grpc 1.18.0 → 1.19.0

data/src/core/ext/filters/client_channel/subchannel.cc

@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@
 #include "src/core/ext/filters/client_channel/health/health_check_client.h"
 #include "src/core/ext/filters/client_channel/parse_address.h"
 #include "src/core/ext/filters/client_channel/proxy_mapper_registry.h"
-#include "src/core/ext/filters/client_channel/subchannel_index.h"
+#include "src/core/ext/filters/client_channel/subchannel_pool_interface.h"
 #include "src/core/lib/backoff/backoff.h"
 #include "src/core/lib/channel/channel_args.h"
 #include "src/core/lib/channel/connected_channel.h"
@@ -44,7 +44,6 @@
 #include "src/core/lib/gprpp/mutex_lock.h"
 #include "src/core/lib/gprpp/ref_counted_ptr.h"
 #include "src/core/lib/iomgr/sockaddr_utils.h"
-#include "src/core/lib/iomgr/timer.h"
 #include "src/core/lib/profiling/timers.h"
 #include "src/core/lib/slice/slice_internal.h"
 #include "src/core/lib/surface/channel.h"
@@ -55,165 +54,260 @@
 #include "src/core/lib/transport/status_metadata.h"
 #include "src/core/lib/uri/uri_parser.h"
 
+// Strong and weak refs.
 #define INTERNAL_REF_BITS 16
 #define STRONG_REF_MASK (~(gpr_atm)((1 << INTERNAL_REF_BITS) - 1))
 
+// Backoff parameters.
 #define GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_INITIAL_CONNECT_BACKOFF_SECONDS 1
 #define GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_RECONNECT_BACKOFF_MULTIPLIER 1.6
 #define GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_RECONNECT_MIN_TIMEOUT_SECONDS 20
 #define GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_RECONNECT_MAX_BACKOFF_SECONDS 120
 #define GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_RECONNECT_JITTER 0.2
 
-namespace {
-struct state_watcher {
-  grpc_closure closure;
-  grpc_subchannel* subchannel;
-  grpc_connectivity_state connectivity_state;
-  grpc_connectivity_state last_connectivity_state;
-  grpc_core::OrphanablePtr<grpc_core::HealthCheckClient> health_check_client;
-  grpc_closure health_check_closure;
-  grpc_connectivity_state health_state;
-};
-}  // namespace
-
-typedef struct external_state_watcher {
-  grpc_subchannel* subchannel;
-  grpc_pollset_set* pollset_set;
-  grpc_closure* notify;
-  grpc_closure closure;
-  struct external_state_watcher* next;
-  struct external_state_watcher* prev;
-} external_state_watcher;
+// Conversion between subchannel call and call stack.
+#define SUBCHANNEL_CALL_TO_CALL_STACK(call) \
+  (grpc_call_stack*)((char*)(call) +        \
+                     GPR_ROUND_UP_TO_ALIGNMENT_SIZE(sizeof(SubchannelCall)))
+#define CALL_STACK_TO_SUBCHANNEL_CALL(callstack) \
+  (SubchannelCall*)(((char*)(call_stack)) -      \
+                    GPR_ROUND_UP_TO_ALIGNMENT_SIZE(sizeof(SubchannelCall)))
 
 namespace grpc_core {
 
-class ConnectedSubchannelStateWatcher;
+//
+// ConnectedSubchannel
+//
 
-}  // namespace grpc_core
+ConnectedSubchannel::ConnectedSubchannel(
+    grpc_channel_stack* channel_stack, const grpc_channel_args* args,
+    RefCountedPtr<channelz::SubchannelNode> channelz_subchannel,
+    intptr_t socket_uuid)
+    : RefCounted<ConnectedSubchannel>(&grpc_trace_stream_refcount),
+      channel_stack_(channel_stack),
+      args_(grpc_channel_args_copy(args)),
+      channelz_subchannel_(std::move(channelz_subchannel)),
+      socket_uuid_(socket_uuid) {}
 
-struct grpc_subchannel {
-  grpc_connector* connector;
+ConnectedSubchannel::~ConnectedSubchannel() {
+  grpc_channel_args_destroy(args_);
+  GRPC_CHANNEL_STACK_UNREF(channel_stack_, "connected_subchannel_dtor");
+}
 
-  /** refcount
-      - lower INTERNAL_REF_BITS bits are for internal references:
-        these do not keep the subchannel open.
-      - upper remaining bits are for public references: these do
-        keep the subchannel open */
-  gpr_atm ref_pair;
+void ConnectedSubchannel::NotifyOnStateChange(
+    grpc_pollset_set* interested_parties, grpc_connectivity_state* state,
+    grpc_closure* closure) {
+  grpc_transport_op* op = grpc_make_transport_op(nullptr);
+  grpc_channel_element* elem;
+  op->connectivity_state = state;
+  op->on_connectivity_state_change = closure;
+  op->bind_pollset_set = interested_parties;
+  elem = grpc_channel_stack_element(channel_stack_, 0);
+  elem->filter->start_transport_op(elem, op);
+}
 
-  /** non-transport related channel filters */
-  const grpc_channel_filter** filters;
-  size_t num_filters;
-  /** channel arguments */
-  grpc_channel_args* args;
+void ConnectedSubchannel::Ping(grpc_closure* on_initiate,
+                               grpc_closure* on_ack) {
+  grpc_transport_op* op = grpc_make_transport_op(nullptr);
+  grpc_channel_element* elem;
+  op->send_ping.on_initiate = on_initiate;
+  op->send_ping.on_ack = on_ack;
+  elem = grpc_channel_stack_element(channel_stack_, 0);
+  elem->filter->start_transport_op(elem, op);
+}
 
-  grpc_subchannel_key* key;
+RefCountedPtr<SubchannelCall> ConnectedSubchannel::CreateCall(
+    const CallArgs& args, grpc_error** error) {
+  const size_t allocation_size =
+      GetInitialCallSizeEstimate(args.parent_data_size);
+  RefCountedPtr<SubchannelCall> call(
+      new (gpr_arena_alloc(args.arena, allocation_size))
+          SubchannelCall(Ref(DEBUG_LOCATION, "subchannel_call"), args));
+  grpc_call_stack* callstk = SUBCHANNEL_CALL_TO_CALL_STACK(call.get());
+  const grpc_call_element_args call_args = {
+      callstk,           /* call_stack */
+      nullptr,           /* server_transport_data */
+      args.context,      /* context */
+      args.path,         /* path */
+      args.start_time,   /* start_time */
+      args.deadline,     /* deadline */
+      args.arena,        /* arena */
+      args.call_combiner /* call_combiner */
+  };
+  *error = grpc_call_stack_init(channel_stack_, 1, SubchannelCall::Destroy,
+                                call.get(), &call_args);
+  if (GPR_UNLIKELY(*error != GRPC_ERROR_NONE)) {
+    const char* error_string = grpc_error_string(*error);
+    gpr_log(GPR_ERROR, "error: %s", error_string);
+    return call;
+  }
+  grpc_call_stack_set_pollset_or_pollset_set(callstk, args.pollent);
+  if (channelz_subchannel_ != nullptr) {
+    channelz_subchannel_->RecordCallStarted();
+  }
+  return call;
+}
 
-  /** set during connection */
-  grpc_connect_out_args connecting_result;
+size_t ConnectedSubchannel::GetInitialCallSizeEstimate(
+    size_t parent_data_size) const {
+  size_t allocation_size =
+      GPR_ROUND_UP_TO_ALIGNMENT_SIZE(sizeof(SubchannelCall));
+  if (parent_data_size > 0) {
+    allocation_size +=
+        GPR_ROUND_UP_TO_ALIGNMENT_SIZE(channel_stack_->call_stack_size) +
+        parent_data_size;
+  } else {
+    allocation_size += channel_stack_->call_stack_size;
+  }
+  return allocation_size;
+}
 
-  /** callback for connection finishing */
-  grpc_closure on_connected;
+//
+// SubchannelCall
+//
 
-  /** callback for our alarm */
-  grpc_closure on_alarm;
+void SubchannelCall::StartTransportStreamOpBatch(
+    grpc_transport_stream_op_batch* batch) {
+  GPR_TIMER_SCOPE("subchannel_call_process_op", 0);
+  MaybeInterceptRecvTrailingMetadata(batch);
+  grpc_call_stack* call_stack = SUBCHANNEL_CALL_TO_CALL_STACK(this);
+  grpc_call_element* top_elem = grpc_call_stack_element(call_stack, 0);
+  GRPC_CALL_LOG_OP(GPR_INFO, top_elem, batch);
+  top_elem->filter->start_transport_stream_op_batch(top_elem, batch);
+}
 
-  /** pollset_set tracking who's interested in a connection
-      being setup */
-  grpc_pollset_set* pollset_set;
+void* SubchannelCall::GetParentData() {
+  grpc_channel_stack* chanstk = connected_subchannel_->channel_stack();
+  return (char*)this + GPR_ROUND_UP_TO_ALIGNMENT_SIZE(sizeof(SubchannelCall)) +
+         GPR_ROUND_UP_TO_ALIGNMENT_SIZE(chanstk->call_stack_size);
+}
 
-  grpc_core::UniquePtr<char> health_check_service_name;
+grpc_call_stack* SubchannelCall::GetCallStack() {
+  return SUBCHANNEL_CALL_TO_CALL_STACK(this);
+}
 
