grpc 1.43.1 → 1.53.0

data/third_party/abseil-cpp/absl/strings/cord.cc

@@ -20,6 +20,7 @@
 #include <cstdio>
 #include <cstdlib>
 #include <iomanip>
+#include <ios>
 #include <iostream>
 #include <limits>
 #include <ostream>
@@ -34,9 +35,13 @@
 #include "absl/base/port.h"
 #include "absl/container/fixed_array.h"
 #include "absl/container/inlined_vector.h"
+#include "absl/crc/internal/crc_cord_state.h"
+#include "absl/strings/cord_buffer.h"
 #include "absl/strings/escaping.h"
+#include "absl/strings/internal/cord_data_edge.h"
 #include "absl/strings/internal/cord_internal.h"
 #include "absl/strings/internal/cord_rep_btree.h"
+#include "absl/strings/internal/cord_rep_crc.h"
 #include "absl/strings/internal/cord_rep_flat.h"
 #include "absl/strings/internal/cordz_statistics.h"
 #include "absl/strings/internal/cordz_update_scope.h"
@@ -52,7 +57,7 @@ ABSL_NAMESPACE_BEGIN
 
 using ::absl::cord_internal::CordRep;
 using ::absl::cord_internal::CordRepBtree;
-using ::absl::cord_internal::CordRepConcat;
+using ::absl::cord_internal::CordRepCrc;
 using ::absl::cord_internal::CordRepExternal;
 using ::absl::cord_internal::CordRepFlat;
 using ::absl::cord_internal::CordRepSubstring;
@@ -64,56 +69,6 @@ using ::absl::cord_internal::kMinFlatLength;
 using ::absl::cord_internal::kInlinedVectorSize;
 using ::absl::cord_internal::kMaxBytesToCopy;
 
-constexpr uint64_t Fibonacci(unsigned char n, uint64_t a = 0, uint64_t b = 1) {
-  return n == 0 ? a : Fibonacci(n - 1, b, a + b);
-}
-
-static_assert(Fibonacci(63) == 6557470319842,
-              "Fibonacci values computed incorrectly");
-
-// Minimum length required for a given depth tree -- a tree is considered
-// balanced if
-//      length(t) >= min_length[depth(t)]
-// The root node depth is allowed to become twice as large to reduce rebalancing
-// for larger strings (see IsRootBalanced).
-static constexpr uint64_t min_length[] = {
-    Fibonacci(2),          Fibonacci(3),  Fibonacci(4),  Fibonacci(5),
-    Fibonacci(6),          Fibonacci(7),  Fibonacci(8),  Fibonacci(9),
-    Fibonacci(10),         Fibonacci(11), Fibonacci(12), Fibonacci(13),
-    Fibonacci(14),         Fibonacci(15), Fibonacci(16), Fibonacci(17),
-    Fibonacci(18),         Fibonacci(19), Fibonacci(20), Fibonacci(21),
-    Fibonacci(22),         Fibonacci(23), Fibonacci(24), Fibonacci(25),
-    Fibonacci(26),         Fibonacci(27), Fibonacci(28), Fibonacci(29),
-    Fibonacci(30),         Fibonacci(31), Fibonacci(32), Fibonacci(33),
-    Fibonacci(34),         Fibonacci(35), Fibonacci(36), Fibonacci(37),
-    Fibonacci(38),         Fibonacci(39), Fibonacci(40), Fibonacci(41),
-    Fibonacci(42),         Fibonacci(43), Fibonacci(44), Fibonacci(45),
-    Fibonacci(46),         Fibonacci(47),
-    0xffffffffffffffffull,  // Avoid overflow
-};
-
-static const int kMinLengthSize = ABSL_ARRAYSIZE(min_length);
-
-static inline bool btree_enabled() {
-  return cord_internal::cord_btree_enabled.load(
-      std::memory_order_relaxed);
-}
-
-static inline bool IsRootBalanced(CordRep* node) {
-  if (!node->IsConcat()) {
-    return true;
-  } else if (node->concat()->depth() <= 15) {
-    return true;
-  } else if (node->concat()->depth() > kMinLengthSize) {
-    return false;
-  } else {
-    // Allow depth to become twice as large as implied by fibonacci rule to
-    // reduce rebalancing for larger strings.
-    return (node->length >= min_length[node->concat()->depth() / 2]);
-  }
-}
-
-static CordRep* Rebalance(CordRep* node);
 static void DumpNode(CordRep* rep, bool include_data, std::ostream* os,
                      int indent = 0);
 static bool VerifyNode(CordRep* root, CordRep* start_node,
@@ -135,75 +90,6 @@ static inline CordRep* VerifyTree(CordRep* node) {
   return node;
 }
 
-// Return the depth of a node
-static int Depth(const CordRep* rep) {
-  if (rep->IsConcat()) {
-    return rep->concat()->depth();
-  } else {
-    return 0;
-  }
-}
-
-static void SetConcatChildren(CordRepConcat* concat, CordRep* left,
-                              CordRep* right) {
-  concat->left = left;
-  concat->right = right;
-
-  concat->length = left->length + right->length;
-  concat->set_depth(1 + std::max(Depth(left), Depth(right)));
-}
-
-// Create a concatenation of the specified nodes.
-// Does not change the refcounts of "left" and "right".
-// The returned node has a refcount of 1.
-static CordRep* RawConcat(CordRep* left, CordRep* right) {
-  // Avoid making degenerate concat nodes (one child is empty)
-  if (left == nullptr) return right;
-  if (right == nullptr) return left;
-  if (left->length == 0) {
-    CordRep::Unref(left);
-    return right;
-  }
-  if (right->length == 0) {
-    CordRep::Unref(right);
-    return left;
-  }
-
-  CordRepConcat* rep = new CordRepConcat();
-  rep->tag = cord_internal::CONCAT;
-  SetConcatChildren(rep, left, right);
-
-  return rep;
-}
-
-static CordRep* Concat(CordRep* left, CordRep* right) {
-  CordRep* rep = RawConcat(left, right);
-  if (rep != nullptr && !IsRootBalanced(rep)) {
-    rep = Rebalance(rep);
-  }
-  return VerifyTree(rep);
-}
-
-// Make a balanced tree out of an array of leaf nodes.
-static CordRep* MakeBalancedTree(CordRep** reps, size_t n) {
-  // Make repeated passes over the array, merging adjacent pairs
-  // until we are left with just a single node.
-  while (n > 1) {
-    size_t dst = 0;
-    for (size_t src = 0; src < n; src += 2) {
-      if (src + 1 < n) {
-        reps[dst] = Concat(reps[src], reps[src + 1]);
-      } else {
-        reps[dst] = reps[src];
-      }
-      dst++;
-    }
-    n = dst;
-  }
-
-  return reps[0];
-}
-
 static CordRepFlat* CreateFlat(const char* data, size_t length,
                                size_t alloc_hint) {
   CordRepFlat* flat = CordRepFlat::New(length + alloc_hint);
@@ -229,21 +115,7 @@ static CordRep* NewBtree(const char* data, size_t length, size_t alloc_hint) {
 // The returned node has a refcount of 1.
 static CordRep* NewTree(const char* data, size_t length, size_t alloc_hint) {
   if (length == 0) return nullptr;
-  if (btree_enabled()) {
-    return NewBtree(data, length, alloc_hint);
-  }
-  absl::FixedArray<CordRep*> reps((length - 1) / kMaxFlatLength + 1);
-  size_t n = 0;
-  do {
-    const size_t len = std::min(length, kMaxFlatLength);
-    CordRepFlat* rep = CordRepFlat::New(len + alloc_hint);
-    rep->length = len;
-    memcpy(rep->Data(), data, len);
-    reps[n++] = VerifyTree(rep);
-    data += len;
-    length -= len;
-  } while (length != 0);
-  return MakeBalancedTree(reps.data(), n);
+  return NewBtree(data, length, alloc_hint);
 }
 
 namespace cord_internal {
@@ -258,22 +130,6 @@ void InitializeCordRepExternal(absl::string_view data, CordRepExternal* rep) {
 
 }  // namespace cord_internal
 
-static CordRep* NewSubstring(CordRep* child, size_t offset, size_t length) {
-  // Never create empty substring nodes
-  if (length == 0) {
-    CordRep::Unref(child);
-    return nullptr;
-  } else {
-    CordRepSubstring* rep = new CordRepSubstring();
-    assert((offset + length) <= child->length);
-    rep->length = length;
-    rep->tag = cord_internal::SUBSTRING;
-    rep->start = offset;
-    rep->child = child;
-    return VerifyTree(rep);
-  }
-}
-
 // Creates a CordRep from the provided string. If the string is large enough,
 // and not wasteful, we move the string into an external cord rep, preserving
 // the already allocated string contents.
@@ -306,14 +162,13 @@ static CordRep* CordRepFromString(std::string&& src) {
 // --------------------------------------------------------------------
 // Cord::InlineRep functions
 
