Hamster::Hash[a: 100, b: 200]
+  #     hash.store(:c, 500) # => Hamster::Hash[:a => 100, :b => 200, :c => 500]
+  #     hash # => Hamster::Hash[:a => 100, :b => 200]
+  #
+  # You also use {#put}. The difference is that {#put} can optionally take a block which
+  # is used to calculate the value to be stored:
+  #
+  #     hash.put(:a) { hash[:b] + 100 } # => Hamster::Hash[:a => 300, :b => 200]
+  #
+  # Since it is immutable, all methods which you might expect to "modify" a `Hamster::Hash`
+  # actually return a new hash and leave the existing one unchanged. This means that the
+  # `hash[key] = value` syntax used with RubyHashes *cannot* be used with `Hamster::Hash`.
+  #
+  # While a `Hamster::Hash` can iterate over its keys (or values), it does not
+  # guarantee any specific iteration order (unlike RubyHash). Likewise, methods like
+  # {#flatten} do not guarantee which order the returned key/value pairs will appear
+  # in.
+  #
+  # Like RubyHash, a `Hamster::Hash` can have a default block which is used when
+  # looking up a key which does not exist in the hash. Unlike RubyHash, the default
+  # block will only be passed the missing key, not the hash itself:
+  #
+  #     hash = Hamster::Hash.new { |n| n * 10 }
+  #     hash[5] # => 50
+  #
+  # A default block can only be set when creating a `Hamster::Hash` with `Hamster::Hash.new` or
+  # {Hamster.hash Hamster.hash}, not with {Hamster::Hash.[] Hamster::Hash[]}. Default blocks
+  # do not survive marshalling and unmarshalling.
+  #
   class Hash
     extend Forwardable
     include Immutable
+    include Enumerable
 
     class << self
-      alias :alloc :new
-
-      def new(pairs = nil, &block)
-        if pairs.nil? && block.nil?
-          empty
-        elsif pairs.empty?
-          alloc(EmptyTrie, block)
-        else
-          alloc(Trie[pairs], block)
-        end
+      # Create a new `Hash` populated with the given key/value pairs.
+      #
+      # @return [Hash]
+      def [](pairs = nil)
+        (pairs.nil? || pairs.empty?) ? empty : new(pairs)
       end
 
+      # Return an empty `Hash`. If used on a subclass, returns an empty instance
+      # of that class.
+      #
+      # @return [Hash]
       def empty
-        @empty ||= self.alloc
+        @empty ||= self.new
+      end
+
+      # "Raw" allocation of a new `Hash`. Used internally to create a new
+      # instance quickly after obtaining a modified {Trie}.
+      #
+      # @return [Hash]
+      # @private
+      def alloc(trie = EmptyTrie, block = nil)
+        obj = allocate
+        obj.instance_variable_set(:@trie, trie)
+        obj.instance_variable_set(:@default, block)
+        obj
       end
     end
 
-    def initialize(trie = EmptyTrie, block = nil)
-      @trie    = trie
+    def initialize(pairs = nil, &block)
+      @trie = pairs ? Trie[pairs] : EmptyTrie
       @default = block
     end
 
+    # Return the default block if there is one. Otherwise, return `nil`.
+    #
+    # @return [Proc]
+    def default_proc
+      @default
+    end
+
+    # Return the number of key/value pairs in this `Hash`.
+    #
+    # @return [Integer]
     def size
       @trie.size
     end
     def_delegator :self, :size, :length
 
+    # Return `true` if this `Hash` contains no key/value pairs.
+    #
+    # @return [Boolean]
     def empty?
       @trie.empty?
     end
     def_delegator :self, :empty?, :null?
 
+    # Return `true` if the given key object is present in this `Hash`. More precisely,
+    # return `true` if a key with the same `#hash` code, and which is also `#eql?`
+    # to the given key object is present.
+    #
+    # @param key [Object] The key to check for
+    # @return [Boolean]
     def key?(key)
       @trie.key?(key)
     end
@@ -54,142 +145,394 @@ module Hamster
     def_delegator :self, :key?, :include?
     def_delegator :self, :key?, :member?
 