-  /** mutex protecting remaining elements */
-  gpr_mu mu;
+void SubchannelCall::SetAfterCallStackDestroy(grpc_closure* closure) {
+  GPR_ASSERT(after_call_stack_destroy_ == nullptr);
+  GPR_ASSERT(closure != nullptr);
+  after_call_stack_destroy_ = closure;
+}
 
-  /** active connection, or null */
-  grpc_core::RefCountedPtr<grpc_core::ConnectedSubchannel> connected_subchannel;
-  grpc_core::OrphanablePtr<grpc_core::ConnectedSubchannelStateWatcher>
-      connected_subchannel_watcher;
+RefCountedPtr<SubchannelCall> SubchannelCall::Ref() {
+  IncrementRefCount();
+  return RefCountedPtr<SubchannelCall>(this);
+}
 
-  /** have we seen a disconnection? */
-  bool disconnected;
-  /** are we connecting */
-  bool connecting;
+RefCountedPtr<SubchannelCall> SubchannelCall::Ref(
+    const grpc_core::DebugLocation& location, const char* reason) {
+  IncrementRefCount(location, reason);
+  return RefCountedPtr<SubchannelCall>(this);
+}
 
-  /** connectivity state tracking */
-  grpc_connectivity_state_tracker state_tracker;
-  grpc_connectivity_state_tracker state_and_health_tracker;
+void SubchannelCall::Unref() {
+  GRPC_CALL_STACK_UNREF(SUBCHANNEL_CALL_TO_CALL_STACK(this), "");
+}
 
-  external_state_watcher root_external_state_watcher;
+void SubchannelCall::Unref(const DebugLocation& location, const char* reason) {
+  GRPC_CALL_STACK_UNREF(SUBCHANNEL_CALL_TO_CALL_STACK(this), reason);
+}
 
-  /** backoff state */
-  grpc_core::ManualConstructor<grpc_core::BackOff> backoff;
-  grpc_millis next_attempt_deadline;
-  grpc_millis min_connect_timeout_ms;
+void SubchannelCall::Destroy(void* arg, grpc_error* error) {
+  GPR_TIMER_SCOPE("subchannel_call_destroy", 0);
+  SubchannelCall* self = static_cast<SubchannelCall*>(arg);
+  // Keep some members before destroying the subchannel call.
+  grpc_closure* after_call_stack_destroy = self->after_call_stack_destroy_;
+  RefCountedPtr<ConnectedSubchannel> connected_subchannel =
+      std::move(self->connected_subchannel_);
+  // Destroy the subchannel call.
+  self->~SubchannelCall();
+  // Destroy the call stack. This should be after destroying the subchannel
+  // call, because call->after_call_stack_destroy(), if not null, will free the
+  // call arena.
+  grpc_call_stack_destroy(SUBCHANNEL_CALL_TO_CALL_STACK(self), nullptr,
+                          after_call_stack_destroy);
+  // Automatically reset connected_subchannel. This should be after destroying
+  // the call stack, because destroying call stack needs access to the channel
+  // stack.
+}
 
-  /** do we have an active alarm? */
-  bool have_alarm;
-  /** have we started the backoff loop */
-  bool backoff_begun;
-  // reset_backoff() was called while alarm was pending
-  bool retry_immediately;
-  /** our alarm */
-  grpc_timer alarm;
+void SubchannelCall::MaybeInterceptRecvTrailingMetadata(
+    grpc_transport_stream_op_batch* batch) {
+  // only intercept payloads with recv trailing.
+  if (!batch->recv_trailing_metadata) {
+    return;
+  }
+  // only add interceptor is channelz is enabled.
+  if (connected_subchannel_->channelz_subchannel() == nullptr) {
+    return;
+  }
+  GRPC_CLOSURE_INIT(&recv_trailing_metadata_ready_, RecvTrailingMetadataReady,
+                    this, grpc_schedule_on_exec_ctx);
+  // save some state needed for the interception callback.
+  GPR_ASSERT(recv_trailing_metadata_ == nullptr);
+  recv_trailing_metadata_ =
+      batch->payload->recv_trailing_metadata.recv_trailing_metadata;
+  original_recv_trailing_metadata_ =
+      batch->payload->recv_trailing_metadata.recv_trailing_metadata_ready;
+  batch->payload->recv_trailing_metadata.recv_trailing_metadata_ready =
+      &recv_trailing_metadata_ready_;
+}
 
-  grpc_core::RefCountedPtr<grpc_core::channelz::SubchannelNode>
-      channelz_subchannel;
-};
+namespace {
 
-struct grpc_subchannel_call {
-  grpc_subchannel_call(grpc_core::ConnectedSubchannel* connection,
-                       const grpc_core::ConnectedSubchannel::CallArgs& args)
-      : connection(connection), deadline(args.deadline) {}
-
-  grpc_core::ConnectedSubchannel* connection;
-  grpc_closure* schedule_closure_after_destroy = nullptr;
-  // state needed to support channelz interception of recv trailing metadata.
-  grpc_closure recv_trailing_metadata_ready;
-  grpc_closure* original_recv_trailing_metadata;
-  grpc_metadata_batch* recv_trailing_metadata = nullptr;
-  grpc_millis deadline;
-};
+// Sets *status based on the rest of the parameters.
+void GetCallStatus(grpc_status_code* status, grpc_millis deadline,
+                   grpc_metadata_batch* md_batch, grpc_error* error) {
+  if (error != GRPC_ERROR_NONE) {
+    grpc_error_get_status(error, deadline, status, nullptr, nullptr, nullptr);
+  } else {
+    if (md_batch->idx.named.grpc_status != nullptr) {
+      *status = grpc_get_status_code_from_metadata(
+          md_batch->idx.named.grpc_status->md);
+    } else {
+      *status = GRPC_STATUS_UNKNOWN;
+    }
+  }
+  GRPC_ERROR_UNREF(error);
+}
 
-static void maybe_start_connecting_locked(grpc_subchannel* c);
+}  // namespace
 
-static const char* subchannel_connectivity_state_change_string(
-    grpc_connectivity_state state) {
-  switch (state) {
-    case GRPC_CHANNEL_IDLE:
-      return "Subchannel state change to IDLE";
-    case GRPC_CHANNEL_CONNECTING:
-      return "Subchannel state change to CONNECTING";
-    case GRPC_CHANNEL_READY:
-      return "Subchannel state change to READY";
-    case GRPC_CHANNEL_TRANSIENT_FAILURE:
-      return "Subchannel state change to TRANSIENT_FAILURE";
-    case GRPC_CHANNEL_SHUTDOWN:
-      return "Subchannel state change to SHUTDOWN";
+void SubchannelCall::RecvTrailingMetadataReady(void* arg, grpc_error* error) {
+  SubchannelCall* call = static_cast<SubchannelCall*>(arg);
+  GPR_ASSERT(call->recv_trailing_metadata_ != nullptr);
+  grpc_status_code status = GRPC_STATUS_OK;
+  GetCallStatus(&status, call->deadline_, call->recv_trailing_metadata_,
+                GRPC_ERROR_REF(error));
+  channelz::SubchannelNode* channelz_subchannel =
+      call->connected_subchannel_->channelz_subchannel();
+  GPR_ASSERT(channelz_subchannel != nullptr);
+  if (status == GRPC_STATUS_OK) {
+    channelz_subchannel->RecordCallSucceeded();
+  } else {
+    channelz_subchannel->RecordCallFailed();
   }
-  GPR_UNREACHABLE_CODE(return "UNKNOWN");
+  GRPC_CLOSURE_RUN(call->original_recv_trailing_metadata_,
+                   GRPC_ERROR_REF(error));
 }
 
-static void set_subchannel_connectivity_state_locked(
-    grpc_subchannel* c, grpc_connectivity_state state, grpc_error* error,
-    const char* reason) {
-  if (c->channelz_subchannel != nullptr) {
-    c->channelz_subchannel->AddTraceEvent(
-        grpc_core::channelz::ChannelTrace::Severity::Info,
-        grpc_slice_from_static_string(
-            subchannel_connectivity_state_change_string(state)));
-  }
-  grpc_connectivity_state_set(&c->state_tracker, state, error, reason);
+void SubchannelCall::IncrementRefCount() {
+  GRPC_CALL_STACK_REF(SUBCHANNEL_CALL_TO_CALL_STACK(this), "");
 }
 
-namespace grpc_core {
+void SubchannelCall::IncrementRefCount(const grpc_core::DebugLocation& location,
+                                       const char* reason) {
+  GRPC_CALL_STACK_REF(SUBCHANNEL_CALL_TO_CALL_STACK(this), reason);
+}
+
+//
+// Subchannel::ConnectedSubchannelStateWatcher
+//
 
