grpc 1.41.1 → 1.44.0.pre2

data/third_party/abseil-cpp/absl/strings/internal/cord_rep_btree.cc

@@ -0,0 +1,1128 @@
+// Copyright 2021 The Abseil Authors
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+//     https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+#include "absl/strings/internal/cord_rep_btree.h"
+
+#include <cassert>
+#include <cstdint>
+#include <iostream>
+#include <string>
+
+#include "absl/base/attributes.h"
+#include "absl/base/config.h"
+#include "absl/base/internal/raw_logging.h"
+#include "absl/strings/internal/cord_internal.h"
+#include "absl/strings/internal/cord_rep_consume.h"
+#include "absl/strings/internal/cord_rep_flat.h"
+#include "absl/strings/str_cat.h"
+#include "absl/strings/string_view.h"
+
+namespace absl {
+ABSL_NAMESPACE_BEGIN
+namespace cord_internal {
+
+constexpr size_t CordRepBtree::kMaxCapacity;  // NOLINT: needed for c++ < c++17
+
+namespace {
+
+using NodeStack = CordRepBtree * [CordRepBtree::kMaxDepth];
+using EdgeType = CordRepBtree::EdgeType;
+using OpResult = CordRepBtree::OpResult;
+using CopyResult = CordRepBtree::CopyResult;
+
+constexpr auto kFront = CordRepBtree::kFront;
+constexpr auto kBack = CordRepBtree::kBack;
+
+inline bool exhaustive_validation() {
+  return cord_btree_exhaustive_validation.load(std::memory_order_relaxed);
+}
+
+// Implementation of the various 'Dump' functions.
+// Prints the entire tree structure or 'rep'. External callers should
+// not specify 'depth' and leave it to its default (0) value.
+// Rep may be a CordRepBtree tree, or a SUBSTRING / EXTERNAL / FLAT node.
+void DumpAll(const CordRep* rep, bool include_contents, std::ostream& stream,
+             int depth = 0) {
+  // Allow for full height trees + substring -> flat / external nodes.
+  assert(depth <= CordRepBtree::kMaxDepth + 2);
+  std::string sharing = const_cast<CordRep*>(rep)->refcount.IsOne()
+                            ? std::string("Private")
+                            : absl::StrCat("Shared(", rep->refcount.Get(), ")");
+  std::string sptr = absl::StrCat("0x", absl::Hex(rep));
+
+  // Dumps the data contents of `rep` if `include_contents` is true.
+  // Always emits a new line character.
+  auto maybe_dump_data = [&stream, include_contents](const CordRep* r) {
+    if (include_contents) {
+      // Allow for up to 60 wide display of content data, which with some
+      // indentation and prefix / labels keeps us within roughly 80-100 wide.
+      constexpr size_t kMaxDataLength = 60;
+      stream << ", data = \""
+             << CordRepBtree::EdgeData(r).substr(0, kMaxDataLength)
+             << (r->length > kMaxDataLength ? "\"..." : "\"");
+    }
+    stream << '\n';
+  };
+
+  // For each level, we print the 'shared/private' state and the rep pointer,
+  // indented by two spaces per recursive depth.
+  stream << std::string(depth * 2, ' ') << sharing << " (" << sptr << ") ";
+
+  if (rep->IsBtree()) {
+    const CordRepBtree* node = rep->btree();
+    std::string label =
+        node->height() ? absl::StrCat("Node(", node->height(), ")") : "Leaf";
+    stream << label << ", len = " << node->length
+           << ", begin = " << node->begin() << ", end = " << node->end()
+           << "\n";
+    for (CordRep* edge : node->Edges()) {
+      DumpAll(edge, include_contents, stream, depth + 1);
+    }
+  } else if (rep->tag == SUBSTRING) {
+    const CordRepSubstring* substring = rep->substring();
+    stream << "Substring, len = " << rep->length
+           << ", start = " << substring->start;
+    maybe_dump_data(rep);
+    DumpAll(substring->child, include_contents, stream, depth + 1);
+  } else if (rep->tag >= FLAT) {
+    stream << "Flat, len = " << rep->length
+           << ", cap = " << rep->flat()->Capacity();
+    maybe_dump_data(rep);
+  } else if (rep->tag == EXTERNAL) {
+    stream << "Extn, len = " << rep->length;
+    maybe_dump_data(rep);
+  }
+}
+
+// TODO(b/192061034): add 'bytes to copy' logic to avoid large slop on substring
+// small data out of large reps, and general efficiency of 'always copy small
+// data'. Consider making this a cord rep internal library function.
+CordRepSubstring* CreateSubstring(CordRep* rep, size_t offset, size_t n) {
+  assert(n != 0);
+  assert(offset + n <= rep->length);
+  assert(offset != 0 || n != rep->length);
+
+  if (rep->tag == SUBSTRING) {
+    CordRepSubstring* substring = rep->substring();
+    offset += substring->start;
+    rep = CordRep::Ref(substring->child);
+    CordRep::Unref(substring);
+  }
+  CordRepSubstring* substring = new CordRepSubstring();
+  substring->length = n;
+  substring->tag = SUBSTRING;
+  substring->start = offset;
+  substring->child = rep;
+  return substring;
+}
+
+// TODO(b/192061034): consider making this a cord rep library function.
+inline CordRep* MakeSubstring(CordRep* rep, size_t offset, size_t n) {
+  if (n == rep->length) return rep;
+  if (n == 0) return CordRep::Unref(rep), nullptr;
+  return CreateSubstring(rep, offset, n);
+}
+
+// TODO(b/192061034): consider making this a cord rep library function.