+#ifdef ABSL_INTERNAL_NEED_REDUNDANT_CONSTEXPR_DECL
 constexpr unsigned char Cord::InlineRep::kMaxInline;
+#endif
 
-inline void Cord::InlineRep::set_data(const char* data, size_t n,
-                                      bool nullify_tail) {
+inline void Cord::InlineRep::set_data(const char* data, size_t n) {
   static_assert(kMaxInline == 15, "set_data is hard-coded for a length of 15");
-
-  cord_internal::SmallMemmove(data_.as_chars(), data, n, nullify_tail);
-  set_inline_size(n);
+  data_.set_inline_data(data, n);
 }
 
 inline char* Cord::InlineRep::set_data(size_t n) {
@@ -329,7 +184,7 @@ inline void Cord::InlineRep::reduce_size(size_t n) {
   assert(tag >= n);
   tag -= n;
   memset(data_.as_chars() + tag, 0, n);
-  set_inline_size(static_cast<char>(tag));
+  set_inline_size(tag);
 }
 
 inline void Cord::InlineRep::remove_prefix(size_t n) {
@@ -341,7 +196,9 @@ inline void Cord::InlineRep::remove_prefix(size_t n) {
 // Returns `rep` converted into a CordRepBtree.
 // Directly returns `rep` if `rep` is already a CordRepBtree.
 static CordRepBtree* ForceBtree(CordRep* rep) {
-  return rep->IsBtree() ? rep->btree() : CordRepBtree::Create(rep);
+  return rep->IsBtree()
+             ? rep->btree()
+             : CordRepBtree::Create(cord_internal::RemoveCrcNode(rep));
 }
 
 void Cord::InlineRep::AppendTreeToInlined(CordRep* tree,
@@ -349,11 +206,7 @@ void Cord::InlineRep::AppendTreeToInlined(CordRep* tree,
   assert(!is_tree());
   if (!data_.is_empty()) {
     CordRepFlat* flat = MakeFlatWithExtraCapacity(0);
-    if (btree_enabled()) {
-      tree = CordRepBtree::Append(CordRepBtree::Create(flat), tree);
-    } else {
-      tree = Concat(flat, tree);
-    }
+    tree = CordRepBtree::Append(CordRepBtree::Create(flat), tree);
   }
   EmplaceTree(tree, method);
 }
@@ -361,16 +214,14 @@ void Cord::InlineRep::AppendTreeToInlined(CordRep* tree,
 void Cord::InlineRep::AppendTreeToTree(CordRep* tree, MethodIdentifier method) {
   assert(is_tree());
   const CordzUpdateScope scope(data_.cordz_info(), method);
-  if (btree_enabled()) {
-    tree = CordRepBtree::Append(ForceBtree(data_.as_tree()), tree);
-  } else {
-    tree = Concat(data_.as_tree(), tree);
-  }
+  tree = CordRepBtree::Append(ForceBtree(data_.as_tree()), tree);
   SetTree(tree, scope);
 }
 
 void Cord::InlineRep::AppendTree(CordRep* tree, MethodIdentifier method) {
-  if (tree == nullptr) return;
+  assert(tree != nullptr);
+  assert(tree->length != 0);
+  assert(!tree->IsCrc());
   if (data_.is_tree()) {
     AppendTreeToTree(tree, method);
   } else {
@@ -383,11 +234,7 @@ void Cord::InlineRep::PrependTreeToInlined(CordRep* tree,
   assert(!is_tree());
   if (!data_.is_empty()) {
     CordRepFlat* flat = MakeFlatWithExtraCapacity(0);
-    if (btree_enabled()) {
-      tree = CordRepBtree::Prepend(CordRepBtree::Create(flat), tree);
-    } else {
-      tree = Concat(tree, flat);
-    }
+    tree = CordRepBtree::Prepend(CordRepBtree::Create(flat), tree);
   }
   EmplaceTree(tree, method);
 }
@@ -396,16 +243,14 @@ void Cord::InlineRep::PrependTreeToTree(CordRep* tree,
                                         MethodIdentifier method) {
   assert(is_tree());
   const CordzUpdateScope scope(data_.cordz_info(), method);
-  if (btree_enabled()) {
-    tree = CordRepBtree::Prepend(ForceBtree(data_.as_tree()), tree);
-  } else {
-    tree = Concat(tree, data_.as_tree());
-  }
+  tree = CordRepBtree::Prepend(ForceBtree(data_.as_tree()), tree);
   SetTree(tree, scope);
 }
 
 void Cord::InlineRep::PrependTree(CordRep* tree, MethodIdentifier method) {
   assert(tree != nullptr);
+  assert(tree->length != 0);
+  assert(!tree->IsCrc());
   if (data_.is_tree()) {
     PrependTreeToTree(tree, method);
   } else {
@@ -419,7 +264,7 @@ void Cord::InlineRep::PrependTree(CordRep* tree, MethodIdentifier method) {
 // written to region and the actual size increase will be written to size.
 static inline bool PrepareAppendRegion(CordRep* root, char** region,
                                        size_t* size, size_t max_length) {
-  if (root->IsBtree() && root->refcount.IsMutable()) {
+  if (root->IsBtree() && root->refcount.IsOne()) {
     Span<char> span = root->btree()->GetAppendBuffer(max_length);
     if (!span.empty()) {
       *region = span.data();
@@ -428,13 +273,8 @@ static inline bool PrepareAppendRegion(CordRep* root, char** region,
     }
   }
 
-  // Search down the right-hand path for a non-full FLAT node.
   CordRep* dst = root;
-  while (dst->IsConcat() && dst->refcount.IsMutable()) {
-    dst = dst->concat()->right;
-  }
-
-  if (!dst->IsFlat() || !dst->refcount.IsMutable()) {
+  if (!dst->IsFlat() || !dst->refcount.IsOne()) {
     *region = nullptr;
     *size = 0;
     return false;
@@ -448,12 +288,7 @@ static inline bool PrepareAppendRegion(CordRep* root, char** region,
     return false;
   }
 
-  size_t size_increase = std::min(capacity - in_use, max_length);
-
-  // We need to update the length fields for all nodes, including the leaf node.
-  for (CordRep* rep = root; rep != dst; rep = rep->concat()->right) {
-    rep->length += size_increase;
-  }
+  const size_t size_increase = std::min(capacity - in_use, max_length);
   dst->length += size_increase;
 
   *region = dst->flat()->Data() + in_use;
@@ -461,90 +296,6 @@ static inline bool PrepareAppendRegion(CordRep* root, char** region,
   return true;
 }
 