-class ConnectedSubchannelStateWatcher
+class Subchannel::ConnectedSubchannelStateWatcher
     : public InternallyRefCounted<ConnectedSubchannelStateWatcher> {
  public:
   // Must be instantiated while holding c->mu.
-  explicit ConnectedSubchannelStateWatcher(grpc_subchannel* c)
-      : subchannel_(c) {
+  explicit ConnectedSubchannelStateWatcher(Subchannel* c) : subchannel_(c) {
     // Steal subchannel ref for connecting.
     GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_WEAK_REF(subchannel_, "state_watcher");
     GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_WEAK_UNREF(subchannel_, "connecting");
@@ -221,15 +315,15 @@ class ConnectedSubchannelStateWatcher
     // Callback uses initial ref to this.
     GRPC_CLOSURE_INIT(&on_connectivity_changed_, OnConnectivityChanged, this,
                       grpc_schedule_on_exec_ctx);
-    c->connected_subchannel->NotifyOnStateChange(c->pollset_set,
-                                                 &pending_connectivity_state_,
-                                                 &on_connectivity_changed_);
+    c->connected_subchannel_->NotifyOnStateChange(c->pollset_set_,
+                                                  &pending_connectivity_state_,
+                                                  &on_connectivity_changed_);
     // Start health check if needed.
     grpc_connectivity_state health_state = GRPC_CHANNEL_READY;
-    if (c->health_check_service_name != nullptr) {
-      health_check_client_ = grpc_core::MakeOrphanable<HealthCheckClient>(
-          c->health_check_service_name.get(), c->connected_subchannel,
-          c->pollset_set, c->channelz_subchannel);
+    if (c->health_check_service_name_ != nullptr) {
+      health_check_client_ = MakeOrphanable<HealthCheckClient>(
+          c->health_check_service_name_.get(), c->connected_subchannel_,
+          c->pollset_set_, c->channelz_node_);
       GRPC_CLOSURE_INIT(&on_health_changed_, OnHealthChanged, this,
                         grpc_schedule_on_exec_ctx);
       Ref().release();  // Ref for health callback tracked manually.
@@ -238,9 +332,9 @@ class ConnectedSubchannelStateWatcher
       health_state = GRPC_CHANNEL_CONNECTING;
     }
     // Report initial state.
-    set_subchannel_connectivity_state_locked(
-        c, GRPC_CHANNEL_READY, GRPC_ERROR_NONE, "subchannel_connected");
-    grpc_connectivity_state_set(&c->state_and_health_tracker, health_state,
+    c->SetConnectivityStateLocked(GRPC_CHANNEL_READY, GRPC_ERROR_NONE,
+                                  "subchannel_connected");
+    grpc_connectivity_state_set(&c->state_and_health_tracker_, health_state,
                                 GRPC_ERROR_NONE, "subchannel_connected");
   }
 
@@ -248,38 +342,39 @@ class ConnectedSubchannelStateWatcher
     GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_WEAK_UNREF(subchannel_, "state_watcher");
   }
 
+  // Must be called while holding subchannel_->mu.
   void Orphan() override { health_check_client_.reset(); }
 
  private:
   static void OnConnectivityChanged(void* arg, grpc_error* error) {
     auto* self = static_cast<ConnectedSubchannelStateWatcher*>(arg);
-    grpc_subchannel* c = self->subchannel_;
+    Subchannel* c = self->subchannel_;
     {
-      MutexLock lock(&c->mu);
+      MutexLock lock(&c->mu_);
       switch (self->pending_connectivity_state_) {
         case GRPC_CHANNEL_TRANSIENT_FAILURE:
         case GRPC_CHANNEL_SHUTDOWN: {
-          if (!c->disconnected && c->connected_subchannel != nullptr) {
+          if (!c->disconnected_ && c->connected_subchannel_ != nullptr) {
             if (grpc_trace_stream_refcount.enabled()) {
               gpr_log(GPR_INFO,
                       "Connected subchannel %p of subchannel %p has gone into "
                       "%s. Attempting to reconnect.",
-                      c->connected_subchannel.get(), c,
+                      c->connected_subchannel_.get(), c,
                       grpc_connectivity_state_name(
                           self->pending_connectivity_state_));
             }
-            c->connected_subchannel.reset();
-            c->connected_subchannel_watcher.reset();
+            c->connected_subchannel_.reset();
+            c->connected_subchannel_watcher_.reset();
             self->last_connectivity_state_ = GRPC_CHANNEL_TRANSIENT_FAILURE;
-            set_subchannel_connectivity_state_locked(
-                c, GRPC_CHANNEL_TRANSIENT_FAILURE, GRPC_ERROR_REF(error),
-                "reflect_child");
-            grpc_connectivity_state_set(&c->state_and_health_tracker,
+            c->SetConnectivityStateLocked(GRPC_CHANNEL_TRANSIENT_FAILURE,
+                                          GRPC_ERROR_REF(error),
+                                          "reflect_child");
+            grpc_connectivity_state_set(&c->state_and_health_tracker_,
                                         GRPC_CHANNEL_TRANSIENT_FAILURE,
                                         GRPC_ERROR_REF(error), "reflect_child");
-            c->backoff_begun = false;
-            c->backoff->Reset();
-            maybe_start_connecting_locked(c);
+            c->backoff_begun_ = false;
+            c->backoff_.Reset();
+            c->MaybeStartConnectingLocked();
           } else {
             self->last_connectivity_state_ = GRPC_CHANNEL_SHUTDOWN;
           }
@@ -292,15 +387,14 @@ class ConnectedSubchannelStateWatcher
           // this watch from.  And a connected subchannel should never go
           // from READY to CONNECTING or IDLE.
           self->last_connectivity_state_ = self->pending_connectivity_state_;
-          set_subchannel_connectivity_state_locked(
-              c, self->pending_connectivity_state_, GRPC_ERROR_REF(error),
-              "reflect_child");
+          c->SetConnectivityStateLocked(self->pending_connectivity_state_,
+                                        GRPC_ERROR_REF(error), "reflect_child");
           if (self->pending_connectivity_state_ != GRPC_CHANNEL_READY) {
-            grpc_connectivity_state_set(&c->state_and_health_tracker,
+            grpc_connectivity_state_set(&c->state_and_health_tracker_,
                                         self->pending_connectivity_state_,
                                         GRPC_ERROR_REF(error), "reflect_child");
           }
-          c->connected_subchannel->NotifyOnStateChange(
+          c->connected_subchannel_->NotifyOnStateChange(
               nullptr, &self->pending_connectivity_state_,
               &self->on_connectivity_changed_);
           self = nullptr;  // So we don't unref below.
@@ -314,174 +408,83 @@ class ConnectedSubchannelStateWatcher
 
   static void OnHealthChanged(void* arg, grpc_error* error) {
     auto* self = static_cast<ConnectedSubchannelStateWatcher*>(arg);
-    if (self->health_state_ == GRPC_CHANNEL_SHUTDOWN) {
-      self->Unref();
-      return;
-    }
-    grpc_subchannel* c = self->subchannel_;
-    MutexLock lock(&c->mu);
-    if (self->last_connectivity_state_ == GRPC_CHANNEL_READY) {
-      grpc_connectivity_state_set(&c->state_and_health_tracker,
-                                  self->health_state_, GRPC_ERROR_REF(error),
-                                  "health_changed");
+    Subchannel* c = self->subchannel_;
+    {
+      MutexLock lock(&c->mu_);
+      if (self->health_state_ != GRPC_CHANNEL_SHUTDOWN &&
+          self->health_check_client_ != nullptr) {
+        if (self->last_connectivity_state_ == GRPC_CHANNEL_READY) {
+          grpc_connectivity_state_set(&c->state_and_health_tracker_,
+                                      self->health_state_,
+                                      GRPC_ERROR_REF(error), "health_changed");
+        }
+        self->health_check_client_->NotifyOnHealthChange(
+            &self->health_state_, &self->on_health_changed_);
+        self = nullptr;  // So we don't unref below.
+      }
     }
-    self->health_check_client_->NotifyOnHealthChange(&self->health_state_,
-                                                     &self->on_health_changed_);
+    // Don't unref until we've released the lock, because this might
+    // cause the subchannel (which contains the lock) to be destroyed.
+    if (self != nullptr) self->Unref();
   }
 
-  grpc_subchannel* subchannel_;
+  Subchannel* subchannel_;
   grpc_closure on_connectivity_changed_;
   grpc_connectivity_state pending_connectivity_state_ = GRPC_CHANNEL_READY;
   grpc_connectivity_state last_connectivity_state_ = GRPC_CHANNEL_READY;
-  grpc_core::OrphanablePtr<grpc_core::HealthCheckClient> health_check_client_;
+  OrphanablePtr<HealthCheckClient> health_check_client_;
   grpc_closure on_health_changed_;
   grpc_connectivity_state health_state_ = GRPC_CHANNEL_CONNECTING;
 };
 
-}  // namespace grpc_core
-
-#define SUBCHANNEL_CALL_TO_CALL_STACK(call)                          \
-  (grpc_call_stack*)((char*)(call) + GPR_ROUND_UP_TO_ALIGNMENT_SIZE( \
-                                         sizeof(grpc_subchannel_call)))
-#define CALLSTACK_TO_SUBCHANNEL_CALL(callstack)           \
-  (grpc_subchannel_call*)(((char*)(call_stack)) -         \
-                          GPR_ROUND_UP_TO_ALIGNMENT_SIZE( \
-                              sizeof(grpc_subchannel_call)))
-
-static void on_subchannel_connected(void* subchannel, grpc_error* error);
-
-#ifndef NDEBUG
-#define REF_REASON reason
-#define REF_MUTATE_EXTRA_ARGS \
-  GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_REF_EXTRA_ARGS, const char* purpose
-#define REF_MUTATE_PURPOSE(x) , file, line, reason, x
-#else
-#define REF_REASON ""
-#define REF_MUTATE_EXTRA_ARGS
-#define REF_MUTATE_PURPOSE(x)
-#endif
-
-/*
- * connection implementation
- */
-
-static void connection_destroy(void* arg, grpc_error* error) {
-  grpc_channel_stack* stk = static_cast<grpc_channel_stack*>(arg);
-  grpc_channel_stack_destroy(stk);
-  gpr_free(stk);
-}
-
-/*
- * grpc_subchannel implementation
- */
-
-static void subchannel_destroy(void* arg, grpc_error* error) {
-  grpc_subchannel* c = static_cast<grpc_subchannel*>(arg);
-  if (c->channelz_subchannel != nullptr) {
-    c->channelz_subchannel->AddTraceEvent(
-        grpc_core::channelz::ChannelTrace::Severity::Info,
-        grpc_slice_from_static_string("Subchannel destroyed"));
-    c->channelz_subchannel->MarkSubchannelDestroyed();
-    c->channelz_subchannel.reset();
-  }
-  gpr_free((void*)c->filters);
-  c->health_check_service_name.reset();
-  grpc_channel_args_destroy(c->args);
-  grpc_connectivity_state_destroy(&c->state_tracker);
-  grpc_connectivity_state_destroy(&c->state_and_health_tracker);
-  grpc_connector_unref(c->connector);
-  grpc_pollset_set_destroy(c->pollset_set);
-  grpc_subchannel_key_destroy(c->key);
-  gpr_mu_destroy(&c->mu);
-  gpr_free(c);
-}
+//
+// Subchannel::ExternalStateWatcher
+//
 