+inline CordRep* MakeSubstring(CordRep* rep, size_t offset) {
+  if (offset == 0) return rep;
+  return CreateSubstring(rep, offset, rep->length - offset);
+}
+
+// Resizes `edge` to the provided `length`. Adopts a reference on `edge`.
+// This method directly returns `edge` if `length` equals `edge->length`.
+// If `is_mutable` is set to true, this function may return `edge` with
+// `edge->length` set to the new length depending on the type and size of
+// `edge`. Otherwise, this function returns a new CordRepSubstring value.
+// Requires `length > 0 && length <= edge->length`.
+CordRep* ResizeEdge(CordRep* edge, size_t length, bool is_mutable) {
+  assert(length > 0);
+  assert(length <= edge->length);
+  assert(CordRepBtree::IsDataEdge(edge));
+  if (length >= edge->length) return edge;
+
+  if (is_mutable && (edge->tag >= FLAT || edge->tag == SUBSTRING)) {
+    edge->length = length;
+    return edge;
+  }
+
+  return CreateSubstring(edge, 0, length);
+}
+
+template <EdgeType edge_type>
+inline absl::string_view Consume(absl::string_view s, size_t n) {
+  return edge_type == kBack ? s.substr(n) : s.substr(0, s.size() - n);
+}
+
+template <EdgeType edge_type>
+inline absl::string_view Consume(char* dst, absl::string_view s, size_t n) {
+  if (edge_type == kBack) {
+    memcpy(dst, s.data(), n);
+    return s.substr(n);
+  } else {
+    const size_t offset = s.size() - n;
+    memcpy(dst, s.data() + offset, n);
+    return s.substr(0, offset);
+  }
+}
+
+// Known issue / optimization weirdness: the store associated with the
+// decrement introduces traffic between cpus (even if the result of that
+// traffic does nothing), making this faster than a single call to
+// refcount.Decrement() checking the zero refcount condition.
+template <typename R, typename Fn>
+inline void FastUnref(R* r, Fn&& fn) {
+  if (r->refcount.IsOne()) {
+    fn(r);
+  } else if (!r->refcount.DecrementExpectHighRefcount()) {
+    fn(r);
+  }
+}
+
+// Deletes a leaf node data edge. Requires `rep` to be an EXTERNAL or FLAT
+// node, or a SUBSTRING of an EXTERNAL or FLAT node.
+void DeleteLeafEdge(CordRep* rep) {
+  for (;;) {
+    if (rep->tag >= FLAT) {
+      CordRepFlat::Delete(rep->flat());
+      return;
+    }
+    if (rep->tag == EXTERNAL) {
+      CordRepExternal::Delete(rep->external());
+      return;
+    }
+    assert(rep->tag == SUBSTRING);
+    CordRepSubstring* substring = rep->substring();
+    rep = substring->child;
+    assert(rep->tag == EXTERNAL || rep->tag >= FLAT);
+    delete substring;
+    if (rep->refcount.Decrement()) return;
+  }
+}
+
+// StackOperations contains the logic to build a left-most or right-most stack
+// (leg) down to the leaf level of a btree, and 'unwind' / 'Finalize' methods to
+// propagate node changes up the stack.
+template <EdgeType edge_type>
+struct StackOperations {
+  // Returns true if the node at 'depth' is mutable, i.e. has a refcount
+  // of one, carries no CRC, and all of its parent nodes have a refcount of one.
+  inline bool owned(int depth) const { return depth < share_depth; }
+
+  // Returns the node at 'depth'.
+  inline CordRepBtree* node(int depth) const { return stack[depth]; }
+
+  // Builds a `depth` levels deep stack starting at `tree` recording which nodes
+  // are private in the form of the 'share depth' where nodes are shared.
+  inline CordRepBtree* BuildStack(CordRepBtree* tree, int depth) {
+    assert(depth <= tree->height());
+    int current_depth = 0;
+    while (current_depth < depth && tree->refcount.IsMutable()) {
+      stack[current_depth++] = tree;
+      tree = tree->Edge(edge_type)->btree();
+    }
+    share_depth = current_depth + (tree->refcount.IsMutable() ? 1 : 0);
+    while (current_depth < depth) {
+      stack[current_depth++] = tree;
+      tree = tree->Edge(edge_type)->btree();
+    }
+    return tree;
+  }
+
+  // Builds a stack with the invariant that all nodes are private owned / not
+  // shared and carry no CRC data. This is used in iterative updates where a
+  // previous propagation guaranteed all nodes have this property.
+  inline void BuildOwnedStack(CordRepBtree* tree, int height) {
+    assert(height <= CordRepBtree::kMaxHeight);
+    int depth = 0;
+    while (depth < height) {
+      assert(tree->refcount.IsMutable());
+      stack[depth++] = tree;
+      tree = tree->Edge(edge_type)->btree();
+    }
+    assert(tree->refcount.IsMutable());
+    share_depth = depth + 1;
+  }
+
+  // Processes the final 'top level' result action for the tree.
+  // See the 'Action' enum for the various action implications.
+  static inline CordRepBtree* Finalize(CordRepBtree* tree, OpResult result) {
+    switch (result.action) {
+      case CordRepBtree::kPopped:
+        tree = edge_type == kBack ? CordRepBtree::New(tree, result.tree)
+                                  : CordRepBtree::New(result.tree, tree);
+        if (ABSL_PREDICT_FALSE(tree->height() > CordRepBtree::kMaxHeight)) {
+          tree = CordRepBtree::Rebuild(tree);
+          ABSL_RAW_CHECK(tree->height() <= CordRepBtree::kMaxHeight,
+                         "Max height exceeded");
+        }
+        return tree;
+      case CordRepBtree::kCopied:
+        CordRep::Unref(tree);
+        ABSL_FALLTHROUGH_INTENDED;
+      case CordRepBtree::kSelf:
+        return result.tree;
+    }
+    ABSL_INTERNAL_UNREACHABLE;
+    return result.tree;
+  }
+
+  // Propagate the action result in 'result' up into all nodes of the stack
+  // starting at depth 'depth'. 'length' contains the extra length of data that
+  // was added at the lowest level, and is updated into all nodes of the stack.