-template <bool has_length>
-void Cord::InlineRep::GetAppendRegion(char** region, size_t* size,
-                                      size_t length) {
-  auto constexpr method = CordzUpdateTracker::kGetAppendRegion;
-
-  CordRep* root = tree();
-  size_t sz = root ? root->length : inline_size();
-  if (root == nullptr) {
-    size_t available = kMaxInline - sz;
-    if (available >= (has_length ? length : 1)) {
-      *region = data_.as_chars() + sz;
-      *size = has_length ? length : available;
-      set_inline_size(has_length ? sz + length : kMaxInline);
-      return;
-    }
-  }
-
-  size_t extra = has_length ? length : (std::max)(sz, kMinFlatLength);
-  CordRep* rep = root ? root : MakeFlatWithExtraCapacity(extra);
-  CordzUpdateScope scope(root ? data_.cordz_info() : nullptr, method);
-  if (PrepareAppendRegion(rep, region, size, length)) {
-    CommitTree(root, rep, scope, method);
-    return;
-  }
-
-  // Allocate new node.
-  CordRepFlat* new_node = CordRepFlat::New(extra);
-  new_node->length = std::min(new_node->Capacity(), length);
-  *region = new_node->Data();
-  *size = new_node->length;
-
-  if (btree_enabled()) {
-    rep = CordRepBtree::Append(ForceBtree(rep), new_node);
-  } else {
-    rep = Concat(rep, new_node);
-  }
-  CommitTree(root, rep, scope, method);
-}
-
-// Computes the memory side of the provided edge which must be a valid data edge
-// for a btrtee, i.e., a FLAT, EXTERNAL or SUBSTRING of a FLAT or EXTERNAL node.
-static bool RepMemoryUsageDataEdge(const CordRep* rep,
-                                   size_t* total_mem_usage) {
-  size_t maybe_sub_size = 0;
-  if (ABSL_PREDICT_FALSE(rep->IsSubstring())) {
-    maybe_sub_size = sizeof(cord_internal::CordRepSubstring);
-    rep = rep->substring()->child;
-  }
-  if (rep->IsFlat()) {
-    *total_mem_usage += maybe_sub_size + rep->flat()->AllocatedSize();
-    return true;
-  }
-  if (rep->IsExternal()) {
-    // We don't know anything about the embedded / bound data, but we can safely
-    // assume it is 'at least' a word / pointer to data. In the future we may
-    // choose to use the 'data' byte as a tag to identify the types of some
-    // well-known externals, such as a std::string instance.
-    *total_mem_usage += maybe_sub_size +
-                        sizeof(cord_internal::CordRepExternalImpl<intptr_t>) +
-                        rep->length;
-    return true;
-  }
-  return false;
-}
-
-// If the rep is a leaf, this will increment the value at total_mem_usage and
-// will return true.
-static bool RepMemoryUsageLeaf(const CordRep* rep, size_t* total_mem_usage) {
-  if (rep->IsFlat()) {
-    *total_mem_usage += rep->flat()->AllocatedSize();
-    return true;
-  }
-  if (rep->IsExternal()) {
-    // We don't know anything about the embedded / bound data, but we can safely
-    // assume it is 'at least' a word / pointer to data. In the future we may
-    // choose to use the 'data' byte as a tag to identify the types of some
-    // well-known externals, such as a std::string instance.
-    *total_mem_usage +=
-        sizeof(cord_internal::CordRepExternalImpl<intptr_t>) + rep->length;
-    return true;
-  }
-  return false;
-}
-
 void Cord::InlineRep::AssignSlow(const Cord::InlineRep& src) {
   assert(&src != this);
   assert(is_tree() || src.is_tree());
@@ -581,7 +332,7 @@ Cord::Cord(absl::string_view src, MethodIdentifier method)
     : contents_(InlineData::kDefaultInit) {
   const size_t n = src.size();
   if (n <= InlineRep::kMaxInline) {
-    contents_.set_data(src.data(), n, true);
+    contents_.set_data(src.data(), n);
   } else {
     CordRep* rep = NewTree(src.data(), n, 0);
     contents_.EmplaceTree(rep, method);
@@ -591,7 +342,7 @@ Cord::Cord(absl::string_view src, MethodIdentifier method)
 template <typename T, Cord::EnableIfString<T>>
 Cord::Cord(T&& src) : contents_(InlineData::kDefaultInit) {
   if (src.size() <= InlineRep::kMaxInline) {
-    contents_.set_data(src.data(), src.size(), true);
+    contents_.set_data(src.data(), src.size());
   } else {
     CordRep* rep = CordRepFromString(std::forward<T>(src));
     contents_.EmplaceTree(rep, CordzUpdateTracker::kConstructorString);
@@ -642,14 +393,14 @@ Cord& Cord::operator=(absl::string_view src) {
     // - MaybeUntrackCord must be called before set_data() clobbers cordz_info.
     // - set_data() must be called before Unref(tree) as it may reference tree.
     if (tree != nullptr) CordzInfo::MaybeUntrackCord(contents_.cordz_info());
-    contents_.set_data(data, length, true);
+    contents_.set_data(data, length);
     if (tree != nullptr) CordRep::Unref(tree);
     return *this;
   }
   if (tree != nullptr) {
     CordzUpdateScope scope(contents_.cordz_info(), method);
     if (tree->IsFlat() && tree->flat()->Capacity() >= length &&
-        tree->refcount.IsMutable()) {
+        tree->refcount.IsOne()) {
       // Copy in place if the existing FLAT node is reusable.
       memmove(tree->flat()->Data(), data, length);
       tree->length = length;
@@ -668,6 +419,7 @@ Cord& Cord::operator=(absl::string_view src) {
 // we keep it here to make diffs easier.
 void Cord::InlineRep::AppendArray(absl::string_view src,
                                   MethodIdentifier method) {
+  MaybeRemoveEmptyCrcNode();
   if (src.empty()) return;  // memcpy(_, nullptr, 0) is undefined.
 
   size_t appended = 0;
@@ -675,6 +427,7 @@ void Cord::InlineRep::AppendArray(absl::string_view src,
   const CordRep* const root = rep;
   CordzUpdateScope scope(root ? cordz_info() : nullptr, method);
   if (root != nullptr) {
+    rep = cord_internal::RemoveCrcNode(rep);
     char* region;
     if (PrepareAppendRegion(rep, &region, &appended, src.size())) {
       memcpy(region, src.data(), appended);
@@ -684,8 +437,8 @@ void Cord::InlineRep::AppendArray(absl::string_view src,
     size_t inline_length = inline_size();
     if (src.size() <= kMaxInline - inline_length) {
       // Append new data to embedded array
-      memcpy(data_.as_chars() + inline_length, src.data(), src.size());
       set_inline_size(inline_length + src.size());
+      memcpy(data_.as_chars() + inline_length, src.data(), src.size());
       return;
     }
 
@@ -705,27 +458,11 @@ void Cord::InlineRep::AppendArray(absl::string_view src,
     return;
   }
 
-  if (btree_enabled()) {
-    // TODO(b/192061034): keep legacy 10% growth rate: consider other rates.
-    rep = ForceBtree(rep);
-    const size_t min_growth = std::max<size_t>(rep->length / 10, src.size());
-    rep = CordRepBtree::Append(rep->btree(), src, min_growth - src.size());
-  } else {
-    // Use new block(s) for any remaining bytes that were not handled above.
-    // Alloc extra memory only if the right child of the root of the new tree
-    // is going to be a FLAT node, which will permit further inplace appends.
-    size_t length = src.size();
-    if (src.size() < kMaxFlatLength) {
-      // The new length is either
-      // - old size + 10%
-      // - old_size + src.size()
-      // This will cause a reasonable conservative step-up in size that is
-      // still large enough to avoid excessive amounts of small fragments
-      // being added.
-      length = std::max<size_t>(rep->length / 10, src.size());
-    }
-    rep = Concat(rep, NewTree(src.data(), src.size(), length - src.size()));
-  }
+  // TODO(b/192061034): keep legacy 10% growth rate: consider other rates.
+  rep = ForceBtree(rep);
+  const size_t min_growth = std::max<size_t>(rep->length / 10, src.size());
+  rep = CordRepBtree::Append(rep->btree(), src, min_growth - src.size());
+
   CommitTree(root, rep, scope, method);
 }
 
@@ -742,11 +479,16 @@ inline CordRep* Cord::TakeRep() && {
 template <typename C>
 inline void Cord::AppendImpl(C&& src) {
   auto constexpr method = CordzUpdateTracker::kAppendCord;
+
+  contents_.MaybeRemoveEmptyCrcNode();
+  if (src.empty()) return;
+
   if (empty()) {
     // Since destination is empty, we can avoid allocating a node,
     if (src.contents_.is_tree()) {
       // by taking the tree directly
-      CordRep* rep = std::forward<C>(src).TakeRep();
+      CordRep* rep =
+          cord_internal::RemoveCrcNode(std::forward<C>(src).TakeRep());
       contents_.EmplaceTree(rep, method);
     } else {
       // or copying over inline data
@@ -782,10 +524,56 @@ inline void Cord::AppendImpl(C&& src) {
   }
 
   // Guaranteed to be a tree (kMaxBytesToCopy > kInlinedSize)
-  CordRep* rep = std::forward<C>(src).TakeRep();
+  CordRep* rep = cord_internal::RemoveCrcNode(std::forward<C>(src).TakeRep());
   contents_.AppendTree(rep, CordzUpdateTracker::kAppendCord);
 }
 