-static gpr_atm ref_mutate(grpc_subchannel* c, gpr_atm delta,
-                          int barrier REF_MUTATE_EXTRA_ARGS) {
-  gpr_atm old_val = barrier ? gpr_atm_full_fetch_add(&c->ref_pair, delta)
-                            : gpr_atm_no_barrier_fetch_add(&c->ref_pair, delta);
-#ifndef NDEBUG
-  if (grpc_trace_stream_refcount.enabled()) {
-    gpr_log(file, line, GPR_LOG_SEVERITY_DEBUG,
-            "SUBCHANNEL: %p %12s 0x%" PRIxPTR " -> 0x%" PRIxPTR " [%s]", c,
-            purpose, old_val, old_val + delta, reason);
+struct Subchannel::ExternalStateWatcher {
+  ExternalStateWatcher(Subchannel* subchannel, grpc_pollset_set* pollset_set,
+                       grpc_closure* notify)
+      : subchannel(subchannel), pollset_set(pollset_set), notify(notify) {
+    GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_WEAK_REF(subchannel, "external_state_watcher+init");
+    GRPC_CLOSURE_INIT(&on_state_changed, OnStateChanged, this,
+                      grpc_schedule_on_exec_ctx);
   }
-#endif
-  return old_val;
-}
-
-grpc_subchannel* grpc_subchannel_ref(
-    grpc_subchannel* c GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_REF_EXTRA_ARGS) {
-  gpr_atm old_refs;
-  old_refs = ref_mutate(c, (1 << INTERNAL_REF_BITS),
-                        0 REF_MUTATE_PURPOSE("STRONG_REF"));
-  GPR_ASSERT((old_refs & STRONG_REF_MASK) != 0);
-  return c;
-}
-
-grpc_subchannel* grpc_subchannel_weak_ref(
-    grpc_subchannel* c GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_REF_EXTRA_ARGS) {
-  gpr_atm old_refs;
-  old_refs = ref_mutate(c, 1, 0 REF_MUTATE_PURPOSE("WEAK_REF"));
-  GPR_ASSERT(old_refs != 0);
-  return c;
-}
 
-grpc_subchannel* grpc_subchannel_ref_from_weak_ref(
-    grpc_subchannel* c GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_REF_EXTRA_ARGS) {
-  if (!c) return nullptr;
-  for (;;) {
-    gpr_atm old_refs = gpr_atm_acq_load(&c->ref_pair);
-    if (old_refs >= (1 << INTERNAL_REF_BITS)) {
-      gpr_atm new_refs = old_refs + (1 << INTERNAL_REF_BITS);
-      if (gpr_atm_rel_cas(&c->ref_pair, old_refs, new_refs)) {
-        return c;
-      }
-    } else {
-      return nullptr;
+  static void OnStateChanged(void* arg, grpc_error* error) {
+    ExternalStateWatcher* w = static_cast<ExternalStateWatcher*>(arg);
+    grpc_closure* follow_up = w->notify;
+    if (w->pollset_set != nullptr) {
+      grpc_pollset_set_del_pollset_set(w->subchannel->pollset_set_,
+                                       w->pollset_set);
+    }
+    gpr_mu_lock(&w->subchannel->mu_);
+    if (w->subchannel->external_state_watcher_list_ == w) {
+      w->subchannel->external_state_watcher_list_ = w->next;
     }
+    if (w->next != nullptr) w->next->prev = w->prev;
+    if (w->prev != nullptr) w->prev->next = w->next;
+    gpr_mu_unlock(&w->subchannel->mu_);
+    GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_WEAK_UNREF(w->subchannel, "external_state_watcher+done");
+    Delete(w);
+    GRPC_CLOSURE_SCHED(follow_up, GRPC_ERROR_REF(error));
   }
-}
 
-static void disconnect(grpc_subchannel* c) {
-  grpc_subchannel_index_unregister(c->key, c);
-  gpr_mu_lock(&c->mu);
-  GPR_ASSERT(!c->disconnected);
-  c->disconnected = true;
-  grpc_connector_shutdown(c->connector, GRPC_ERROR_CREATE_FROM_STATIC_STRING(
-                                            "Subchannel disconnected"));
-  c->connected_subchannel.reset();
-  c->connected_subchannel_watcher.reset();
-  gpr_mu_unlock(&c->mu);
-}
+  Subchannel* subchannel;
+  grpc_pollset_set* pollset_set;
+  grpc_closure* notify;
+  grpc_closure on_state_changed;
+  ExternalStateWatcher* next = nullptr;
+  ExternalStateWatcher* prev = nullptr;
+};
 
-void grpc_subchannel_unref(grpc_subchannel* c GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_REF_EXTRA_ARGS) {
-  gpr_atm old_refs;
-  // add a weak ref and subtract a strong ref (atomically)
-  old_refs = ref_mutate(
-      c, static_cast<gpr_atm>(1) - static_cast<gpr_atm>(1 << INTERNAL_REF_BITS),
-      1 REF_MUTATE_PURPOSE("STRONG_UNREF"));
-  if ((old_refs & STRONG_REF_MASK) == (1 << INTERNAL_REF_BITS)) {
-    disconnect(c);
-  }
-  GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_WEAK_UNREF(c, "strong-unref");
-}
+//
+// Subchannel
+//
 
-void grpc_subchannel_weak_unref(
-    grpc_subchannel* c GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_REF_EXTRA_ARGS) {
-  gpr_atm old_refs;
-  old_refs = ref_mutate(c, -static_cast<gpr_atm>(1),
-                        1 REF_MUTATE_PURPOSE("WEAK_UNREF"));
-  if (old_refs == 1) {
-    GRPC_CLOSURE_SCHED(
-        GRPC_CLOSURE_CREATE(subchannel_destroy, c, grpc_schedule_on_exec_ctx),
-        GRPC_ERROR_NONE);
-  }
-}
+namespace {
 
-static void parse_args_for_backoff_values(
-    const grpc_channel_args* args, grpc_core::BackOff::Options* backoff_options,
-    grpc_millis* min_connect_timeout_ms) {
+BackOff::Options ParseArgsForBackoffValues(
+    const grpc_channel_args* args, grpc_millis* min_connect_timeout_ms) {
   grpc_millis initial_backoff_ms =
       GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_INITIAL_CONNECT_BACKOFF_SECONDS * 1000;
   *min_connect_timeout_ms =
@@ -518,7 +521,8 @@ static void parse_args_for_backoff_values(
       }
     }
   }
-  backoff_options->set_initial_backoff(initial_backoff_ms)
+  return BackOff::Options()
+      .set_initial_backoff(initial_backoff_ms)
       .set_multiplier(fixed_reconnect_backoff
                           ? 1.0
                           : GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_RECONNECT_BACKOFF_MULTIPLIER)
@@ -527,9 +531,6 @@ static void parse_args_for_backoff_values(
       .set_max_backoff(max_backoff_ms);
 }
 
-namespace grpc_core {
-namespace {
-
 struct HealthCheckParams {
   UniquePtr<char> service_name;
 
@@ -550,607 +551,513 @@ struct HealthCheckParams {
 };
 
 }  // namespace
-}  // namespace grpc_core
-
-grpc_subchannel* grpc_subchannel_create(grpc_connector* connector,
-                                        const grpc_subchannel_args* args) {
-  grpc_subchannel_key* key = grpc_subchannel_key_create(args);
-  grpc_subchannel* c = grpc_subchannel_index_find(key);
-  if (c) {
-    grpc_subchannel_key_destroy(key);
-    return c;
-  }
 