+  // See the 'Action' enum for the various action implications.
+  // If 'propagate' is true, then any copied node values are updated into the
+  // stack, which is used for iterative processing on the same stack.
+  template <bool propagate = false>
+  inline CordRepBtree* Unwind(CordRepBtree* tree, int depth, size_t length,
+                              OpResult result) {
+    // TODO(mvels): revisit the below code to check if 3 loops with 3
+    // (incremental) conditions is faster than 1 loop with a switch.
+    // Benchmarking and perf recordings indicate the loop with switch is
+    // fastest, likely because of indirect jumps on the tight case values and
+    // dense branches. But it's worth considering 3 loops, as the `action`
+    // transitions are mono directional. E.g.:
+    //   while (action == kPopped) {
+    //     ...
+    //   }
+    //   while (action == kCopied) {
+    //     ...
+    //   }
+    //   ...
+    // We also  found that an "if () do {}" loop here seems faster, possibly
+    // because it allows the branch predictor more granular heuristics on
+    // 'single leaf' (`depth` == 0) and 'single depth' (`depth` == 1) cases
+    // which appear to be the most common use cases.
+    if (depth != 0) {
+      do {
+        CordRepBtree* node = stack[--depth];
+        const bool owned = depth < share_depth;
+        switch (result.action) {
+          case CordRepBtree::kPopped:
+            assert(!propagate);
+            result = node->AddEdge<edge_type>(owned, result.tree, length);
+            break;
+          case CordRepBtree::kCopied:
+            result = node->SetEdge<edge_type>(owned, result.tree, length);
+            if (propagate) stack[depth] = result.tree;
+            break;
+          case CordRepBtree::kSelf:
+            node->length += length;
+            while (depth > 0) {
+              node = stack[--depth];
+              node->length += length;
+            }
+            return node;
+        }
+      } while (depth > 0);
+    }
+    return Finalize(tree, result);
+  }
+
+  // Invokes `Unwind` with `propagate=true` to update the stack node values.
+  inline CordRepBtree* Propagate(CordRepBtree* tree, int depth, size_t length,
+                                 OpResult result) {
+    return Unwind</*propagate=*/true>(tree, depth, length, result);
+  }
+
+  // `share_depth` contains the depth at which the nodes in the stack cannot
+  // be mutated. I.e., if the top most level is shared (i.e.:
+  // `!refcount.IsMutable()`), then `share_depth` is 0. If the 2nd node
+  // is shared (and implicitly all nodes below that) then `share_depth` is 1,
+  // etc. A `share_depth` greater than the depth of the stack indicates that
+  // none of the nodes in the stack are shared.
+  int share_depth;
+
+  NodeStack stack;
+};
+
+}  // namespace
+
+void CordRepBtree::Dump(const CordRep* rep, absl::string_view label,
+                        bool include_contents, std::ostream& stream) {
+  stream << "===================================\n";
+  if (!label.empty()) {
+    stream << label << '\n';
+    stream << "-----------------------------------\n";
+  }
+  if (rep) {
+    DumpAll(rep, include_contents, stream);
+  } else {
+    stream << "NULL\n";
+  }
+}
+
+void CordRepBtree::Dump(const CordRep* rep, absl::string_view label,
+                        std::ostream& stream) {
+  Dump(rep, label, false, stream);
+}
+
+void CordRepBtree::Dump(const CordRep* rep, std::ostream& stream) {
+  Dump(rep, absl::string_view(), false, stream);
+}
+
+void CordRepBtree::DestroyLeaf(CordRepBtree* tree, size_t begin, size_t end) {
+  for (CordRep* edge : tree->Edges(begin, end)) {
+    FastUnref(edge, DeleteLeafEdge);
+  }
+  Delete(tree);
+}
+
+void CordRepBtree::DestroyNonLeaf(CordRepBtree* tree, size_t begin,
+                                  size_t end) {
+  for (CordRep* edge : tree->Edges(begin, end)) {
+    FastUnref(edge->btree(), Destroy);
+  }
+  Delete(tree);
+}
+
+bool CordRepBtree::IsValid(const CordRepBtree* tree, bool shallow) {
+#define NODE_CHECK_VALID(x)                                           \
+  if (!(x)) {                                                         \
+    ABSL_RAW_LOG(ERROR, "CordRepBtree::CheckValid() FAILED: %s", #x); \
+    return false;                                                     \
+  }
+#define NODE_CHECK_EQ(x, y)                                                    \
+  if ((x) != (y)) {                                                            \
+    ABSL_RAW_LOG(ERROR,                                                        \
+                 "CordRepBtree::CheckValid() FAILED: %s != %s (%s vs %s)", #x, \
+                 #y, absl::StrCat(x).c_str(), absl::StrCat(y).c_str());        \
+    return false;                                                              \
+  }
+
+  NODE_CHECK_VALID(tree != nullptr);
+  NODE_CHECK_VALID(tree->IsBtree());
+  NODE_CHECK_VALID(tree->height() <= kMaxHeight);
+  NODE_CHECK_VALID(tree->begin() < tree->capacity());
+  NODE_CHECK_VALID(tree->end() <= tree->capacity());
+  NODE_CHECK_VALID(tree->begin() <= tree->end());
+  size_t child_length = 0;
+  for (CordRep* edge : tree->Edges()) {
+    NODE_CHECK_VALID(edge != nullptr);
+    if (tree->height() > 0) {
+      NODE_CHECK_VALID(edge->IsBtree());
+      NODE_CHECK_VALID(edge->btree()->height() == tree->height() - 1);
+    } else {
+      NODE_CHECK_VALID(IsDataEdge(edge));