+static CordRep::ExtractResult ExtractAppendBuffer(CordRep* rep,
+                                                  size_t min_capacity) {
+  switch (rep->tag) {
+    case cord_internal::BTREE:
+      return CordRepBtree::ExtractAppendBuffer(rep->btree(), min_capacity);
+    default:
+      if (rep->IsFlat() && rep->refcount.IsOne() &&
+          rep->flat()->Capacity() - rep->length >= min_capacity) {
+        return {nullptr, rep};
+      }
+      return {rep, nullptr};
+  }
+}
+
+static CordBuffer CreateAppendBuffer(InlineData& data, size_t block_size,
+                                     size_t capacity) {
+  // Watch out for overflow, people can ask for size_t::max().
+  const size_t size = data.inline_size();
+  const size_t max_capacity = std::numeric_limits<size_t>::max() - size;
+  capacity = (std::min)(max_capacity, capacity) + size;
+  CordBuffer buffer =
+      block_size ? CordBuffer::CreateWithCustomLimit(block_size, capacity)
+                 : CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(capacity);
+  cord_internal::SmallMemmove(buffer.data(), data.as_chars(), size);
+  buffer.SetLength(size);
+  data = {};
+  return buffer;
+}
+
+CordBuffer Cord::GetAppendBufferSlowPath(size_t block_size, size_t capacity,
+                                         size_t min_capacity) {
+  auto constexpr method = CordzUpdateTracker::kGetAppendBuffer;
+  CordRep* tree = contents_.tree();
+  if (tree != nullptr) {
+    CordzUpdateScope scope(contents_.cordz_info(), method);
+    CordRep::ExtractResult result = ExtractAppendBuffer(tree, min_capacity);
+    if (result.extracted != nullptr) {
+      contents_.SetTreeOrEmpty(result.tree, scope);
+      return CordBuffer(result.extracted->flat());
+    }
+    return block_size ? CordBuffer::CreateWithCustomLimit(block_size, capacity)
+                      : CordBuffer::CreateWithDefaultLimit(capacity);
+  }
+  return CreateAppendBuffer(contents_.data_, block_size, capacity);
+}
+
 void Cord::Append(const Cord& src) {
   AppendImpl(src);
 }
@@ -807,10 +595,14 @@ void Cord::Append(T&& src) {
 template void Cord::Append(std::string&& src);
 
 void Cord::Prepend(const Cord& src) {
+  contents_.MaybeRemoveEmptyCrcNode();
+  if (src.empty()) return;
+
   CordRep* src_tree = src.contents_.tree();
   if (src_tree != nullptr) {
     CordRep::Ref(src_tree);
-    contents_.PrependTree(src_tree, CordzUpdateTracker::kPrependCord);
+    contents_.PrependTree(cord_internal::RemoveCrcNode(src_tree),
+                          CordzUpdateTracker::kPrependCord);
     return;
   }
 
@@ -820,16 +612,18 @@ void Cord::Prepend(const Cord& src) {
 }
 
 void Cord::PrependArray(absl::string_view src, MethodIdentifier method) {
+  contents_.MaybeRemoveEmptyCrcNode();
   if (src.empty()) return;  // memcpy(_, nullptr, 0) is undefined.
+
   if (!contents_.is_tree()) {
     size_t cur_size = contents_.inline_size();
     if (cur_size + src.size() <= InlineRep::kMaxInline) {
       // Use embedded storage.
-      char data[InlineRep::kMaxInline + 1] = {0};
-      memcpy(data, src.data(), src.size());
-      memcpy(data + src.size(), contents_.data(), cur_size);
-      memcpy(contents_.data_.as_chars(), data, InlineRep::kMaxInline + 1);
-      contents_.set_inline_size(cur_size + src.size());
+      InlineData data;
+      data.set_inline_size(cur_size + src.size());
+      memcpy(data.as_chars(), src.data(), src.size());
+      memcpy(data.as_chars() + src.size(), contents_.data(), cur_size);
+      contents_.data_ = data;
       return;
     }
   }
@@ -837,121 +631,71 @@ void Cord::PrependArray(absl::string_view src, MethodIdentifier method) {
   contents_.PrependTree(rep, method);
 }
 
-template <typename T, Cord::EnableIfString<T>>
-inline void Cord::Prepend(T&& src) {
-  if (src.size() <= kMaxBytesToCopy) {
-    Prepend(absl::string_view(src));
+void Cord::AppendPrecise(absl::string_view src, MethodIdentifier method) {
+  assert(!src.empty());
+  assert(src.size() <= cord_internal::kMaxFlatLength);
+  if (contents_.remaining_inline_capacity() >= src.size()) {
+    const size_t inline_length = contents_.inline_size();
+    contents_.set_inline_size(inline_length + src.size());
+    memcpy(contents_.data_.as_chars() + inline_length, src.data(), src.size());
   } else {
-    CordRep* rep = CordRepFromString(std::forward<T>(src));
-    contents_.PrependTree(rep, CordzUpdateTracker::kPrependString);
+    contents_.AppendTree(CordRepFlat::Create(src), method);
   }
 }
 
-template void Cord::Prepend(std::string&& src);
-
-static CordRep* RemovePrefixFrom(CordRep* node, size_t n) {
-  if (n >= node->length) return nullptr;
-  if (n == 0) return CordRep::Ref(node);
-  absl::InlinedVector<CordRep*, kInlinedVectorSize> rhs_stack;
-
-  while (node->IsConcat()) {
-    assert(n <= node->length);
-    if (n < node->concat()->left->length) {
-      // Push right to stack, descend left.
-      rhs_stack.push_back(node->concat()->right);
-      node = node->concat()->left;
-    } else {
-      // Drop left, descend right.
-      n -= node->concat()->left->length;
-      node = node->concat()->right;
-    }
-  }
-  assert(n <= node->length);
-
-  if (n == 0) {
-    CordRep::Ref(node);
+void Cord::PrependPrecise(absl::string_view src, MethodIdentifier method) {
+  assert(!src.empty());
+  assert(src.size() <= cord_internal::kMaxFlatLength);
+  if (contents_.remaining_inline_capacity() >= src.size()) {
+    const size_t cur_size = contents_.inline_size();
+    InlineData data;
+    data.set_inline_size(cur_size + src.size());
+    memcpy(data.as_chars(), src.data(), src.size());
+    memcpy(data.as_chars() + src.size(), contents_.data(), cur_size);
+    contents_.data_ = data;
   } else {
-    size_t start = n;
-    size_t len = node->length - n;
-    if (node->IsSubstring()) {
-      // Consider in-place update of node, similar to in RemoveSuffixFrom().
-      start += node->substring()->start;
-      node = node->substring()->child;
-    }
-    node = NewSubstring(CordRep::Ref(node), start, len);
+    contents_.PrependTree(CordRepFlat::Create(src), method);
   }
-  while (!rhs_stack.empty()) {
-    node = Concat(node, CordRep::Ref(rhs_stack.back()));
-    rhs_stack.pop_back();
-  }
-  return node;
 }
 
-// RemoveSuffixFrom() is very similar to RemovePrefixFrom(), with the
-// exception that removing a suffix has an optimization where a node may be
-// edited in place iff that node and all its ancestors have a refcount of 1.
-static CordRep* RemoveSuffixFrom(CordRep* node, size_t n) {
-  if (n >= node->length) return nullptr;
-  if (n == 0) return CordRep::Ref(node);
-  absl::InlinedVector<CordRep*, kInlinedVectorSize> lhs_stack;
-  bool inplace_ok = node->refcount.IsMutable();
-
-  while (node->IsConcat()) {
-    assert(n <= node->length);
-    if (n < node->concat()->right->length) {
-      // Push left to stack, descend right.
-      lhs_stack.push_back(node->concat()->left);
-      node = node->concat()->right;
-    } else {
-      // Drop right, descend left.
-      n -= node->concat()->right->length;
-      node = node->concat()->left;
-    }
-    inplace_ok = inplace_ok && node->refcount.IsMutable();
-  }
-  assert(n <= node->length);
-
-  if (n == 0) {
-    CordRep::Ref(node);
-  } else if (inplace_ok && !node->IsExternal()) {
-    // Consider making a new buffer if the current node capacity is much
-    // larger than the new length.
-    CordRep::Ref(node);
-    node->length -= n;
+template <typename T, Cord::EnableIfString<T>>
+inline void Cord::Prepend(T&& src) {
+  if (src.size() <= kMaxBytesToCopy) {
+    Prepend(absl::string_view(src));
   } else {
-    size_t start = 0;
-    size_t len = node->length - n;
-    if (node->IsSubstring()) {
-      start = node->substring()->start;
-      node = node->substring()->child;
-    }
-    node = NewSubstring(CordRep::Ref(node), start, len);
-  }
-  while (!lhs_stack.empty()) {
-    node = Concat(CordRep::Ref(lhs_stack.back()), node);
-    lhs_stack.pop_back();
+    CordRep* rep = CordRepFromString(std::forward<T>(src));
+    contents_.PrependTree(rep, CordzUpdateTracker::kPrependString);
   }
-  return node;
 }
 