+Subchannel::Subchannel(SubchannelKey* key, grpc_connector* connector,
+                       const grpc_channel_args* args)
+    : key_(key),
+      connector_(connector),
+      backoff_(ParseArgsForBackoffValues(args, &min_connect_timeout_ms_)) {
   GRPC_STATS_INC_CLIENT_SUBCHANNELS_CREATED();
-  c = static_cast<grpc_subchannel*>(gpr_zalloc(sizeof(*c)));
-  c->key = key;
-  gpr_atm_no_barrier_store(&c->ref_pair, 1 << INTERNAL_REF_BITS);
-  c->connector = connector;
-  grpc_connector_ref(c->connector);
-  c->num_filters = args->filter_count;
-  if (c->num_filters > 0) {
-    c->filters = static_cast<const grpc_channel_filter**>(
-        gpr_malloc(sizeof(grpc_channel_filter*) * c->num_filters));
-    memcpy((void*)c->filters, args->filters,
-           sizeof(grpc_channel_filter*) * c->num_filters);
-  } else {
-    c->filters = nullptr;
-  }
-  c->pollset_set = grpc_pollset_set_create();
+  gpr_atm_no_barrier_store(&ref_pair_, 1 << INTERNAL_REF_BITS);
+  grpc_connector_ref(connector_);
+  pollset_set_ = grpc_pollset_set_create();
   grpc_resolved_address* addr =
       static_cast<grpc_resolved_address*>(gpr_malloc(sizeof(*addr)));
-  grpc_get_subchannel_address_arg(args->args, addr);
+  GetAddressFromSubchannelAddressArg(args, addr);
   grpc_resolved_address* new_address = nullptr;
   grpc_channel_args* new_args = nullptr;
-  if (grpc_proxy_mappers_map_address(addr, args->args, &new_address,
-                                     &new_args)) {
+  if (grpc_proxy_mappers_map_address(addr, args, &new_address, &new_args)) {
     GPR_ASSERT(new_address != nullptr);
     gpr_free(addr);
     addr = new_address;
   }
   static const char* keys_to_remove[] = {GRPC_ARG_SUBCHANNEL_ADDRESS};
-  grpc_arg new_arg = grpc_create_subchannel_address_arg(addr);
+  grpc_arg new_arg = CreateSubchannelAddressArg(addr);
   gpr_free(addr);
-  c->args = grpc_channel_args_copy_and_add_and_remove(
-      new_args != nullptr ? new_args : args->args, keys_to_remove,
+  args_ = grpc_channel_args_copy_and_add_and_remove(
+      new_args != nullptr ? new_args : args, keys_to_remove,
       GPR_ARRAY_SIZE(keys_to_remove), &new_arg, 1);
   gpr_free(new_arg.value.string);
   if (new_args != nullptr) grpc_channel_args_destroy(new_args);
-  c->root_external_state_watcher.next = c->root_external_state_watcher.prev =
-      &c->root_external_state_watcher;
-  GRPC_CLOSURE_INIT(&c->on_connected, on_subchannel_connected, c,
+  GRPC_CLOSURE_INIT(&on_connecting_finished_, OnConnectingFinished, this,
                     grpc_schedule_on_exec_ctx);
-  grpc_connectivity_state_init(&c->state_tracker, GRPC_CHANNEL_IDLE,
+  grpc_connectivity_state_init(&state_tracker_, GRPC_CHANNEL_IDLE,
                                "subchannel");
-  grpc_connectivity_state_init(&c->state_and_health_tracker, GRPC_CHANNEL_IDLE,
+  grpc_connectivity_state_init(&state_and_health_tracker_, GRPC_CHANNEL_IDLE,
                                "subchannel");
-  grpc_core::BackOff::Options backoff_options;
-  parse_args_for_backoff_values(args->args, &backoff_options,
-                                &c->min_connect_timeout_ms);
-  c->backoff.Init(backoff_options);
-  gpr_mu_init(&c->mu);
-
+  gpr_mu_init(&mu_);
   // Check whether we should enable health checking.
   const char* service_config_json = grpc_channel_arg_get_string(
-      grpc_channel_args_find(c->args, GRPC_ARG_SERVICE_CONFIG));
+      grpc_channel_args_find(args_, GRPC_ARG_SERVICE_CONFIG));
   if (service_config_json != nullptr) {
-    grpc_core::UniquePtr<grpc_core::ServiceConfig> service_config =
-        grpc_core::ServiceConfig::Create(service_config_json);
+    UniquePtr<ServiceConfig> service_config =
+        ServiceConfig::Create(service_config_json);
     if (service_config != nullptr) {
-      grpc_core::HealthCheckParams params;
-      service_config->ParseGlobalParams(grpc_core::HealthCheckParams::Parse,
-                                        &params);
-      c->health_check_service_name = std::move(params.service_name);
+      HealthCheckParams params;
+      service_config->ParseGlobalParams(HealthCheckParams::Parse, &params);
+      health_check_service_name_ = std::move(params.service_name);
     }
   }
-
-  const grpc_arg* arg =
-      grpc_channel_args_find(c->args, GRPC_ARG_ENABLE_CHANNELZ);
-  bool channelz_enabled =
+  const grpc_arg* arg = grpc_channel_args_find(args_, GRPC_ARG_ENABLE_CHANNELZ);
+  const bool channelz_enabled =
       grpc_channel_arg_get_bool(arg, GRPC_ENABLE_CHANNELZ_DEFAULT);
   arg = grpc_channel_args_find(
-      c->args, GRPC_ARG_MAX_CHANNEL_TRACE_EVENT_MEMORY_PER_NODE);
+      args_, GRPC_ARG_MAX_CHANNEL_TRACE_EVENT_MEMORY_PER_NODE);
   const grpc_integer_options options = {
       GRPC_MAX_CHANNEL_TRACE_EVENT_MEMORY_PER_NODE_DEFAULT, 0, INT_MAX};
   size_t channel_tracer_max_memory =
       (size_t)grpc_channel_arg_get_integer(arg, options);
   if (channelz_enabled) {
-    c->channelz_subchannel =
-        grpc_core::MakeRefCounted<grpc_core::channelz::SubchannelNode>(
-            c, channel_tracer_max_memory);
-    c->channelz_subchannel->AddTraceEvent(
-        grpc_core::channelz::ChannelTrace::Severity::Info,
-        grpc_slice_from_static_string("Subchannel created"));
+    channelz_node_ = MakeRefCounted<channelz::SubchannelNode>(
+        this, channel_tracer_max_memory);
+    channelz_node_->AddTraceEvent(
+        channelz::ChannelTrace::Severity::Info,
+        grpc_slice_from_static_string("subchannel created"));
   }
-
-  return grpc_subchannel_index_register(key, c);
 }
 
-grpc_core::channelz::SubchannelNode* grpc_subchannel_get_channelz_node(
-    grpc_subchannel* subchannel) {
-  return subchannel->channelz_subchannel.get();
+Subchannel::~Subchannel() {
+  if (channelz_node_ != nullptr) {
+    channelz_node_->AddTraceEvent(
+        channelz::ChannelTrace::Severity::Info,
+        grpc_slice_from_static_string("Subchannel destroyed"));
+    channelz_node_->MarkSubchannelDestroyed();
+  }
+  grpc_channel_args_destroy(args_);
+  grpc_connectivity_state_destroy(&state_tracker_);
+  grpc_connectivity_state_destroy(&state_and_health_tracker_);
+  grpc_connector_unref(connector_);
+  grpc_pollset_set_destroy(pollset_set_);
+  Delete(key_);
+  gpr_mu_destroy(&mu_);
 }
 
-intptr_t grpc_subchannel_get_child_socket_uuid(grpc_subchannel* subchannel) {
-  if (subchannel->connected_subchannel != nullptr) {
-    return subchannel->connected_subchannel->socket_uuid();
-  } else {
-    return 0;
+Subchannel* Subchannel::Create(grpc_connector* connector,
+                               const grpc_channel_args* args) {
+  SubchannelKey* key = New<SubchannelKey>(args);
+  SubchannelPoolInterface* subchannel_pool =
+      SubchannelPoolInterface::GetSubchannelPoolFromChannelArgs(args);
+  GPR_ASSERT(subchannel_pool != nullptr);
+  Subchannel* c = subchannel_pool->FindSubchannel(key);
+  if (c != nullptr) {
+    Delete(key);
+    return c;
   }
+  c = New<Subchannel>(key, connector, args);
+  // Try to register the subchannel before setting the subchannel pool.
+  // Otherwise, in case of a registration race, unreffing c in
+  // RegisterSubchannel() will cause c to be tried to be unregistered, while
+  // its key maps to a different subchannel.
+  Subchannel* registered = subchannel_pool->RegisterSubchannel(key, c);
+  if (registered == c) c->subchannel_pool_ = subchannel_pool->Ref();
+  return registered;
 }
 
-static void continue_connect_locked(grpc_subchannel* c) {
-  grpc_connect_in_args args;
-  args.interested_parties = c->pollset_set;
-  const grpc_millis min_deadline =
-      c->min_connect_timeout_ms + grpc_core::ExecCtx::Get()->Now();
-  c->next_attempt_deadline = c->backoff->NextAttemptTime();
-  args.deadline = std::max(c->next_attempt_deadline, min_deadline);
-  args.channel_args = c->args;
-  set_subchannel_connectivity_state_locked(c, GRPC_CHANNEL_CONNECTING,
-                                           GRPC_ERROR_NONE, "connecting");
-  grpc_connectivity_state_set(&c->state_and_health_tracker,
-                              GRPC_CHANNEL_CONNECTING, GRPC_ERROR_NONE,
-                              "connecting");
-  grpc_connector_connect(c->connector, &args, &c->connecting_result,
-                         &c->on_connected);
+Subchannel* Subchannel::Ref(GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_REF_EXTRA_ARGS) {
+  gpr_atm old_refs;
+  old_refs = RefMutate((1 << INTERNAL_REF_BITS),
+                       0 GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_REF_MUTATE_PURPOSE("STRONG_REF"));
+  GPR_ASSERT((old_refs & STRONG_REF_MASK) != 0);
+  return this;
 }
 