+    }
+    child_length += edge->length;
+  }
+  NODE_CHECK_EQ(child_length, tree->length);
+  if ((!shallow || exhaustive_validation()) && tree->height() > 0) {
+    for (CordRep* edge : tree->Edges()) {
+      if (!IsValid(edge->btree(), shallow)) return false;
+    }
+  }
+  return true;
+
+#undef NODE_CHECK_VALID
+#undef NODE_CHECK_EQ
+}
+
+#ifndef NDEBUG
+
+CordRepBtree* CordRepBtree::AssertValid(CordRepBtree* tree, bool shallow) {
+  if (!IsValid(tree, shallow)) {
+    Dump(tree, "CordRepBtree validation failed:", false, std::cout);
+    ABSL_RAW_LOG(FATAL, "CordRepBtree::CheckValid() FAILED");
+  }
+  return tree;
+}
+
+const CordRepBtree* CordRepBtree::AssertValid(const CordRepBtree* tree,
+                                              bool shallow) {
+  if (!IsValid(tree, shallow)) {
+    Dump(tree, "CordRepBtree validation failed:", false, std::cout);
+    ABSL_RAW_LOG(FATAL, "CordRepBtree::CheckValid() FAILED");
+  }
+  return tree;
+}
+
+#endif  // NDEBUG
+
+template <EdgeType edge_type>
+inline OpResult CordRepBtree::AddEdge(bool owned, CordRep* edge, size_t delta) {
+  if (size() >= kMaxCapacity) return {New(edge), kPopped};
+  OpResult result = ToOpResult(owned);
+  result.tree->Add<edge_type>(edge);
+  result.tree->length += delta;
+  return result;
+}
+
+template <EdgeType edge_type>
+OpResult CordRepBtree::SetEdge(bool owned, CordRep* edge, size_t delta) {
+  OpResult result;
+  const size_t idx = index(edge_type);
+  if (owned) {
+    result = {this, kSelf};
+    CordRep::Unref(edges_[idx]);
+  } else {
+    // Create a copy containing all unchanged edges. Unchanged edges are the
+    // open interval [begin, back) or [begin + 1, end) depending on `edge_type`.
+    // We conveniently cover both case using a constexpr `shift` being 0 or 1
+    // as `end :== back + 1`.
+    result = {CopyRaw(), kCopied};
+    constexpr int shift = edge_type == kFront ? 1 : 0;
+    for (CordRep* r : Edges(begin() + shift, back() + shift)) {
+      CordRep::Ref(r);
+    }
+  }
+  result.tree->edges_[idx] = edge;
+  result.tree->length += delta;
+  return result;
+}
+
+template <EdgeType edge_type>
+CordRepBtree* CordRepBtree::AddCordRep(CordRepBtree* tree, CordRep* rep) {
+  const int depth = tree->height();
+  const size_t length = rep->length;
+  StackOperations<edge_type> ops;
+  CordRepBtree* leaf = ops.BuildStack(tree, depth);
+  const OpResult result =
+      leaf->AddEdge<edge_type>(ops.owned(depth), rep, length);
+  return ops.Unwind(tree, depth, length, result);
+}
+
+template <>
+CordRepBtree* CordRepBtree::NewLeaf<kBack>(absl::string_view data,
+                                           size_t extra) {
+  CordRepBtree* leaf = CordRepBtree::New(0);
+  size_t length = 0;
+  size_t end = 0;
+  const size_t cap = leaf->capacity();
+  while (!data.empty() && end != cap) {
+    auto* flat = CordRepFlat::New(data.length() + extra);
+    flat->length = (std::min)(data.length(), flat->Capacity());
+    length += flat->length;
+    leaf->edges_[end++] = flat;
+    data = Consume<kBack>(flat->Data(), data, flat->length);
+  }
+  leaf->length = length;
+  leaf->set_end(end);
+  return leaf;
+}
+
+template <>
+CordRepBtree* CordRepBtree::NewLeaf<kFront>(absl::string_view data,
+                                            size_t extra) {
+  CordRepBtree* leaf = CordRepBtree::New(0);
+  size_t length = 0;
+  size_t begin = leaf->capacity();
+  leaf->set_end(leaf->capacity());
+  while (!data.empty() && begin != 0) {
+    auto* flat = CordRepFlat::New(data.length() + extra);
+    flat->length = (std::min)(data.length(), flat->Capacity());
+    length += flat->length;
+    leaf->edges_[--begin] = flat;
+    data = Consume<kFront>(flat->Data(), data, flat->length);
+  }
+  leaf->length = length;
+  leaf->set_begin(begin);
+  return leaf;
+}
+
+template <>
+absl::string_view CordRepBtree::AddData<kBack>(absl::string_view data,
+                                               size_t extra) {
+  assert(!data.empty());
+  assert(size() < capacity());
+  AlignBegin();
+  const size_t cap = capacity();
+  do {
+    CordRepFlat* flat = CordRepFlat::New(data.length() + extra);
+    const size_t n = (std::min)(data.length(), flat->Capacity());
+    flat->length = n;
+    edges_[fetch_add_end(1)] = flat;
+    data = Consume<kBack>(flat->Data(), data, n);
+  } while (!data.empty() && end() != cap);
+  return data;
+}
+
+template <>
+absl::string_view CordRepBtree::AddData<kFront>(absl::string_view data,
+                                                size_t extra) {
+  assert(!data.empty());
+  assert(size() < capacity());
+  AlignEnd();
+  do {
+    CordRepFlat* flat = CordRepFlat::New(data.length() + extra);
+    const size_t n = (std::min)(data.length(), flat->Capacity());
+    flat->length = n;
+    edges_[sub_fetch_begin(1)] = flat;
+    data = Consume<kFront>(flat->Data(), data, n);
+  } while (!data.empty() && begin() != 0);
+  return data;
+}
+
+template <EdgeType edge_type>
+CordRepBtree* CordRepBtree::AddData(CordRepBtree* tree, absl::string_view data,
+                                    size_t extra) {
+  if (ABSL_PREDICT_FALSE(data.empty())) return tree;
+
+  const size_t original_data_size = data.size();
+  int depth = tree->height();
+  StackOperations<edge_type> ops;
+  CordRepBtree* leaf = ops.BuildStack(tree, depth);
+
+  // If there is capacity in the last edge, append as much data
+  // as possible into this last edge.