+template void Cord::Prepend(std::string&& src);
+
 void Cord::RemovePrefix(size_t n) {
   ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(n <= size(),
                       absl::StrCat("Requested prefix size ", n,
                                    " exceeds Cord's size ", size()));
+  contents_.MaybeRemoveEmptyCrcNode();
   CordRep* tree = contents_.tree();
   if (tree == nullptr) {
     contents_.remove_prefix(n);
   } else {
     auto constexpr method = CordzUpdateTracker::kRemovePrefix;
     CordzUpdateScope scope(contents_.cordz_info(), method);
-    if (tree->IsBtree()) {
+    tree = cord_internal::RemoveCrcNode(tree);
+    if (n >= tree->length) {
+      CordRep::Unref(tree);
+      tree = nullptr;
+    } else if (tree->IsBtree()) {
       CordRep* old = tree;
       tree = tree->btree()->SubTree(n, tree->length - n);
       CordRep::Unref(old);
+    } else if (tree->IsSubstring() && tree->refcount.IsOne()) {
+      tree->substring()->start += n;
+      tree->length -= n;
     } else {
-      CordRep* newrep = RemovePrefixFrom(tree, n);
+      CordRep* rep = CordRepSubstring::Substring(tree, n, tree->length - n);
       CordRep::Unref(tree);
-      tree = VerifyTree(newrep);
+      tree = rep;
     }
     contents_.SetTreeOrEmpty(tree, scope);
   }
@@ -961,74 +705,31 @@ void Cord::RemoveSuffix(size_t n) {
   ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(n <= size(),
                       absl::StrCat("Requested suffix size ", n,
                                    " exceeds Cord's size ", size()));
+  contents_.MaybeRemoveEmptyCrcNode();
   CordRep* tree = contents_.tree();
   if (tree == nullptr) {
     contents_.reduce_size(n);
   } else {
     auto constexpr method = CordzUpdateTracker::kRemoveSuffix;
     CordzUpdateScope scope(contents_.cordz_info(), method);
-    if (tree->IsBtree()) {
+    tree = cord_internal::RemoveCrcNode(tree);
+    if (n >= tree->length) {
+      CordRep::Unref(tree);
+      tree = nullptr;
+    } else if (tree->IsBtree()) {
       tree = CordRepBtree::RemoveSuffix(tree->btree(), n);
+    } else if (!tree->IsExternal() && tree->refcount.IsOne()) {
+      assert(tree->IsFlat() || tree->IsSubstring());
+      tree->length -= n;
     } else {
-      CordRep* newrep = RemoveSuffixFrom(tree, n);
+      CordRep* rep = CordRepSubstring::Substring(tree, 0, tree->length - n);
       CordRep::Unref(tree);
-      tree = VerifyTree(newrep);
+      tree = rep;
     }
     contents_.SetTreeOrEmpty(tree, scope);
   }
 }
 
-// Work item for NewSubRange().
-struct SubRange {
-  SubRange(CordRep* a_node, size_t a_pos, size_t a_n)
-      : node(a_node), pos(a_pos), n(a_n) {}
-  CordRep* node;  // nullptr means concat last 2 results.
-  size_t pos;
-  size_t n;
-};
-
-static CordRep* NewSubRange(CordRep* node, size_t pos, size_t n) {
-  absl::InlinedVector<CordRep*, kInlinedVectorSize> results;
-  absl::InlinedVector<SubRange, kInlinedVectorSize> todo;
-  todo.push_back(SubRange(node, pos, n));
-  do {
-    const SubRange& sr = todo.back();
-    node = sr.node;
-    pos = sr.pos;
-    n = sr.n;
-    todo.pop_back();
-
-    if (node == nullptr) {
-      assert(results.size() >= 2);
-      CordRep* right = results.back();
-      results.pop_back();
-      CordRep* left = results.back();
-      results.pop_back();
-      results.push_back(Concat(left, right));
-    } else if (pos == 0 && n == node->length) {
-      results.push_back(CordRep::Ref(node));
-    } else if (!node->IsConcat()) {
-      if (node->IsSubstring()) {
-        pos += node->substring()->start;
-        node = node->substring()->child;
-      }
-      results.push_back(NewSubstring(CordRep::Ref(node), pos, n));
-    } else if (pos + n <= node->concat()->left->length) {
-      todo.push_back(SubRange(node->concat()->left, pos, n));
-    } else if (pos >= node->concat()->left->length) {
-      pos -= node->concat()->left->length;
-      todo.push_back(SubRange(node->concat()->right, pos, n));
-    } else {
-      size_t left_n = node->concat()->left->length - pos;
-      todo.push_back(SubRange(nullptr, 0, 0));  // Concat()
-      todo.push_back(SubRange(node->concat()->right, 0, n - left_n));
-      todo.push_back(SubRange(node->concat()->left, pos, left_n));
-    }
-  } while (!todo.empty());
-  assert(results.size() == 1);
-  return results[0];
-}
-
 Cord Cord::Subcord(size_t pos, size_t new_size) const {
   Cord sub_cord;
   size_t length = size();
@@ -1038,13 +739,12 @@ Cord Cord::Subcord(size_t pos, size_t new_size) const {
 
   CordRep* tree = contents_.tree();
   if (tree == nullptr) {
-    // sub_cord is newly constructed, no need to re-zero-out the tail of
-    // contents_ memory.
-    sub_cord.contents_.set_data(contents_.data() + pos, new_size, false);
+    sub_cord.contents_.set_data(contents_.data() + pos, new_size);
     return sub_cord;
   }
 
   if (new_size <= InlineRep::kMaxInline) {
+    sub_cord.contents_.set_inline_size(new_size);
     char* dest = sub_cord.contents_.data_.as_chars();
     Cord::ChunkIterator it = chunk_begin();
     it.AdvanceBytes(pos);
@@ -1056,160 +756,20 @@ Cord Cord::Subcord(size_t pos, size_t new_size) const {
       ++it;
     }
     cord_internal::SmallMemmove(dest, it->data(), remaining_size);
-    sub_cord.contents_.set_inline_size(new_size);
     return sub_cord;
   }
 
+  tree = cord_internal::SkipCrcNode(tree);
   if (tree->IsBtree()) {
     tree = tree->btree()->SubTree(pos, new_size);
   } else {
-    tree = NewSubRange(tree, pos, new_size);
+    tree = CordRepSubstring::Substring(tree, pos, new_size);
   }
   sub_cord.contents_.EmplaceTree(tree, contents_.data_,
                                  CordzUpdateTracker::kSubCord);
   return sub_cord;
 }
 