-grpc_connectivity_state grpc_subchannel_check_connectivity(
-    grpc_subchannel* c, grpc_error** error, bool inhibit_health_checks) {
-  gpr_mu_lock(&c->mu);
-  grpc_connectivity_state_tracker* tracker =
-      inhibit_health_checks ? &c->state_tracker : &c->state_and_health_tracker;
-  grpc_connectivity_state state = grpc_connectivity_state_get(tracker, error);
-  gpr_mu_unlock(&c->mu);
-  return state;
+void Subchannel::Unref(GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_REF_EXTRA_ARGS) {
+  gpr_atm old_refs;
+  // add a weak ref and subtract a strong ref (atomically)
+  old_refs = RefMutate(
+      static_cast<gpr_atm>(1) - static_cast<gpr_atm>(1 << INTERNAL_REF_BITS),
+      1 GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_REF_MUTATE_PURPOSE("STRONG_UNREF"));
+  if ((old_refs & STRONG_REF_MASK) == (1 << INTERNAL_REF_BITS)) {
+    Disconnect();
+  }
+  GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_WEAK_UNREF(this, "strong-unref");
 }
 
-static void on_external_state_watcher_done(void* arg, grpc_error* error) {
-  external_state_watcher* w = static_cast<external_state_watcher*>(arg);
-  grpc_closure* follow_up = w->notify;
-  if (w->pollset_set != nullptr) {
-    grpc_pollset_set_del_pollset_set(w->subchannel->pollset_set,
-                                     w->pollset_set);
-  }
-  gpr_mu_lock(&w->subchannel->mu);
-  w->next->prev = w->prev;
-  w->prev->next = w->next;
-  gpr_mu_unlock(&w->subchannel->mu);
-  GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_WEAK_UNREF(w->subchannel, "external_state_watcher");
-  gpr_free(w);
-  GRPC_CLOSURE_SCHED(follow_up, GRPC_ERROR_REF(error));
+Subchannel* Subchannel::WeakRef(GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_REF_EXTRA_ARGS) {
+  gpr_atm old_refs;
+  old_refs = RefMutate(1, 0 GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_REF_MUTATE_PURPOSE("WEAK_REF"));
+  GPR_ASSERT(old_refs != 0);
+  return this;
 }
 
-static void on_alarm(void* arg, grpc_error* error) {
-  grpc_subchannel* c = static_cast<grpc_subchannel*>(arg);
-  gpr_mu_lock(&c->mu);
-  c->have_alarm = false;
-  if (c->disconnected) {
-    error = GRPC_ERROR_CREATE_REFERENCING_FROM_STATIC_STRING("Disconnected",
-                                                             &error, 1);
-  } else if (c->retry_immediately) {
-    c->retry_immediately = false;
-    error = GRPC_ERROR_NONE;
-  } else {
-    GRPC_ERROR_REF(error);
-  }
-  if (error == GRPC_ERROR_NONE) {
-    gpr_log(GPR_INFO, "Failed to connect to channel, retrying");
-    continue_connect_locked(c);
-    gpr_mu_unlock(&c->mu);
-  } else {
-    gpr_mu_unlock(&c->mu);
-    GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_WEAK_UNREF(c, "connecting");
-  }
-  GRPC_ERROR_UNREF(error);
+namespace {
+
+void subchannel_destroy(void* arg, grpc_error* error) {
+  Subchannel* self = static_cast<Subchannel*>(arg);
+  Delete(self);
 }
 
-static void maybe_start_connecting_locked(grpc_subchannel* c) {
-  if (c->disconnected) {
-    /* Don't try to connect if we're already disconnected */
-    return;
-  }
-  if (c->connecting) {
-    /* Already connecting: don't restart */
-    return;
-  }
-  if (c->connected_subchannel != nullptr) {
-    /* Already connected: don't restart */
-    return;
-  }
-  if (!grpc_connectivity_state_has_watchers(&c->state_tracker) &&
-      !grpc_connectivity_state_has_watchers(&c->state_and_health_tracker)) {
-    /* Nobody is interested in connecting: so don't just yet */
-    return;
-  }
-  c->connecting = true;
-  GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_WEAK_REF(c, "connecting");
-  if (!c->backoff_begun) {
-    c->backoff_begun = true;
-    continue_connect_locked(c);
-  } else {
-    GPR_ASSERT(!c->have_alarm);
-    c->have_alarm = true;
-    const grpc_millis time_til_next =
-        c->next_attempt_deadline - grpc_core::ExecCtx::Get()->Now();
-    if (time_til_next <= 0) {
-      gpr_log(GPR_INFO, "Subchannel %p: Retry immediately", c);
-    } else {
-      gpr_log(GPR_INFO, "Subchannel %p: Retry in %" PRId64 " milliseconds", c,
-              time_til_next);
-    }
-    GRPC_CLOSURE_INIT(&c->on_alarm, on_alarm, c, grpc_schedule_on_exec_ctx);
-    grpc_timer_init(&c->alarm, c->next_attempt_deadline, &c->on_alarm);
+}  // namespace
+
+void Subchannel::WeakUnref(GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_REF_EXTRA_ARGS) {
+  gpr_atm old_refs;
+  old_refs = RefMutate(-static_cast<gpr_atm>(1),
+                       1 GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_REF_MUTATE_PURPOSE("WEAK_UNREF"));
+  if (old_refs == 1) {
+    GRPC_CLOSURE_SCHED(GRPC_CLOSURE_CREATE(subchannel_destroy, this,
+                                           grpc_schedule_on_exec_ctx),
+                       GRPC_ERROR_NONE);
   }
 }
 
-void grpc_subchannel_notify_on_state_change(
-    grpc_subchannel* c, grpc_pollset_set* interested_parties,
-    grpc_connectivity_state* state, grpc_closure* notify,
-    bool inhibit_health_checks) {
-  grpc_connectivity_state_tracker* tracker =
-      inhibit_health_checks ? &c->state_tracker : &c->state_and_health_tracker;
-  external_state_watcher* w;
-  if (state == nullptr) {
-    gpr_mu_lock(&c->mu);
-    for (w = c->root_external_state_watcher.next;
-         w != &c->root_external_state_watcher; w = w->next) {
-      if (w->notify == notify) {
-        grpc_connectivity_state_notify_on_state_change(tracker, nullptr,
-                                                       &w->closure);
+Subchannel* Subchannel::RefFromWeakRef(GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_REF_EXTRA_ARGS) {
+  for (;;) {
+    gpr_atm old_refs = gpr_atm_acq_load(&ref_pair_);
+    if (old_refs >= (1 << INTERNAL_REF_BITS)) {
+      gpr_atm new_refs = old_refs + (1 << INTERNAL_REF_BITS);
+      if (gpr_atm_rel_cas(&ref_pair_, old_refs, new_refs)) {
+        return this;
       }
+    } else {
+      return nullptr;
     }
-    gpr_mu_unlock(&c->mu);
-  } else {
-    w = static_cast<external_state_watcher*>(gpr_malloc(sizeof(*w)));
-    w->subchannel = c;
-    w->pollset_set = interested_parties;
-    w->notify = notify;
-    GRPC_CLOSURE_INIT(&w->closure, on_external_state_watcher_done, w,
-                      grpc_schedule_on_exec_ctx);
-    if (interested_parties != nullptr) {
-      grpc_pollset_set_add_pollset_set(c->pollset_set, interested_parties);
-    }
-    GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_WEAK_REF(c, "external_state_watcher");
-    gpr_mu_lock(&c->mu);
-    w->next = &c->root_external_state_watcher;
-    w->prev = w->next->prev;
-    w->next->prev = w->prev->next = w;
-    grpc_connectivity_state_notify_on_state_change(tracker, state, &w->closure);
-    maybe_start_connecting_locked(c);
-    gpr_mu_unlock(&c->mu);
-  }
-}
-
-static bool publish_transport_locked(grpc_subchannel* c) {
-  /* construct channel stack */
-  grpc_channel_stack_builder* builder = grpc_channel_stack_builder_create();
-  grpc_channel_stack_builder_set_channel_arguments(
-      builder, c->connecting_result.channel_args);
-  grpc_channel_stack_builder_set_transport(builder,
-                                           c->connecting_result.transport);
-
-  if (!grpc_channel_init_create_stack(builder, GRPC_CLIENT_SUBCHANNEL)) {
-    grpc_channel_stack_builder_destroy(builder);
-    return false;
-  }
-  grpc_channel_stack* stk;
-  grpc_error* error = grpc_channel_stack_builder_finish(
-      builder, 0, 1, connection_destroy, nullptr,
-      reinterpret_cast<void**>(&stk));
-  if (error != GRPC_ERROR_NONE) {
-    grpc_transport_destroy(c->connecting_result.transport);
-    gpr_log(GPR_ERROR, "error initializing subchannel stack: %s",
-            grpc_error_string(error));
-    GRPC_ERROR_UNREF(error);
-    return false;
-  }
-  intptr_t socket_uuid = c->connecting_result.socket_uuid;
-  memset(&c->connecting_result, 0, sizeof(c->connecting_result));
-
-  if (c->disconnected) {
-    grpc_channel_stack_destroy(stk);
-    gpr_free(stk);
-    return false;
-  }
-
-  /* publish */
-  c->connected_subchannel.reset(grpc_core::New<grpc_core::ConnectedSubchannel>(
-      stk, c->args, c->channelz_subchannel, socket_uuid));
-  gpr_log(GPR_INFO, "New connected subchannel at %p for subchannel %p",
-          c->connected_subchannel.get(), c);
-
-  // Instantiate state watcher.  Will clean itself up.
-  c->connected_subchannel_watcher =
-      grpc_core::MakeOrphanable<grpc_core::ConnectedSubchannelStateWatcher>(c);
-
-  return true;
-}
-
-static void on_subchannel_connected(void* arg, grpc_error* error) {
-  grpc_subchannel* c = static_cast<grpc_subchannel*>(arg);
-  grpc_channel_args* delete_channel_args = c->connecting_result.channel_args;
-
-  GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_WEAK_REF(c, "on_subchannel_connected");
-  gpr_mu_lock(&c->mu);
-  c->connecting = false;
-  if (c->connecting_result.transport != nullptr &&
-      publish_transport_locked(c)) {
-    /* do nothing, transport was published */
-  } else if (c->disconnected) {
-    GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_WEAK_UNREF(c, "connecting");
-  } else {
-    set_subchannel_connectivity_state_locked(
-        c, GRPC_CHANNEL_TRANSIENT_FAILURE,
-        grpc_error_set_int(GRPC_ERROR_CREATE_REFERENCING_FROM_STATIC_STRING(
-                               "Connect Failed", &error, 1),
-                           GRPC_ERROR_INT_GRPC_STATUS, GRPC_STATUS_UNAVAILABLE),
-        "connect_failed");
-    grpc_connectivity_state_set(
-        &c->state_and_health_tracker, GRPC_CHANNEL_TRANSIENT_FAILURE,
-        grpc_error_set_int(GRPC_ERROR_CREATE_REFERENCING_FROM_STATIC_STRING(
-                               "Connect Failed", &error, 1),
-                           GRPC_ERROR_INT_GRPC_STATUS, GRPC_STATUS_UNAVAILABLE),
-        "connect_failed");
-
-    const char* errmsg = grpc_error_string(error);
-    gpr_log(GPR_INFO, "Connect failed: %s", errmsg);
-
-    maybe_start_connecting_locked(c);
-    GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_WEAK_UNREF(c, "connecting");
   }
-  gpr_mu_unlock(&c->mu);
-  GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_WEAK_UNREF(c, "connected");
-  grpc_channel_args_destroy(delete_channel_args);
 }
 