+  if (leaf->size() < leaf->capacity()) {
+    OpResult result = leaf->ToOpResult(ops.owned(depth));
+    data = result.tree->AddData<edge_type>(data, extra);
+    if (data.empty()) {
+      result.tree->length += original_data_size;
+      return ops.Unwind(tree, depth, original_data_size, result);
+    }
+
+    // We added some data into this leaf, but not all. Propagate the added
+    // length to the top most node, and rebuild the stack with any newly copied
+    // or updated nodes. From this point on, the path (leg) from the top most
+    // node to the right-most node towards the leaf node is privately owned.
+    size_t delta = original_data_size - data.size();
+    assert(delta > 0);
+    result.tree->length += delta;
+    tree = ops.Propagate(tree, depth, delta, result);
+    ops.share_depth = depth + 1;
+  }
+
+  // We were unable to append all data into the existing right-most leaf node.
+  // This means all remaining data must be put into (a) new leaf node(s) which
+  // we append to the tree. To make this efficient, we iteratively build full
+  // leaf nodes from `data` until the created leaf contains all remaining data.
+  // We utilize the `Unwind` method to merge the created leaf into the first
+  // level towards root that has capacity. On each iteration with remaining
+  // data, we rebuild the stack in the knowledge that right-most nodes are
+  // privately owned after the first `Unwind` completes.
+  for (;;) {
+    OpResult result = {CordRepBtree::NewLeaf<edge_type>(data, extra), kPopped};
+    if (result.tree->length == data.size()) {
+      return ops.Unwind(tree, depth, result.tree->length, result);
+    }
+    data = Consume<edge_type>(data, result.tree->length);
+    tree = ops.Unwind(tree, depth, result.tree->length, result);
+    depth = tree->height();
+    ops.BuildOwnedStack(tree, depth);
+  }
+}
+
+template <EdgeType edge_type>
+CordRepBtree* CordRepBtree::Merge(CordRepBtree* dst, CordRepBtree* src) {
+  assert(dst->height() >= src->height());
+
+  // Capture source length as we may consume / destroy `src`.
+  const size_t length = src->length;
+
+  // We attempt to merge `src` at its corresponding height in `dst`.
+  const int depth = dst->height() - src->height();
+  StackOperations<edge_type> ops;
+  CordRepBtree* merge_node = ops.BuildStack(dst, depth);
+
+  // If there is enough space in `merge_node` for all edges from `src`, add all
+  // edges to this node, making a fresh copy as needed if not privately owned.
+  // If `merge_node` does not have capacity for `src`, we rely on `Unwind` and
+  // `Finalize` to merge `src` into the first level towards `root` where there
+  // is capacity for another edge, or create a new top level node.
+  OpResult result;
+  if (merge_node->size() + src->size() <= kMaxCapacity) {
+    result = merge_node->ToOpResult(ops.owned(depth));
+    result.tree->Add<edge_type>(src->Edges());
+    result.tree->length += src->length;
+    if (src->refcount.IsOne()) {
+      Delete(src);
+    } else {
+      for (CordRep* edge : src->Edges()) CordRep::Ref(edge);
+      CordRepBtree::Unref(src);
+    }
+  } else {
+    result = {src, kPopped};
+  }
+
+  // Unless we merged at the top level (i.e.: src and dst are equal height),
+  // unwind the result towards the top level, and finalize the result.
+  if (depth) {
+    return ops.Unwind(dst, depth, length, result);
+  }
+  return ops.Finalize(dst, result);
+}
+
+CopyResult CordRepBtree::CopySuffix(size_t offset) {
+  assert(offset < this->length);
+
+  // As long as `offset` starts inside the last edge, we can 'drop' the current
+  // depth. For the most extreme example: if offset references the last data
+  // edge in the tree, there is only a single edge / path from the top of the
+  // tree to that last edge, so we can drop all the nodes except that edge.
+  // The fast path check for this is `back->length >= length - offset`.
+  int height = this->height();
+  CordRepBtree* node = this;
+  size_t len = node->length - offset;
+  CordRep* back = node->Edge(kBack);
+  while (back->length >= len) {
+    offset = back->length - len;
+    if (--height < 0) {
+      return {MakeSubstring(CordRep::Ref(back), offset), height};
+    }
+    node = back->btree();
+    back = node->Edge(kBack);
+  }
+  if (offset == 0) return {CordRep::Ref(node), height};
+
+  // Offset does not point into the last edge, so we span at least two edges.
+  // Find the index of offset with `IndexBeyond` which provides us the edge
+  // 'beyond' the offset if offset is not a clean starting point of an edge.