+    # Return `true` if this `Hash` has one or more keys which map to the provided value.
+    #
+    # @param value [Object] The value to check for
+    # @return [Boolean]
+    def value?(value)
+      each { |k,v| return true if value == v }
+      false
+    end
+    def_delegator :self, :value?, :has_value?
+
+    # Retrieve the value corresponding to the provided key object. If not found, and
+    # this `Hash` has a default block, the default block is called to provide the
+    # value.
+    #
+    # @param key [Object] The key to look up
+    # @return [Object]
     def get(key)
       entry = @trie.get(key)
       if entry
-        entry.value
+        entry[1]
       elsif @default
         @default.call(key)
       end
     end
     def_delegator :self, :get, :[]
 
+    # Retrieve the value corresponding to the given key object, or use the provided
+    # default value or block, or otherwise raise a `KeyError`.
+    #
+    # @overload fetch(key)
+    #   Retrieve the value corresponding to the given key, or raise a `KeyError`
+    #   if it is not found.
+    #   @param key [Object] The key to look up
+    # @overload fetch(key) { |key| ... }
+    #   Retrieve the value corresponding to the given key, or call the optional
+    #   code block (with the missing key) and get its return value.
+    #   @yield [key] The key which was not found
+    #   @yieldreturn [Object] Object to return since the key was not found
+    #   @param key [Object] The key to look up
+    # @overload fetch(key, default)
+    #   Retrieve the value corresponding to the given key, or else return
+    #   the provided `default` value.
+    #   @param key [Object] The key to look up
+    #   @param default [Object] Object to return if the key is not found
+    #
+    # @return [Object]
     def fetch(key, default = Undefined)
       entry = @trie.get(key)
       if entry
-        entry.value
+        entry[1]
+      elsif block_given?
+        yield(key)
       elsif default != Undefined
         default
-      elsif block_given?
-        yield
       else
         raise KeyError, "key not found: #{key.inspect}"
       end
     end
 
-    def put(key, value = Undefined)
-      return put(key, yield(get(key))) if value.equal?(Undefined)
-      transform { @trie = @trie.put(key, value) }
+    # Return a new `Hash` with the existing key/value associations, plus an association
+    # between the provided key and value. If an equivalent key is already present, its
+    # associated value will be replaced with the provided one.
+    #
+    # If the `value` argument is missing, but an optional code block is provided,
+    # it will be passed the existing value (or `nil` if there is none) and what it
+    # returns will replace the existing value. This is useful for "transforming"
+    # the value associated with a certain key.
+    #
+    # Avoid mutating objects which are used as keys. `String`s are an exception --
+    # unfrozen `String`s which are used as keys are internally duplicated and
+    # frozen.
+    #
+    # @param key [Object] The key to store
+    # @param value [Object] The value to associate it with
+    # @yield [value] The previously stored value
+    # @yieldreturn [Object] The new value to store
+    # @return [Hash]
+    def put(key, value = yield(get(key)))
+      self.class.alloc(@trie.put(key, value), @default)
     end
 
-    def delete(key)
-      trie = @trie.delete(key)
-      transform_unless(trie.equal?(@trie)) { @trie = trie }
+    # Return a new `Hash` with the existing key/value associations, plus an association
+    # between the provided key and value. If an equivalent key is already present, its
+    # associated value will be replaced with the provided one.
+    #
+    # Avoid mutating objects which are used as keys. `String`s are an exception --
+    # unfrozen `String`s which are used as keys are internally duplicated and
+    # frozen.
+    #
+    # @param key [Object] The key to store
+    # @param value [Object] The value to associate it with
+    # @return [Hash]
+    def store(key, value)
+      self.class.alloc(@trie.put(key, value), @default)
     end
 
-    def each
-      return self unless block_given?
-      @trie.each { |entry| yield(entry.key, entry.value) }
+    # Return a new `Hash` with the association for `key` removed. If `key` is not
+    # present, return `self`.
+    #
+    # @param key [Object] The key to remove
+    # @return [Hash]
+    def delete(key)
+      derive_new_hash(@trie.delete(key))
     end
-    def_delegator :self, :each, :foreach
 
-    def map
-      return self unless block_given?
-      return self if empty?
-      transform { @trie = @trie.reduce(EmptyTrie) { |trie, entry| trie.put(*yield(entry.key, entry.value)) } }
+    # Call the block once for each key/value pair in this `Hash`, passing the key/value
+    # pair as parameters. No specific iteration order is guaranteed (but the order will
+    # be stable for any particular `Hash`.)
+    #
+    # @return [self]
+    def each(&block)
+      return to_enum if not block_given?
+      @trie.each(&block)
+      self
     end
-    def_delegator :self, :map, :collect
-
-    def reduce(memoization)
-      return memoization unless block_given?
-      @trie.reduce(memoization) { |memo, entry| yield(memo, entry.key, entry.value) }
+    def_delegator :self, :each, :each_pair
+
+    # Call the block once for each key/value pair in this `Hash`, passing the key/value
+    # pair as parameters. Iteration order will be the opposite of {#each}.
+    #
+    # @return [self]
+    def reverse_each(&block)
+      return enum_for(:reverse_each) if not block_given?
+      @trie.reverse_each(&block)
+      self
     end
-    def_delegator :self, :reduce, :inject
-    def_delegator :self, :reduce, :fold
-    def_delegator :self, :reduce, :foldr
 