-void grpc_subchannel_reset_backoff(grpc_subchannel* subchannel) {
-  gpr_mu_lock(&subchannel->mu);
-  subchannel->backoff->Reset();
-  if (subchannel->have_alarm) {
-    subchannel->retry_immediately = true;
-    grpc_timer_cancel(&subchannel->alarm);
+intptr_t Subchannel::GetChildSocketUuid() {
+  if (connected_subchannel_ != nullptr) {
+    return connected_subchannel_->socket_uuid();
   } else {
-    subchannel->backoff_begun = false;
-    maybe_start_connecting_locked(subchannel);
+    return 0;
   }
-  gpr_mu_unlock(&subchannel->mu);
 }
 
-/*
- * grpc_subchannel_call implementation
- */
-
-static void subchannel_call_destroy(void* call, grpc_error* error) {
-  GPR_TIMER_SCOPE("grpc_subchannel_call_unref.destroy", 0);
-  grpc_subchannel_call* c = static_cast<grpc_subchannel_call*>(call);
-  grpc_core::ConnectedSubchannel* connection = c->connection;
-  grpc_call_stack_destroy(SUBCHANNEL_CALL_TO_CALL_STACK(c), nullptr,
-                          c->schedule_closure_after_destroy);
-  connection->Unref(DEBUG_LOCATION, "subchannel_call");
-  c->~grpc_subchannel_call();
+const char* Subchannel::GetTargetAddress() {
+  const grpc_arg* addr_arg =
+      grpc_channel_args_find(args_, GRPC_ARG_SUBCHANNEL_ADDRESS);
+  const char* addr_str = grpc_channel_arg_get_string(addr_arg);
+  GPR_ASSERT(addr_str != nullptr);  // Should have been set by LB policy.
+  return addr_str;
 }
 
-void grpc_subchannel_call_set_cleanup_closure(grpc_subchannel_call* call,
-                                              grpc_closure* closure) {
-  GPR_ASSERT(call->schedule_closure_after_destroy == nullptr);
-  GPR_ASSERT(closure != nullptr);
-  call->schedule_closure_after_destroy = closure;
+RefCountedPtr<ConnectedSubchannel> Subchannel::connected_subchannel() {
+  MutexLock lock(&mu_);
+  return connected_subchannel_;
 }
 
-grpc_subchannel_call* grpc_subchannel_call_ref(
-    grpc_subchannel_call* c GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_REF_EXTRA_ARGS) {
-  GRPC_CALL_STACK_REF(SUBCHANNEL_CALL_TO_CALL_STACK(c), REF_REASON);
-  return c;
+channelz::SubchannelNode* Subchannel::channelz_node() {
+  return channelz_node_.get();
 }
 
-void grpc_subchannel_call_unref(
-    grpc_subchannel_call* c GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_REF_EXTRA_ARGS) {
-  GRPC_CALL_STACK_UNREF(SUBCHANNEL_CALL_TO_CALL_STACK(c), REF_REASON);
+grpc_connectivity_state Subchannel::CheckConnectivity(
+    grpc_error** error, bool inhibit_health_checking) {
+  MutexLock lock(&mu_);
+  grpc_connectivity_state_tracker* tracker =
+      inhibit_health_checking ? &state_tracker_ : &state_and_health_tracker_;
+  grpc_connectivity_state state = grpc_connectivity_state_get(tracker, error);
+  return state;
 }
 
-// Sets *status based on md_batch and error.
-static void get_call_status(grpc_subchannel_call* call,
-                            grpc_metadata_batch* md_batch, grpc_error* error,
-                            grpc_status_code* status) {
-  if (error != GRPC_ERROR_NONE) {
-    grpc_error_get_status(error, call->deadline, status, nullptr, nullptr,
-                          nullptr);
+void Subchannel::NotifyOnStateChange(grpc_pollset_set* interested_parties,
+                                     grpc_connectivity_state* state,
+                                     grpc_closure* notify,
+                                     bool inhibit_health_checking) {
+  grpc_connectivity_state_tracker* tracker =
+      inhibit_health_checking ? &state_tracker_ : &state_and_health_tracker_;
+  ExternalStateWatcher* w;
+  if (state == nullptr) {
+    MutexLock lock(&mu_);
+    for (w = external_state_watcher_list_; w != nullptr; w = w->next) {
+      if (w->notify == notify) {
+        grpc_connectivity_state_notify_on_state_change(tracker, nullptr,
+                                                       &w->on_state_changed);
+      }
+    }
   } else {
-    if (md_batch->idx.named.grpc_status != nullptr) {
-      *status = grpc_get_status_code_from_metadata(
-          md_batch->idx.named.grpc_status->md);
-    } else {
-      *status = GRPC_STATUS_UNKNOWN;
+    w = New<ExternalStateWatcher>(this, interested_parties, notify);
+    if (interested_parties != nullptr) {
+      grpc_pollset_set_add_pollset_set(pollset_set_, interested_parties);
     }
+    MutexLock lock(&mu_);
+    if (external_state_watcher_list_ != nullptr) {
+      w->next = external_state_watcher_list_;
+      w->next->prev = w;
+    }
+    external_state_watcher_list_ = w;
+    grpc_connectivity_state_notify_on_state_change(tracker, state,
+                                                   &w->on_state_changed);
+    MaybeStartConnectingLocked();
   }
-  GRPC_ERROR_UNREF(error);
 }
 
-static void recv_trailing_metadata_ready(void* arg, grpc_error* error) {
-  grpc_subchannel_call* call = static_cast<grpc_subchannel_call*>(arg);
-  GPR_ASSERT(call->recv_trailing_metadata != nullptr);
-  grpc_status_code status = GRPC_STATUS_OK;
-  grpc_metadata_batch* md_batch = call->recv_trailing_metadata;
-  get_call_status(call, md_batch, GRPC_ERROR_REF(error), &status);
-  grpc_core::channelz::SubchannelNode* channelz_subchannel =
-      call->connection->channelz_subchannel();
-  GPR_ASSERT(channelz_subchannel != nullptr);
-  if (status == GRPC_STATUS_OK) {
-    channelz_subchannel->RecordCallSucceeded();
+void Subchannel::ResetBackoff() {
+  MutexLock lock(&mu_);
+  backoff_.Reset();
+  if (have_retry_alarm_) {
+    retry_immediately_ = true;
+    grpc_timer_cancel(&retry_alarm_);
   } else {
-    channelz_subchannel->RecordCallFailed();
+    backoff_begun_ = false;
+    MaybeStartConnectingLocked();
   }
-  GRPC_CLOSURE_RUN(call->original_recv_trailing_metadata,
-                   GRPC_ERROR_REF(error));
 }
 