+  Position pos = node->IndexBeyond(offset);
+  CordRepBtree* sub = node->CopyToEndFrom(pos.index, len);
+  const CopyResult result = {sub, height};
+
+  // `pos.n` contains a non zero value if the offset is not an exact starting
+  // point of an edge. In this case, `pos.n` contains the 'trailing' amount of
+  // bytes of the edge preceding that in `pos.index`. We need to iteratively
+  // adjust the preceding edge with the 'broken' offset until we have a perfect
+  // start of the edge.
+  while (pos.n != 0) {
+    assert(pos.index >= 1);
+    const size_t begin = pos.index - 1;
+    sub->set_begin(begin);
+    CordRep* const edge = node->Edge(begin);
+
+    len = pos.n;
+    offset = edge->length - len;
+
+    if (--height < 0) {
+      sub->edges_[begin] = MakeSubstring(CordRep::Ref(edge), offset, len);
+      return result;
+    }
+
+    node = edge->btree();
+    pos = node->IndexBeyond(offset);
+
+    CordRepBtree* nsub = node->CopyToEndFrom(pos.index, len);
+    sub->edges_[begin] = nsub;
+    sub = nsub;
+  }
+  sub->set_begin(pos.index);
+  return result;
+}
+
+CopyResult CordRepBtree::CopyPrefix(size_t n, bool allow_folding) {
+  assert(n > 0);
+  assert(n <= this->length);
+
+  // As long as `n` does not exceed the length of the first edge, we can 'drop'
+  // the current depth. For the most extreme example: if we'd copy a 1 byte
+  // prefix from a tree, there is only a single edge / path from the top of the
+  // tree to the single data edge containing this byte, so we can drop all the
+  // nodes except the data node.
+  int height = this->height();
+  CordRepBtree* node = this;
+  CordRep* front = node->Edge(kFront);
+  if (allow_folding) {
+    while (front->length >= n) {
+      if (--height < 0) return {MakeSubstring(CordRep::Ref(front), 0, n), -1};
+      node = front->btree();
+      front = node->Edge(kFront);
+    }
+  }
+  if (node->length == n) return {CordRep::Ref(node), height};
+
+  // `n` spans at least two nodes, find the end point of the span.
+  Position pos = node->IndexOf(n);
+
+  // Create a partial copy of the node up to `pos.index`, with a defined length
+  // of `n`. Any 'partial last edge' is added further below as needed.
+  CordRepBtree* sub = node->CopyBeginTo(pos.index, n);
+  const CopyResult result = {sub, height};
+
+  // `pos.n` contains the 'offset inside the edge for IndexOf(n)'. As long as
+  // this is not zero, we don't have a 'clean cut', so we need to make a
+  // (partial) copy of that last edge, and repeat this until pos.n is zero.
+  while (pos.n != 0) {
+    size_t end = pos.index;
+    n = pos.n;
+
+    CordRep* edge = node->Edge(pos.index);
+    if (--height < 0) {
+      sub->edges_[end++] = MakeSubstring(CordRep::Ref(edge), 0, n);
+      sub->set_end(end);
+      AssertValid(result.edge->btree());
+      return result;
+    }
+
+    node = edge->btree();
+    pos = node->IndexOf(n);
+    CordRepBtree* nsub = node->CopyBeginTo(pos.index, n);
+    sub->edges_[end++] = nsub;
+    sub->set_end(end);
+    sub = nsub;
+  }
+  sub->set_end(pos.index);
+  AssertValid(result.edge->btree());
+  return result;
+}
+
+CordRep* CordRepBtree::ExtractFront(CordRepBtree* tree) {
+  CordRep* front = tree->Edge(tree->begin());
+  if (tree->refcount.IsMutable()) {
+    Unref(tree->Edges(tree->begin() + 1, tree->end()));
+    CordRepBtree::Delete(tree);
+  } else {
+    CordRep::Ref(front);
+    CordRep::Unref(tree);
+  }
+  return front;
+}
+
+CordRepBtree* CordRepBtree::ConsumeBeginTo(CordRepBtree* tree, size_t end,
+                                           size_t new_length) {
+  assert(end <= tree->end());
+  if (tree->refcount.IsMutable()) {
+    Unref(tree->Edges(end, tree->end()));
+    tree->set_end(end);
+    tree->length = new_length;
+  } else {
+    CordRepBtree* old = tree;
+    tree = tree->CopyBeginTo(end, new_length);
+    CordRep::Unref(old);
+  }
+  return tree;
+}
+
+CordRep* CordRepBtree::RemoveSuffix(CordRepBtree* tree, size_t n) {
+  // Check input and deal with trivial cases 'Remove all/none'
+  assert(tree != nullptr);
+  assert(n <= tree->length);
+  const size_t len = tree->length;
+  if (ABSL_PREDICT_FALSE(n == 0)) {
+    return tree;
+  }
+  if (ABSL_PREDICT_FALSE(n >= len)) {
+    CordRepBtree::Unref(tree);
+    return nullptr;
+  }
+
+  size_t length = len - n;
+  int height = tree->height();
+  bool is_mutable = tree->refcount.IsMutable();
+
+  // Extract all top nodes which are reduced to size = 1
+  Position pos = tree->IndexOfLength(length);
+  while (pos.index == tree->begin()) {
+    CordRep* edge = ExtractFront(tree);
+    is_mutable &= edge->refcount.IsMutable();
+    if (height-- == 0) return ResizeEdge(edge, length, is_mutable);
+    tree = edge->btree();
+    pos = tree->IndexOfLength(length);
+  }
+
+  // Repeat the following sequence traversing down the tree:
+  // - Crop the top node to the 'last remaining edge' adjusting length.
+  // - Set the length for down edges to the partial length in that last edge.