-    def filter
-      return self unless block_given?
-      trie = @trie.filter { |entry| yield(entry.key, entry.value) }
-      return self.class.empty if trie.empty?
-      transform_unless(trie.equal?(@trie)) { @trie = trie }
+    # Call the block once for each key/value pair in this `Hash`, passing the key as a
+    # parameter.
+    #
+    # @return [self]
+    def each_key
+      return enum_for(:each_key) if not block_given?
+      @trie.each { |k,v| yield k }
+      self
     end
-    def_delegator :self, :filter, :select
-    def_delegator :self, :filter, :find_all
 
-    def remove
-      return self unless block_given?
-      filter { |key, value| !yield(key, value) }
+    # Call the block once for each key/value pair in this `Hash`, passing the value as a
+    # parameter.
+    #
+    # @return [self]
+    def each_value
+      return enum_for(:each_value) if not block_given?
+      @trie.each { |k,v| yield v }
+      self
     end
-    def_delegator :self, :remove, :reject
-    def_delegator :self, :remove, :delete_if
 
-    def any?
-      return !empty? unless block_given?
-      each { |key, value| return true if yield(key, value) }
-      false
+    # Call the block once for each key/value pair in this `Hash`, passing the key/value
+    # pair as parameters. The block should return a `[key, value]` array each time.
+    # All the returned `[key, value]` arrays will be gathered into a new `Hash`.
+    #
+    # @return [Hash]
+    def map
+      return enum_for(:map) unless block_given?
+      return self if empty?
+      self.class.new(super, &@default)
     end
-    def_delegator :self, :any?, :exist?
-    def_delegator :self, :any?, :exists?
+    def_delegator :self, :map, :collect
 
-    def all?
-      each { |key, value| return false unless yield(key, value) } if block_given?
-      true
-    end
-    def_delegator :self, :all?, :forall?
+    def_delegator :self, :reduce, :foldr
 
-    def none?
-      return empty? unless block_given?
-      each { |key, value| return false if yield(key, value) }
-      true
+    # Return a new `Hash` with all the key/value pairs for which the block returns true.
+    #
+    # @return [Hash]
+    def filter(&block)
+      return enum_for(:filter) unless block_given?
+      derive_new_hash(@trie.filter(&block))
     end
 
+    # Yield `[key, value]` pairs until one is found for which the block returns true.
+    # Return that `[key, value]` pair. If the block never returns true, return `nil`.
+    #
+    # @return [Array]
     def find
-      return nil unless block_given?
-      each { |key, value| return Tuple.new(key, value) if yield(key, value) }
+      return enum_for(:find) unless block_given?
+      each { |entry| return entry if yield entry }
       nil
     end
     def_delegator :self, :find, :detect
 
+    def_delegator :self, :max, :maximum
+    def_delegator :self, :min, :minimum
+
+    # Return a new `Hash` containing all the key/value pairs from this `Hash` and
+    # `other`. If no block is provided, the value for entries with colliding keys
+    # will be that from `other`. Otherwie, the value for each duplicate key is
+    # determined by called the block with the key, its value in this `Hash`, and
+    # its value in `other`.
+    #
+    # `other` can be a `Hamster::Hash`, a built-in Ruby `Hash`, or any `Enumerable`
+    # object which yields `[key, value]` pairs.
+    #
+    # @param other [Enumerable] The collection to merge with
+    # @yieldparam key [Object] The key which was present in both collections
+    # @yieldparam my_value [Object] The associated value from this `Hash`
+    # @yieldparam other_value [Object] The associated value from the other collection
+    # @yieldreturn [Object] The value to associate this key with in the new `Hash`
+    # @return [Hash]
     def merge(other)
-      transform do
-        other.each { |key, value| @trie = @trie.put(key, value) }
+      trie = if block_given?
+        other.reduce(@trie) do |trie, (key, value)|
+          if entry = trie.get(key)
+            trie.put(key, yield(key, entry[1], value))
+          else
+            trie.put(key, value)
+          end
+        end
+      else
+        other.reduce(@trie) { |trie, (key, value)| trie.put(key, value) }
       end
+
+      derive_new_hash(trie)
     end
     def_delegator :self, :merge, :+
 