-// --------------------------------------------------------------------
-// Balancing
-
-class CordForest {
- public:
-  explicit CordForest(size_t length)
-      : root_length_(length), trees_(kMinLengthSize, nullptr) {}
-
-  void Build(CordRep* cord_root) {
-    std::vector<CordRep*> pending = {cord_root};
-
-    while (!pending.empty()) {
-      CordRep* node = pending.back();
-      pending.pop_back();
-      CheckNode(node);
-      if (ABSL_PREDICT_FALSE(!node->IsConcat())) {
-        AddNode(node);
-        continue;
-      }
-
-      CordRepConcat* concat_node = node->concat();
-      if (concat_node->depth() >= kMinLengthSize ||
-          concat_node->length < min_length[concat_node->depth()]) {
-        pending.push_back(concat_node->right);
-        pending.push_back(concat_node->left);
-
-        if (concat_node->refcount.IsOne()) {
-          concat_node->left = concat_freelist_;
-          concat_freelist_ = concat_node;
-        } else {
-          CordRep::Ref(concat_node->right);
-          CordRep::Ref(concat_node->left);
-          CordRep::Unref(concat_node);
-        }
-      } else {
-        AddNode(node);
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
-  CordRep* ConcatNodes() {
-    CordRep* sum = nullptr;
-    for (auto* node : trees_) {
-      if (node == nullptr) continue;
-
-      sum = PrependNode(node, sum);
-      root_length_ -= node->length;
-      if (root_length_ == 0) break;
-    }
-    ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(sum != nullptr, "Failed to locate sum node");
-    return VerifyTree(sum);
-  }
-
- private:
-  CordRep* AppendNode(CordRep* node, CordRep* sum) {
-    return (sum == nullptr) ? node : MakeConcat(sum, node);
-  }
-
-  CordRep* PrependNode(CordRep* node, CordRep* sum) {
-    return (sum == nullptr) ? node : MakeConcat(node, sum);
-  }
-
-  void AddNode(CordRep* node) {
-    CordRep* sum = nullptr;
-
-    // Collect together everything with which we will merge with node
-    int i = 0;
-    for (; node->length > min_length[i + 1]; ++i) {
-      auto& tree_at_i = trees_[i];
-
-      if (tree_at_i == nullptr) continue;
-      sum = PrependNode(tree_at_i, sum);
-      tree_at_i = nullptr;
-    }
-
-    sum = AppendNode(node, sum);
-
-    // Insert sum into appropriate place in the forest
-    for (; sum->length >= min_length[i]; ++i) {
-      auto& tree_at_i = trees_[i];
-      if (tree_at_i == nullptr) continue;
-
-      sum = MakeConcat(tree_at_i, sum);
-      tree_at_i = nullptr;
-    }
-
-    // min_length[0] == 1, which means sum->length >= min_length[0]
-    assert(i > 0);
-    trees_[i - 1] = sum;
-  }
-
-  // Make concat node trying to resue existing CordRepConcat nodes we
-  // already collected in the concat_freelist_.
-  CordRep* MakeConcat(CordRep* left, CordRep* right) {
-    if (concat_freelist_ == nullptr) return RawConcat(left, right);
-
-    CordRepConcat* rep = concat_freelist_;
-    if (concat_freelist_->left == nullptr) {
-      concat_freelist_ = nullptr;
-    } else {
-      concat_freelist_ = concat_freelist_->left->concat();
-    }
-    SetConcatChildren(rep, left, right);
-
-    return rep;
-  }
-
-  static void CheckNode(CordRep* node) {
-    ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(node->length != 0u, "");
-    if (node->IsConcat()) {
-      ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(node->concat()->left != nullptr, "");
-      ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(node->concat()->right != nullptr, "");
-      ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(node->length == (node->concat()->left->length +
-                                           node->concat()->right->length),
-                          "");
-    }
-  }
-
-  size_t root_length_;
-
-  // use an inlined vector instead of a flat array to get bounds checking
-  absl::InlinedVector<CordRep*, kInlinedVectorSize> trees_;
-
-  // List of concat nodes we can re-use for Cord balancing.
-  CordRepConcat* concat_freelist_ = nullptr;
-};
-
-static CordRep* Rebalance(CordRep* node) {
-  VerifyTree(node);
-  assert(node->IsConcat());
-
-  if (node->length == 0) {
-    return nullptr;
-  }
-
-  CordForest forest(node->length);
-  forest.Build(node);
-  return forest.ConcatNodes();
-}
-
 // --------------------------------------------------------------------
 // Comparators
 
@@ -1256,7 +816,7 @@ inline absl::string_view Cord::InlineRep::FindFlatStartPiece() const {
     return absl::string_view(data_.as_chars(), data_.inline_size());
   }
 
-  CordRep* node = tree();
+  CordRep* node = cord_internal::SkipCrcNode(tree());
   if (node->IsFlat()) {
     return absl::string_view(node->flat()->Data(), node->length);
   }
@@ -1274,11 +834,6 @@ inline absl::string_view Cord::InlineRep::FindFlatStartPiece() const {
     return tree->Data(tree->begin());
   }
 
-  // Walk down the left branches until we hit a non-CONCAT node.
-  while (node->IsConcat()) {
-    node = node->concat()->left;
-  }
-
   // Get the child node if we encounter a SUBSTRING.
   size_t offset = 0;
   size_t length = node->length;
@@ -1298,6 +853,46 @@ inline absl::string_view Cord::InlineRep::FindFlatStartPiece() const {
   return absl::string_view(node->external()->base + offset, length);
 }
 
+void Cord::SetCrcCordState(crc_internal::CrcCordState state) {
+  auto constexpr method = CordzUpdateTracker::kSetExpectedChecksum;
+  if (empty()) {
+    contents_.MaybeRemoveEmptyCrcNode();
+    CordRep* rep = CordRepCrc::New(nullptr, std::move(state));
+    contents_.EmplaceTree(rep, method);
+  } else if (!contents_.is_tree()) {
+    CordRep* rep = contents_.MakeFlatWithExtraCapacity(0);
+    rep = CordRepCrc::New(rep, std::move(state));
+    contents_.EmplaceTree(rep, method);
+  } else {
+    const CordzUpdateScope scope(contents_.data_.cordz_info(), method);
+    CordRep* rep = CordRepCrc::New(contents_.data_.as_tree(), std::move(state));
+    contents_.SetTree(rep, scope);
+  }
+}
+
+void Cord::SetExpectedChecksum(uint32_t crc) {
+  // Construct a CrcCordState with a single chunk.
+  crc_internal::CrcCordState state;
+  state.mutable_rep()->prefix_crc.push_back(
+      crc_internal::CrcCordState::PrefixCrc(size(), absl::crc32c_t{crc}));
+  SetCrcCordState(std::move(state));
+}
+
+const crc_internal::CrcCordState* Cord::MaybeGetCrcCordState() const {
+  if (!contents_.is_tree() || !contents_.tree()->IsCrc()) {
+    return nullptr;
+  }
+  return &contents_.tree()->crc()->crc_cord_state;
+}
+
+absl::optional<uint32_t> Cord::ExpectedChecksum() const {
+  if (!contents_.is_tree() || !contents_.tree()->IsCrc()) {
+    return absl::nullopt;
+  }
+  return static_cast<uint32_t>(
+      contents_.tree()->crc()->crc_cord_state.Checksum());
+}
+
 inline int Cord::CompareSlowPath(absl::string_view rhs, size_t compared_size,
                                  size_t size_to_compare) const {
   auto advance = [](Cord::ChunkIterator* it, absl::string_view* chunk) {
@@ -1363,6 +958,7 @@ inline int Cord::CompareSlowPath(const Cord& rhs, size_t compared_size,
 }
 
 inline absl::string_view Cord::GetFirstChunk(const Cord& c) {
+  if (c.empty()) return {};
   return c.contents_.FindFlatStartPiece();
 }
 inline absl::string_view Cord::GetFirstChunk(absl::string_view sv) {
@@ -1473,42 +1069,6 @@ void Cord::CopyToArraySlowPath(char* dst) const {
   }
 }
 
-Cord::ChunkIterator& Cord::ChunkIterator::AdvanceStack() {
-  auto& stack_of_right_children = stack_of_right_children_;
-  if (stack_of_right_children.empty()) {
-    assert(!current_chunk_.empty());  // Called on invalid iterator.
-    // We have reached the end of the Cord.
-    return *this;
-  }
-
-  // Process the next node on the stack.
-  CordRep* node = stack_of_right_children.back();
-  stack_of_right_children.pop_back();
-
-  // Walk down the left branches until we hit a non-CONCAT node. Save the
-  // right children to the stack for subsequent traversal.
-  while (node->IsConcat()) {
-    stack_of_right_children.push_back(node->concat()->right);
-    node = node->concat()->left;
-  }
-
-  // Get the child node if we encounter a SUBSTRING.
-  size_t offset = 0;
-  size_t length = node->length;
-  if (node->IsSubstring()) {
-    offset = node->substring()->start;
-    node = node->substring()->child;
-  }
-
-  assert(node->IsExternal() || node->IsFlat());
-  assert(length != 0);
-  const char* data =
-      node->IsExternal() ? node->external()->base : node->flat()->Data();
-  current_chunk_ = absl::string_view(data + offset, length);
-  current_leaf_ = node;
-  return *this;
-}
-
 Cord Cord::ChunkIterator::AdvanceAndReadBytes(size_t n) {
   ABSL_HARDENING_ASSERT(bytes_remaining_ >= n &&
                         "Attempted to iterate past `end()`");
@@ -1551,166 +1111,33 @@ Cord Cord::ChunkIterator::AdvanceAndReadBytes(size_t n) {
     return subcord;
   }
 