+  // - Repeat this until the last edge is 'included in full'
+  // - If we hit the data edge level, resize and return the last data edge
+  CordRepBtree* top = tree = ConsumeBeginTo(tree, pos.index + 1, length);
+  CordRep* edge = tree->Edge(pos.index);
+  length = pos.n;
+  while (length != edge->length) {
+    // ConsumeBeginTo guarantees `tree` is a clean, privately owned copy.
+    assert(tree->refcount.IsMutable());
+    const bool edge_is_mutable = edge->refcount.IsMutable();
+
+    if (height-- == 0) {
+      tree->edges_[pos.index] = ResizeEdge(edge, length, edge_is_mutable);
+      return AssertValid(top);
+    }
+
+    if (!edge_is_mutable) {
+      // We can't 'in place' remove any suffixes down this edge.
+      // Replace this edge with a prefix copy instead.
+      tree->edges_[pos.index] = edge->btree()->CopyPrefix(length, false).edge;
+      CordRep::Unref(edge);
+      return AssertValid(top);
+    }
+
+    // Move down one level, rinse repeat.
+    tree = edge->btree();
+    pos = tree->IndexOfLength(length);
+    tree = ConsumeBeginTo(edge->btree(), pos.index + 1, length);
+    edge = tree->Edge(pos.index);
+    length = pos.n;
+  }
+
+  return AssertValid(top);
+}
+
+CordRep* CordRepBtree::SubTree(size_t offset, size_t n) {
+  assert(n <= this->length);
+  assert(offset <= this->length - n);
+  if (ABSL_PREDICT_FALSE(n == 0)) return nullptr;
+
+  CordRepBtree* node = this;
+  int height = node->height();
+  Position front = node->IndexOf(offset);
+  CordRep* left = node->edges_[front.index];
+  while (front.n + n <= left->length) {
+    if (--height < 0) return MakeSubstring(CordRep::Ref(left), front.n, n);
+    node = left->btree();
+    front = node->IndexOf(front.n);
+    left = node->edges_[front.index];
+  }
+
+  const Position back = node->IndexBefore(front, n);
+  CordRep* const right = node->edges_[back.index];
+  assert(back.index > front.index);
+
+  // Get partial suffix and prefix entries.
+  CopyResult prefix;
+  CopyResult suffix;
+  if (height > 0) {
+    // Copy prefix and suffix of the boundary nodes.
+    prefix = left->btree()->CopySuffix(front.n);
+    suffix = right->btree()->CopyPrefix(back.n);
+
+    // If there is an edge between the prefix and suffix edges, then the tree
+    // must remain at its previous (full) height. If we have no edges between
+    // prefix and suffix edges, then the tree must be as high as either the
+    // suffix or prefix edges (which are collapsed to their minimum heights).
+    if (front.index + 1 == back.index) {
+      height = (std::max)(prefix.height, suffix.height) + 1;
+    }
+
+    // Raise prefix and suffixes to the new tree height.
+    for (int h = prefix.height + 1; h < height; ++h) {
+      prefix.edge = CordRepBtree::New(prefix.edge);
+    }
+    for (int h = suffix.height + 1; h < height; ++h) {
+      suffix.edge = CordRepBtree::New(suffix.edge);
+    }
+  } else {
+    // Leaf node, simply take substrings for prefix and suffix.
+    prefix = CopyResult{MakeSubstring(CordRep::Ref(left), front.n), -1};
+    suffix = CopyResult{MakeSubstring(CordRep::Ref(right), 0, back.n), -1};
+  }
+
+  // Compose resulting tree.
+  CordRepBtree* sub = CordRepBtree::New(height);
+  size_t end = 0;
+  sub->edges_[end++] = prefix.edge;
+  for (CordRep* r : node->Edges(front.index + 1, back.index)) {
+    sub->edges_[end++] = CordRep::Ref(r);
+  }
+  sub->edges_[end++] = suffix.edge;
+  sub->set_end(end);
+  sub->length = n;
+  return AssertValid(sub);
+}
+
+CordRepBtree* CordRepBtree::MergeTrees(CordRepBtree* left,
+                                       CordRepBtree* right) {
+  return left->height() >= right->height() ? Merge<kBack>(left, right)
+                                           : Merge<kFront>(right, left);
+}
+
+bool CordRepBtree::IsFlat(absl::string_view* fragment) const {
+  if (height() == 0 && size() == 1) {
+    if (fragment) *fragment = Data(begin());
+    return true;
+  }
+  return false;
+}
+
+bool CordRepBtree::IsFlat(size_t offset, const size_t n,
+                          absl::string_view* fragment) const {
+  assert(n <= this->length);
+  assert(offset <= this->length - n);
+  if (ABSL_PREDICT_FALSE(n == 0)) return false;
+  int height = this->height();
+  const CordRepBtree* node = this;
+  for (;;) {
+    const Position front = node->IndexOf(offset);
+    const CordRep* edge = node->Edge(front.index);
+    if (edge->length < front.n + n) return false;
+    if (--height < 0) {
+      if (fragment) *fragment = EdgeData(edge).substr(front.n, n);
+      return true;
+    }
+    offset = front.n;
+    node = node->Edge(front.index)->btree();
+  }
+}
+
+char CordRepBtree::GetCharacter(size_t offset) const {
+  assert(offset < length);
+  const CordRepBtree* node = this;
+  int height = node->height();
+  for (;;) {
+    Position front = node->IndexOf(offset);
+    if (--height < 0) return node->Data(front.index)[front.n];
+    offset = front.n;
+    node = node->Edge(front.index)->btree();
+  }
+}
+
+Span<char> CordRepBtree::GetAppendBufferSlow(size_t size) {
+  // The inlined version in `GetAppendBuffer()` deals with all heights <= 3.
+  assert(height() >= 4);
+  assert(refcount.IsMutable());
+
+  // Build a stack of nodes we may potentially need to update if we find a
+  // non-shared FLAT with capacity at the leaf level.