+    # Return a {Vector} which contains all the `[key, value]` pairs in this `Hash`
+    # as 2-element Arrays, either in their natural sorted order as determined by
+    # `#<=>`, or if an optional block is supplied, by using the block as a comparator.
+    # See `Enumerable#sort`.
+    #
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def sort
+      Vector.new(super)
+    end
+
+    # Return a {Vector} which contains all the `[key, value]` pairs in this `Hash`
+    # as 2-element Arrays. The order which the pairs will appear in is determined by
+    # passing each pair to the code block to obtain a sort key object, and comparing
+    # the sort keys using `#<=>`.
+    # See `Enumerable#sort_by`.
+    #
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def sort_by
+      Vector.new(super)
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `Hash` with the associations for all of the given `keys` removed.
+    #
+    # @param keys [Array] The keys to remove
+    # @return [Hash]
     def except(*keys)
       keys.reduce(self) { |hash, key| hash.delete(key) }
     end
 
+    # Return a new `Hash` with only the associations for the `wanted` keys retained.
+    # If any of the `wanted` keys are not present in this `Hash`, they will not be present
+    # in the returned `Hash` either.
+    #
+    # @param wanted [Array] The keys to retain
+    # @return [Hash]
     def slice(*wanted)
-      except(*keys - wanted)
+      trie = Trie.new(0)
+      wanted.each { |key| trie.put!(key, get(key)) if key?(key) }
+      self.class.alloc(trie, @default)
+    end
+
+    # Return a {Vector} of the values which correspond to the `wanted` keys.
+    # If any of the `wanted` keys are not present in this `Hash`, they will be skipped.
+    #
+    # @param wanted [Array] The keys to retrieve
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def values_at(*wanted)
+      array = []
+      wanted.each { |key| array << get(key) if key?(key) }
+      Vector.new(array.freeze)
     end
 
+    # Return a new {Set} populated with the keys from this `Hash`.
+    #
+    # @return [Set]
     def keys
-      Hamster::Set.alloc(@trie)
+      Set.alloc(@trie)
     end
 
+    # Return a new {Vector} populated with the values from this `Hash`.
+    #
+    # @return [Vector]
     def values
-      reduce(Hamster.list) { |values, key, value| values.cons(value) }
+      Vector.new(each_value.to_a.freeze)
+    end
+
+    # Return a new `Hash` created by using our keys as values, and values as keys.
+    # If there are multiple values which are equivalent (as determined by `#hash` and
+    # `#eql?`), only one out of each group of equivalent values will be retained.
+    #
+    # @return [Hash]
+    def invert
+      pairs = []
+      each { |k,v| pairs << [v, k] }
+      self.class.new(pairs, &@default)
+    end
+
+    # Return a new {Vector} which is a one-dimensional flattening of this `Hash`.
+    # If `level` is 1, all the `[key, value]` pairs in the hash will be concatenated
+    # into one {Vector}. If `level` is greater than 1, keys or values which are
+    # themselves `Array`s or {Vector}s will be recursively flattened into the output
+    # {Vector}. The depth to which that flattening will be recursively applied is
+    # determined by `level`.
+    #
+    # As a special case, if `level` is 0, each `[key, value]` pair will be a
+    # separate element in the returned {Vector}.
+    #
+    # @param level [Integer] The number of times to recursively flatten the `[key, value]` pairs in this `Hash`.
+    # @return [Vector]
+    def flatten(level = 1)
+      return Vector.new(self) if level == 0
+      array = []
+      each { |k,v| array << k; array << v }
+      array.flatten!(level-1) if level > 1
+      Vector.new(array.freeze)
+    end
+
+    # Searches through the `Hash`, comparing `obj` with each key (using `#==`).
+    # When a matching key is found, return the `[key, value]` pair as an array.
+    # Return `nil` if no match is found.
+    #
+    # @param obj [Object] The key to search for (using #==)
+    # @return [Array]
+    def assoc(obj)
+      each { |entry| return entry if obj == entry[0] }
+      nil
+    end
+
+    # Searches through the `Hash`, comparing `obj` with each value (using `#==`).
+    # When a matching value is found, return the `[key, value]` pair as an array.
+    # Return `nil` if no match is found.
+    #
+    # @param obj [Object] The value to search for (using #==)
+    # @return [Array]
+    def rassoc(obj)
+      each { |entry| return entry if obj == entry[1] }
+      nil
+    end
+
+    # Searches through the `Hash`, comparing `value` with each value (using `#==`).
+    # When a matching value is found, return its associated key object.
+    # Return `nil` if no match is found.
+    #
+    # @param value [Object] The value to search for (using #==)
+    # @return [Object]
+    def key(value)
+      each { |entry| return entry[0] if value == entry[1] }
+      nil
+    end
+
+    # Return a randomly chosen `[key, value]` pair from this `Hash`. If the hash is empty,
+    # return `nil`.
+    #
+    # @return [Array]
+    def sample
+      @trie.at(rand(size))
     end
 