-  auto& stack_of_right_children = stack_of_right_children_;
-  if (n < current_chunk_.size()) {
-    // Range to read is a proper subrange of the current chunk.
-    assert(current_leaf_ != nullptr);
-    CordRep* subnode = CordRep::Ref(current_leaf_);
-    const char* data = subnode->IsExternal() ? subnode->external()->base
-                                             : subnode->flat()->Data();
-    subnode = NewSubstring(subnode, current_chunk_.data() - data, n);
-    subcord.contents_.EmplaceTree(VerifyTree(subnode), method);
-    RemoveChunkPrefix(n);
-    return subcord;
-  }
-
-  // Range to read begins with a proper subrange of the current chunk.
-  assert(!current_chunk_.empty());
+  // Short circuit if reading the entire data edge.
   assert(current_leaf_ != nullptr);
-  CordRep* subnode = CordRep::Ref(current_leaf_);
-  if (current_chunk_.size() < subnode->length) {
-    const char* data = subnode->IsExternal() ? subnode->external()->base
-                                             : subnode->flat()->Data();
-    subnode = NewSubstring(subnode, current_chunk_.data() - data,
-                           current_chunk_.size());
-  }
-  n -= current_chunk_.size();
-  bytes_remaining_ -= current_chunk_.size();
-
-  // Process the next node(s) on the stack, reading whole subtrees depending on
-  // their length and how many bytes we are advancing.
-  CordRep* node = nullptr;
-  while (!stack_of_right_children.empty()) {
-    node = stack_of_right_children.back();
-    stack_of_right_children.pop_back();
-    if (node->length > n) break;
-    // TODO(qrczak): This might unnecessarily recreate existing concat nodes.
-    // Avoiding that would need pretty complicated logic (instead of
-    // current_leaf, keep current_subtree_ which points to the highest node
-    // such that the current leaf can be found on the path of left children
-    // starting from current_subtree_; delay creating subnode while node is
-    // below current_subtree_; find the proper node along the path of left
-    // children starting from current_subtree_ if this loop exits while staying
-    // below current_subtree_; etc.; alternatively, push parents instead of
-    // right children on the stack).
-    subnode = Concat(subnode, CordRep::Ref(node));
-    n -= node->length;
-    bytes_remaining_ -= node->length;
-    node = nullptr;
-  }
-
-  if (node == nullptr) {
-    // We have reached the end of the Cord.
-    assert(bytes_remaining_ == 0);
-    subcord.contents_.EmplaceTree(VerifyTree(subnode), method);
+  if (n == current_leaf_->length) {
+    bytes_remaining_ = 0;
+    current_chunk_ = {};
+    CordRep* tree = CordRep::Ref(current_leaf_);
+    subcord.contents_.EmplaceTree(VerifyTree(tree), method);
     return subcord;
   }
 
-  // Walk down the appropriate branches until we hit a non-CONCAT node. Save the
-  // right children to the stack for subsequent traversal.
-  while (node->IsConcat()) {
-    if (node->concat()->left->length > n) {
-      // Push right, descend left.
-      stack_of_right_children.push_back(node->concat()->right);
-      node = node->concat()->left;
-    } else {
-      // Read left, descend right.
-      subnode = Concat(subnode, CordRep::Ref(node->concat()->left));
-      n -= node->concat()->left->length;
-      bytes_remaining_ -= node->concat()->left->length;
-      node = node->concat()->right;
-    }
-  }
-
-  // Get the child node if we encounter a SUBSTRING.
-  size_t offset = 0;
-  size_t length = node->length;
-  if (node->IsSubstring()) {
-    offset = node->substring()->start;
-    node = node->substring()->child;
-  }
+  // From this point on, we need a partial substring node.
+  // Get pointer to the underlying flat or external data payload and
+  // compute data pointer and offset into current flat or external.
+  CordRep* payload = current_leaf_->IsSubstring()
+                         ? current_leaf_->substring()->child
+                         : current_leaf_;
+  const char* data = payload->IsExternal() ? payload->external()->base
+                                           : payload->flat()->Data();
+  const size_t offset = static_cast<size_t>(current_chunk_.data() - data);
 
-  // Range to read ends with a proper (possibly empty) subrange of the current
-  // chunk.
-  assert(node->IsExternal() || node->IsFlat());
-  assert(length > n);
-  if (n > 0) {
-    subnode = Concat(subnode, NewSubstring(CordRep::Ref(node), offset, n));
-  }
-  const char* data =
-      node->IsExternal() ? node->external()->base : node->flat()->Data();
-  current_chunk_ = absl::string_view(data + offset + n, length - n);
-  current_leaf_ = node;
+  auto* tree = CordRepSubstring::Substring(payload, offset, n);
+  subcord.contents_.EmplaceTree(VerifyTree(tree), method);
   bytes_remaining_ -= n;
-  subcord.contents_.EmplaceTree(VerifyTree(subnode), method);
+  current_chunk_.remove_prefix(n);
   return subcord;
 }
 
-void Cord::ChunkIterator::AdvanceBytesSlowPath(size_t n) {
-  assert(bytes_remaining_ >= n && "Attempted to iterate past `end()`");
-  assert(n >= current_chunk_.size());  // This should only be called when
-                                       // iterating to a new node.
-
-  n -= current_chunk_.size();
-  bytes_remaining_ -= current_chunk_.size();
-
-  if (stack_of_right_children_.empty()) {
-    // We have reached the end of the Cord.
-    assert(bytes_remaining_ == 0);
-    return;
-  }
-
-  // Process the next node(s) on the stack, skipping whole subtrees depending on
-  // their length and how many bytes we are advancing.
-  CordRep* node = nullptr;
-  auto& stack_of_right_children = stack_of_right_children_;
-  while (!stack_of_right_children.empty()) {
-    node = stack_of_right_children.back();
-    stack_of_right_children.pop_back();
-    if (node->length > n) break;
-    n -= node->length;
-    bytes_remaining_ -= node->length;
-    node = nullptr;
-  }
-
-  if (node == nullptr) {
-    // We have reached the end of the Cord.
-    assert(bytes_remaining_ == 0);
-    return;
-  }
-
-  // Walk down the appropriate branches until we hit a non-CONCAT node. Save the
-  // right children to the stack for subsequent traversal.
-  while (node->IsConcat()) {
-    if (node->concat()->left->length > n) {
-      // Push right, descend left.
-      stack_of_right_children.push_back(node->concat()->right);
-      node = node->concat()->left;
-    } else {
-      // Skip left, descend right.
-      n -= node->concat()->left->length;
-      bytes_remaining_ -= node->concat()->left->length;
-      node = node->concat()->right;
-    }
-  }
-
-  // Get the child node if we encounter a SUBSTRING.
-  size_t offset = 0;
-  size_t length = node->length;
-  if (node->IsSubstring()) {
-    offset = node->substring()->start;
-    node = node->substring()->child;
-  }
-
-  assert(node->IsExternal() || node->IsFlat());
-  assert(length > n);
-  const char* data =
-      node->IsExternal() ? node->external()->base : node->flat()->Data();
-  current_chunk_ = absl::string_view(data + offset + n, length - n);
-  current_leaf_ = node;
-  bytes_remaining_ -= n;
-}
-
 char Cord::operator[](size_t i) const {
   ABSL_HARDENING_ASSERT(i < size());
   size_t offset = i;
@@ -1718,6 +1145,7 @@ char Cord::operator[](size_t i) const {
   if (rep == nullptr) {
     return contents_.data()[i];
   }
+  rep = cord_internal::SkipCrcNode(rep);
   while (true) {
     assert(rep != nullptr);
     assert(offset < rep->length);
@@ -1729,16 +1157,6 @@ char Cord::operator[](size_t i) const {
     } else if (rep->IsExternal()) {
       // Get the "i"th character from the external array.
       return rep->external()->base[offset];
-    } else if (rep->IsConcat()) {
-      // Recursively branch to the side of the concatenation that the "i"th
-      // character is on.
-      size_t left_length = rep->concat()->left->length;
-      if (offset < left_length) {
-        rep = rep->concat()->left;
-      } else {
-        offset -= left_length;
-        rep = rep->concat()->right;
-      }
     } else {
       // This must be a substring a node, so bypass it to get to the child.
       assert(rep->IsSubstring());
@@ -1778,6 +1196,11 @@ absl::string_view Cord::FlattenSlowPath() {
 
 /* static */ bool Cord::GetFlatAux(CordRep* rep, absl::string_view* fragment) {
   assert(rep != nullptr);
+  if (rep->length == 0) {
+    *fragment = absl::string_view();
+    return true;
+  }
+  rep = cord_internal::SkipCrcNode(rep);
   if (rep->IsFlat()) {
     *fragment = absl::string_view(rep->flat()->Data(), rep->length);
     return true;
@@ -1807,6 +1230,10 @@ absl::string_view Cord::FlattenSlowPath() {
 /* static */ void Cord::ForEachChunkAux(
     absl::cord_internal::CordRep* rep,
     absl::FunctionRef<void(absl::string_view)> callback) {
+  assert(rep != nullptr);
+  if (rep->length == 0) return;
+  rep = cord_internal::SkipCrcNode(rep);
+
   if (rep->IsBtree()) {
     ChunkIterator it(rep), end;
     while (it != end) {
@@ -1816,44 +1243,13 @@ absl::string_view Cord::FlattenSlowPath() {
     return;
   }
 