+  const int depth = height();
+  CordRepBtree* node = this;
+  CordRepBtree* stack[kMaxDepth];
+  for (int i = 0; i < depth; ++i) {
+    node = node->Edge(kBack)->btree();
+    if (!node->refcount.IsMutable()) return {};
+    stack[i] = node;
+  }
+
+  // Must be a privately owned, mutable flat.
+  CordRep* const edge = node->Edge(kBack);
+  if (!edge->refcount.IsMutable() || edge->tag < FLAT) return {};
+
+  // Must have capacity.
+  const size_t avail = edge->flat()->Capacity() - edge->length;
+  if (avail == 0) return {};
+
+  // Build span on remaining capacity.
+  size_t delta = (std::min)(size, avail);
+  Span<char> span = {edge->flat()->Data() + edge->length, delta};
+  edge->length += delta;
+  this->length += delta;
+  for (int i = 0; i < depth; ++i) {
+    stack[i]->length += delta;
+  }
+  return span;
+}
+
+CordRepBtree* CordRepBtree::CreateSlow(CordRep* rep) {
+  if (rep->IsBtree()) return rep->btree();
+
+  CordRepBtree* node = nullptr;
+  auto consume = [&node](CordRep* r, size_t offset, size_t length) {
+    r = MakeSubstring(r, offset, length);
+    if (node == nullptr) {
+      node = New(r);
+    } else {
+      node = CordRepBtree::AddCordRep<kBack>(node, r);
+    }
+  };
+  Consume(rep, consume);
+  return node;
+}
+
+CordRepBtree* CordRepBtree::AppendSlow(CordRepBtree* tree, CordRep* rep) {
+  if (ABSL_PREDICT_TRUE(rep->IsBtree())) {
+    return MergeTrees(tree, rep->btree());
+  }
+  auto consume = [&tree](CordRep* r, size_t offset, size_t length) {
+    r = MakeSubstring(r, offset, length);
+    tree = CordRepBtree::AddCordRep<kBack>(tree, r);
+  };
+  Consume(rep, consume);
+  return tree;
+}
+
+CordRepBtree* CordRepBtree::PrependSlow(CordRepBtree* tree, CordRep* rep) {
+  if (ABSL_PREDICT_TRUE(rep->IsBtree())) {
+    return MergeTrees(rep->btree(), tree);
+  }
+  auto consume = [&tree](CordRep* r, size_t offset, size_t length) {
+    r = MakeSubstring(r, offset, length);
+    tree = CordRepBtree::AddCordRep<kFront>(tree, r);
+  };
+  ReverseConsume(rep, consume);
+  return tree;
+}
+
+CordRepBtree* CordRepBtree::Append(CordRepBtree* tree, absl::string_view data,
+                                   size_t extra) {
+  return CordRepBtree::AddData<kBack>(tree, data, extra);
+}
+
+CordRepBtree* CordRepBtree::Prepend(CordRepBtree* tree, absl::string_view data,
+                                    size_t extra) {
+  return CordRepBtree::AddData<kFront>(tree, data, extra);
+}
+
+template CordRepBtree* CordRepBtree::AddCordRep<kFront>(CordRepBtree* tree,
+                                                        CordRep* rep);
+template CordRepBtree* CordRepBtree::AddCordRep<kBack>(CordRepBtree* tree,
+                                                       CordRep* rep);
+template CordRepBtree* CordRepBtree::AddData<kFront>(CordRepBtree* tree,
+                                                     absl::string_view data,
+                                                     size_t extra);
+template CordRepBtree* CordRepBtree::AddData<kBack>(CordRepBtree* tree,
+                                                    absl::string_view data,
+                                                    size_t extra);
+
+void CordRepBtree::Rebuild(CordRepBtree** stack, CordRepBtree* tree,
+                           bool consume) {
+  bool owned = consume && tree->refcount.IsOne();
+  if (tree->height() == 0) {
+    for (CordRep* edge : tree->Edges()) {
+      if (!owned) edge = CordRep::Ref(edge);
+      size_t height = 0;
+      size_t length = edge->length;
+      CordRepBtree* node = stack[0];
+      OpResult result = node->AddEdge<kBack>(true, edge, length);
+      while (result.action == CordRepBtree::kPopped) {
+        stack[height] = result.tree;
+        if (stack[++height] == nullptr) {
+          result.action = CordRepBtree::kSelf;
+          stack[height] = CordRepBtree::New(node, result.tree);
+        } else {
+          node = stack[height];
+          result = node->AddEdge<kBack>(true, result.tree, length);
+        }
+      }
+      while (stack[++height] != nullptr) {
+        stack[height]->length += length;
+      }
+    }
+  } else {
+    for (CordRep* rep : tree->Edges()) {
+      Rebuild(stack, rep->btree(), owned);
+    }
+  }
+  if (consume) {
+    if (owned) {
+      CordRepBtree::Delete(tree);
+    } else {
+      CordRepBtree::Unref(tree);
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+CordRepBtree* CordRepBtree::Rebuild(CordRepBtree* tree) {
+  // Set up initial stack with empty leaf node.
+  CordRepBtree* node = CordRepBtree::New();
+  CordRepBtree* stack[CordRepBtree::kMaxDepth + 1] = {node};
+
+  // Recursively build the tree, consuming the input tree.
+  Rebuild(stack, tree, /* consume reference */ true);
+
+  // Return top most node
+  for (CordRepBtree* parent : stack) {
+    if (parent == nullptr) return node;
+    node = parent;
+  }
+
+  // Unreachable
+  assert(false);
+  return nullptr;
+}
+
+}  // namespace cord_internal
+ABSL_NAMESPACE_END
+}  // namespace absl