+    # Return an empty `Hash` instance, of the same class as this one. Useful if you
+    # have multiple subclasses of `Hash` and want to treat them polymorphically.
+    # Maintains the default block, if there is one.
+    #
+    # @return [Hash]
     def clear
-      self.class.empty
+      if @default
+        self.class.alloc(EmptyTrie, @default)
+      else
+        self.class.empty
+      end
     end
 
-    # Value-and-type equality
+    # Return true if `other` has the same type and contents as this `Hash`.
+    #
+    # @param other [Object] The collection to compare with
+    # @return [Boolean]
     def eql?(other)
+      return true if other.equal?(self)
       instance_of?(other.class) && @trie.eql?(other.instance_variable_get(:@trie))
     end
 
-    # Value equality, will do type coercion
+    # Return true if `other` has the same contents as this `Hash`. Will convert
+    # `other` to a Ruby `Hash` using `#to_hash` if necessary.
+    #
+    # @param other [Object] The object to compare with
+    # @return [Boolean]
     def ==(other)
       self.eql?(other) || (other.respond_to?(:to_hash) && to_hash.eql?(other.to_hash))
     end
 
+    # See `Object#hash`.
+    # @return [Integer]
     def hash
-      keys.sort.reduce(0) do |hash, key|
+      keys.to_a.sort.reduce(0) do |hash, key|
         (hash << 32) - hash + key.hash + get(key).hash
       end
     end
@@ -198,10 +541,48 @@ module Hamster
     def_delegator :self, :dup, :nub
     def_delegator :self, :dup, :remove_duplicates
 
+    # Return the contents of this `Hash` as a programmer-readable `String`. If all the
+    # keys and values are serializable as Ruby literal strings, the returned string can
+    # be passed to `eval` to reconstitute an equivalent `Hash`. However, the default
+    # block (if there is one) will be lost when doing this.
+    #
+    # @return [String]
     def inspect
-      "{#{reduce([]) { |memo, key, value| memo << "#{key.inspect} => #{value.inspect}" }.join(", ")}}"
+      result = "#{self.class}["
+      i = 0
+      each do |key, val|
+        result << ', ' if i > 0
+        result << key.inspect << ' => ' << val.inspect
+        i += 1
+      end
+      result << "]"
     end
 
+    # Allows this `Hash` to be printed at the `pry` console, or using `pp` (from the
+    # Ruby standard library), in a way which takes the amount of horizontal space on
+    # the screen into account, and which indents nested structures to make them easier
+    # to read.
+    #
+    # @private
+    def pretty_print(pp)
+      pp.group(1, "#{self.class}[", "]") do
+        pp.breakable ''
+        pp.seplist(self, nil) do |key, val|
+          pp.group do
+            key.pretty_print(pp)
+            pp.text ' => '
+            pp.group(1) do
+              pp.breakable ''
+              val.pretty_print(pp)
+            end
+          end
+        end
+      end
+    end
+
+    # Convert this `Hamster::Hash` to an instance of Ruby's built-in `Hash`.
+    #
+    # @return [::Hash]
     def to_hash
       output = {}
       each do |key, value|
@@ -209,17 +590,42 @@ module Hamster
       end
       output
     end
+    def_delegator :self, :to_hash, :to_h
 
+    # @return [::Hash]
+    # @private
     def marshal_dump
       to_hash
     end
 
+    # @private
     def marshal_load(dictionary)
-      @trie = dictionary.reduce EmptyTrie do |trie, key_value|
-        trie.put(key_value.first, key_value.last)
+      @trie = Trie[dictionary]
+    end
+
+    private
+
+    # Return a new `Hash` which is derived from this one, using a modified {Trie}.
+    # The new `Hash` will retain the existing default block, if there is one.
+    #
+    def derive_new_hash(trie)
+      if trie.equal?(@trie)
+        self
+      elsif trie.empty?
+        if @default
+          self.class.alloc(EmptyTrie, @default)
+        else
+          self.class.empty
+        end
+      else
+        self.class.alloc(trie, @default)
       end
     end
   end
 
+  # The canonical empty `Hash`. Returned by `Hamster.hash` and `Hash[]` when
+  # invoked with no arguments; also returned by `Hash.empty`. Prefer using this
+  # one rather than creating many empty hashes using `Hash.new`.
+  #
   EmptyHash = Hamster::Hash.empty
 end