-  assert(rep != nullptr);
-  int stack_pos = 0;
-  constexpr int stack_max = 128;
-  // Stack of right branches for tree traversal
-  absl::cord_internal::CordRep* stack[stack_max];
-  absl::cord_internal::CordRep* current_node = rep;
-  while (true) {
-    if (current_node->IsConcat()) {
-      if (stack_pos == stack_max) {
-        // There's no more room on our stack array to add another right branch,
-        // and the idea is to avoid allocations, so call this function
-        // recursively to navigate this subtree further.  (This is not something
-        // we expect to happen in practice).
-        ForEachChunkAux(current_node, callback);
-
-        // Pop the next right branch and iterate.
-        current_node = stack[--stack_pos];
-        continue;
-      } else {
-        // Save the right branch for later traversal and continue down the left
-        // branch.
-        stack[stack_pos++] = current_node->concat()->right;
-        current_node = current_node->concat()->left;
-        continue;
-      }
-    }
-    // This is a leaf node, so invoke our callback.
-    absl::string_view chunk;
-    bool success = GetFlatAux(current_node, &chunk);
-    assert(success);
-    if (success) {
-      callback(chunk);
-    }
-    if (stack_pos == 0) {
-      // end of traversal
-      return;
-    }
-    current_node = stack[--stack_pos];
+  // This is a leaf node, so invoke our callback.
+  absl::cord_internal::CordRep* current_node = cord_internal::SkipCrcNode(rep);
+  absl::string_view chunk;
+  bool success = GetFlatAux(current_node, &chunk);
+  assert(success);
+  if (success) {
+    callback(chunk);
   }
 }
 
@@ -1868,19 +1264,21 @@ static void DumpNode(CordRep* rep, bool include_data, std::ostream* os,
     *os << " [";
     if (include_data) *os << static_cast<void*>(rep);
     *os << "]";
-    *os << " " << (IsRootBalanced(rep) ? 'b' : 'u');
     *os << " " << std::setw(indent) << "";
-    if (rep->IsConcat()) {
-      *os << "CONCAT depth=" << Depth(rep) << "\n";
+    bool leaf = false;
+    if (rep == nullptr) {
+      *os << "NULL\n";
+      leaf = true;
+    } else if (rep->IsCrc()) {
+      *os << "CRC crc=" << rep->crc()->crc_cord_state.Checksum() << "\n";
       indent += kIndentStep;
-      indents.push_back(indent);
-      stack.push_back(rep->concat()->right);
-      rep = rep->concat()->left;
+      rep = rep->crc()->child;
     } else if (rep->IsSubstring()) {
       *os << "SUBSTRING @ " << rep->substring()->start << "\n";
       indent += kIndentStep;
       rep = rep->substring()->child;
     } else {  // Leaf or ring
+      leaf = true;
       if (rep->IsExternal()) {
         *os << "EXTERNAL [";
         if (include_data)
@@ -1894,6 +1292,8 @@ static void DumpNode(CordRep* rep, bool include_data, std::ostream* os,
       } else {
         CordRepBtree::Dump(rep, /*label=*/ "", include_data, *os);
       }
+    }
+    if (leaf) {
       if (stack.empty()) break;
       rep = stack.back();
       stack.pop_back();
@@ -1912,7 +1312,7 @@ static std::string ReportError(CordRep* root, CordRep* node) {
 }
 
 static bool VerifyNode(CordRep* root, CordRep* start_node,
-                       bool full_validation) {
+                       bool /* full_validation */) {
   absl::InlinedVector<CordRep*, 2> worklist;
   worklist.push_back(start_node);
   do {
@@ -1922,21 +1322,10 @@ static bool VerifyNode(CordRep* root, CordRep* start_node,
     ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(node != nullptr, ReportError(root, node));
     if (node != root) {
       ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(node->length != 0, ReportError(root, node));
+      ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(!node->IsCrc(), ReportError(root, node));
     }
 
-    if (node->IsConcat()) {
-      ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(node->concat()->left != nullptr,
-                          ReportError(root, node));
-      ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(node->concat()->right != nullptr,
-                          ReportError(root, node));
-      ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK((node->length == node->concat()->left->length +
-                                               node->concat()->right->length),
-                          ReportError(root, node));
-      if (full_validation) {
-        worklist.push_back(node->concat()->right);
-        worklist.push_back(node->concat()->left);
-      }
-    } else if (node->IsFlat()) {
+    if (node->IsFlat()) {
       ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(node->length <= node->flat()->Capacity(),
                           ReportError(root, node));
     } else if (node->IsExternal()) {
@@ -1949,78 +1338,23 @@ static bool VerifyNode(CordRep* root, CordRep* start_node,
       ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(node->substring()->start + node->length <=
                               node->substring()->child->length,
                           ReportError(root, node));
+    } else if (node->IsCrc()) {
+      ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(
+          node->crc()->child != nullptr || node->crc()->length == 0,
+          ReportError(root, node));
+      if (node->crc()->child != nullptr) {
+        ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(node->crc()->length == node->crc()->child->length,
+                            ReportError(root, node));
+        worklist.push_back(node->crc()->child);
+      }
     }
   } while (!worklist.empty());
   return true;
 }
 
-// Traverses the tree and computes the total memory allocated.
-/* static */ size_t Cord::MemoryUsageAux(const CordRep* rep) {
-  size_t total_mem_usage = 0;
-
-  // Allow a quick exit for the common case that the root is a leaf.
-  if (RepMemoryUsageLeaf(rep, &total_mem_usage)) {
-    return total_mem_usage;
-  }
-
-  // Iterate over the tree. cur_node is never a leaf node and leaf nodes will
-  // never be appended to tree_stack. This reduces overhead from manipulating
-  // tree_stack.
-  absl::InlinedVector<const CordRep*, kInlinedVectorSize> tree_stack;
-  const CordRep* cur_node = rep;
-  while (true) {
-    const CordRep* next_node = nullptr;
-
-    if (cur_node->IsConcat()) {
-      total_mem_usage += sizeof(CordRepConcat);
-      const CordRep* left = cur_node->concat()->left;
-      if (!RepMemoryUsageLeaf(left, &total_mem_usage)) {
-        next_node = left;
-      }
-
-      const CordRep* right = cur_node->concat()->right;
-      if (!RepMemoryUsageLeaf(right, &total_mem_usage)) {
-        if (next_node) {
-          tree_stack.push_back(next_node);
-        }
-        next_node = right;
-      }
-    } else if (cur_node->IsBtree()) {
-      total_mem_usage += sizeof(CordRepBtree);
-      const CordRepBtree* node = cur_node->btree();
-      if (node->height() == 0) {
-        for (const CordRep* edge : node->Edges()) {
-          RepMemoryUsageDataEdge(edge, &total_mem_usage);
-        }
-      } else {
-        for (const CordRep* edge : node->Edges()) {
-          tree_stack.push_back(edge);
-        }
-      }
-    } else {
-      // Since cur_node is not a leaf or a concat node it must be a substring.
-      assert(cur_node->IsSubstring());
-      total_mem_usage += sizeof(CordRepSubstring);
-      next_node = cur_node->substring()->child;
-      if (RepMemoryUsageLeaf(next_node, &total_mem_usage)) {
-        next_node = nullptr;
-      }
-    }
-
-    if (!next_node) {
-      if (tree_stack.empty()) {
-        return total_mem_usage;
-      }
-      next_node = tree_stack.back();
-      tree_stack.pop_back();
-    }
-    cur_node = next_node;
-  }
-}
-
 std::ostream& operator<<(std::ostream& out, const Cord& cord) {
   for (absl::string_view chunk : cord.Chunks()) {
-    out.write(chunk.data(), chunk.size());
+    out.write(chunk.data(), static_cast<std::streamsize>(chunk.size()));
   }
   return out;
 }
@@ -2035,7 +1369,6 @@ uint8_t CordTestAccess::LengthToTag(size_t s) {
   ABSL_INTERNAL_CHECK(s <= kMaxFlatLength, absl::StrCat("Invalid length ", s));
   return cord_internal::AllocatedSizeToTag(s + cord_internal::kFlatOverhead);
 }
-size_t CordTestAccess::SizeofCordRepConcat() { return sizeof(CordRepConcat); }
 size_t CordTestAccess::SizeofCordRepExternal() {
   return sizeof(CordRepExternal);
 }