-// If channelz is enabled, intercept recv_trailing so that we may check the
-// status and associate it to a subchannel.
-static void maybe_intercept_recv_trailing_metadata(
-    grpc_subchannel_call* call, grpc_transport_stream_op_batch* batch) {
-  // only intercept payloads with recv trailing.
-  if (!batch->recv_trailing_metadata) {
-    return;
-  }
-  // only add interceptor is channelz is enabled.
-  if (call->connection->channelz_subchannel() == nullptr) {
-    return;
-  }
-  GRPC_CLOSURE_INIT(&call->recv_trailing_metadata_ready,
-                    recv_trailing_metadata_ready, call,
-                    grpc_schedule_on_exec_ctx);
-  // save some state needed for the interception callback.
-  GPR_ASSERT(call->recv_trailing_metadata == nullptr);
-  call->recv_trailing_metadata =
-      batch->payload->recv_trailing_metadata.recv_trailing_metadata;
-  call->original_recv_trailing_metadata =
-      batch->payload->recv_trailing_metadata.recv_trailing_metadata_ready;
-  batch->payload->recv_trailing_metadata.recv_trailing_metadata_ready =
-      &call->recv_trailing_metadata_ready;
-}
-
-void grpc_subchannel_call_process_op(grpc_subchannel_call* call,
-                                     grpc_transport_stream_op_batch* batch) {
-  GPR_TIMER_SCOPE("grpc_subchannel_call_process_op", 0);
-  maybe_intercept_recv_trailing_metadata(call, batch);
-  grpc_call_stack* call_stack = SUBCHANNEL_CALL_TO_CALL_STACK(call);
-  grpc_call_element* top_elem = grpc_call_stack_element(call_stack, 0);
-  GRPC_CALL_LOG_OP(GPR_INFO, top_elem, batch);
-  top_elem->filter->start_transport_stream_op_batch(top_elem, batch);
-}
-
-grpc_core::RefCountedPtr<grpc_core::ConnectedSubchannel>
-grpc_subchannel_get_connected_subchannel(grpc_subchannel* c) {
-  gpr_mu_lock(&c->mu);
-  auto copy = c->connected_subchannel;
-  gpr_mu_unlock(&c->mu);
-  return copy;
-}
-
-const grpc_subchannel_key* grpc_subchannel_get_key(
-    const grpc_subchannel* subchannel) {
-  return subchannel->key;
+grpc_arg Subchannel::CreateSubchannelAddressArg(
+    const grpc_resolved_address* addr) {
+  return grpc_channel_arg_string_create(
+      (char*)GRPC_ARG_SUBCHANNEL_ADDRESS,
+      addr->len > 0 ? grpc_sockaddr_to_uri(addr) : gpr_strdup(""));
 }
 
-void* grpc_connected_subchannel_call_get_parent_data(
-    grpc_subchannel_call* subchannel_call) {
-  grpc_channel_stack* chanstk = subchannel_call->connection->channel_stack();
-  return (char*)subchannel_call + sizeof(grpc_subchannel_call) +
-         chanstk->call_stack_size;
+const char* Subchannel::GetUriFromSubchannelAddressArg(
+    const grpc_channel_args* args) {
+  const grpc_arg* addr_arg =
+      grpc_channel_args_find(args, GRPC_ARG_SUBCHANNEL_ADDRESS);
+  const char* addr_str = grpc_channel_arg_get_string(addr_arg);
+  GPR_ASSERT(addr_str != nullptr);  // Should have been set by LB policy.
+  return addr_str;
 }
 
-grpc_call_stack* grpc_subchannel_call_get_call_stack(
-    grpc_subchannel_call* subchannel_call) {
-  return SUBCHANNEL_CALL_TO_CALL_STACK(subchannel_call);
-}
+namespace {
 
-static void grpc_uri_to_sockaddr(const char* uri_str,
-                                 grpc_resolved_address* addr) {
+void UriToSockaddr(const char* uri_str, grpc_resolved_address* addr) {
   grpc_uri* uri = grpc_uri_parse(uri_str, 0 /* suppress_errors */);
   GPR_ASSERT(uri != nullptr);
   if (!grpc_parse_uri(uri, addr)) memset(addr, 0, sizeof(*addr));
   grpc_uri_destroy(uri);
 }
 
-void grpc_get_subchannel_address_arg(const grpc_channel_args* args,
-                                     grpc_resolved_address* addr) {
-  const char* addr_uri_str = grpc_get_subchannel_address_uri_arg(args);
+}  // namespace
+
+void Subchannel::GetAddressFromSubchannelAddressArg(
+    const grpc_channel_args* args, grpc_resolved_address* addr) {
+  const char* addr_uri_str = GetUriFromSubchannelAddressArg(args);
   memset(addr, 0, sizeof(*addr));
   if (*addr_uri_str != '\0') {
-    grpc_uri_to_sockaddr(addr_uri_str, addr);
+    UriToSockaddr(addr_uri_str, addr);
   }
 }
 
-const char* grpc_subchannel_get_target(grpc_subchannel* subchannel) {
-  const grpc_arg* addr_arg =
-      grpc_channel_args_find(subchannel->args, GRPC_ARG_SUBCHANNEL_ADDRESS);
-  const char* addr_str = grpc_channel_arg_get_string(addr_arg);
-  GPR_ASSERT(addr_str != nullptr);  // Should have been set by LB policy.
-  return addr_str;
-}
+namespace {
 
-const char* grpc_get_subchannel_address_uri_arg(const grpc_channel_args* args) {
-  const grpc_arg* addr_arg =
-      grpc_channel_args_find(args, GRPC_ARG_SUBCHANNEL_ADDRESS);
-  const char* addr_str = grpc_channel_arg_get_string(addr_arg);
-  GPR_ASSERT(addr_str != nullptr);  // Should have been set by LB policy.
-  return addr_str;
+// Returns a string indicating the subchannel's connectivity state change to
+// \a state.
+const char* SubchannelConnectivityStateChangeString(
+    grpc_connectivity_state state) {
+  switch (state) {
+    case GRPC_CHANNEL_IDLE:
+      return "Subchannel state change to IDLE";
+    case GRPC_CHANNEL_CONNECTING:
+      return "Subchannel state change to CONNECTING";
+    case GRPC_CHANNEL_READY:
+      return "Subchannel state change to READY";
+    case GRPC_CHANNEL_TRANSIENT_FAILURE:
+      return "Subchannel state change to TRANSIENT_FAILURE";
+    case GRPC_CHANNEL_SHUTDOWN:
+      return "Subchannel state change to SHUTDOWN";
+  }
+  GPR_UNREACHABLE_CODE(return "UNKNOWN");
 }
 
-grpc_arg grpc_create_subchannel_address_arg(const grpc_resolved_address* addr) {
-  return grpc_channel_arg_string_create(
-      (char*)GRPC_ARG_SUBCHANNEL_ADDRESS,
-      addr->len > 0 ? grpc_sockaddr_to_uri(addr) : gpr_strdup(""));
+}  // namespace
+
+void Subchannel::SetConnectivityStateLocked(grpc_connectivity_state state,
+                                            grpc_error* error,
+                                            const char* reason) {
+  if (channelz_node_ != nullptr) {
+    channelz_node_->AddTraceEvent(
+        channelz::ChannelTrace::Severity::Info,
+        grpc_slice_from_static_string(
+            SubchannelConnectivityStateChangeString(state)));
+  }
+  grpc_connectivity_state_set(&state_tracker_, state, error, reason);
 }
 
-namespace grpc_core {
+void Subchannel::MaybeStartConnectingLocked() {
+  if (disconnected_) {
+    // Don't try to connect if we're already disconnected.
+    return;
+  }
+  if (connecting_) {
+    // Already connecting: don't restart.
+    return;
+  }
+  if (connected_subchannel_ != nullptr) {
+    // Already connected: don't restart.
+    return;
+  }
+  if (!grpc_connectivity_state_has_watchers(&state_tracker_) &&
+      !grpc_connectivity_state_has_watchers(&state_and_health_tracker_)) {
+    // Nobody is interested in connecting: so don't just yet.
+    return;
+  }
+  connecting_ = true;
+  GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_WEAK_REF(this, "connecting");
+  if (!backoff_begun_) {
+    backoff_begun_ = true;
+    ContinueConnectingLocked();
+  } else {
+    GPR_ASSERT(!have_retry_alarm_);
+    have_retry_alarm_ = true;
+    const grpc_millis time_til_next =
+        next_attempt_deadline_ - ExecCtx::Get()->Now();
+    if (time_til_next <= 0) {
+      gpr_log(GPR_INFO, "Subchannel %p: Retry immediately", this);
+    } else {
+      gpr_log(GPR_INFO, "Subchannel %p: Retry in %" PRId64 " milliseconds",
+              this, time_til_next);
+    }
+    GRPC_CLOSURE_INIT(&on_retry_alarm_, OnRetryAlarm, this,
+                      grpc_schedule_on_exec_ctx);
+    grpc_timer_init(&retry_alarm_, next_attempt_deadline_, &on_retry_alarm_);
+  }
+}
 
-ConnectedSubchannel::ConnectedSubchannel(
-    grpc_channel_stack* channel_stack, const grpc_channel_args* args,
-    grpc_core::RefCountedPtr<grpc_core::channelz::SubchannelNode>
-        channelz_subchannel,
-    intptr_t socket_uuid)
-    : RefCounted<ConnectedSubchannel>(&grpc_trace_stream_refcount),
-      channel_stack_(channel_stack),
-      args_(grpc_channel_args_copy(args)),
-      channelz_subchannel_(std::move(channelz_subchannel)),
-      socket_uuid_(socket_uuid) {}
+void Subchannel::OnRetryAlarm(void* arg, grpc_error* error) {
+  Subchannel* c = static_cast<Subchannel*>(arg);
+  gpr_mu_lock(&c->mu_);
+  c->have_retry_alarm_ = false;
+  if (c->disconnected_) {
+    error = GRPC_ERROR_CREATE_REFERENCING_FROM_STATIC_STRING("Disconnected",
+                                                             &error, 1);
+  } else if (c->retry_immediately_) {
+    c->retry_immediately_ = false;
+    error = GRPC_ERROR_NONE;
+  } else {
+    GRPC_ERROR_REF(error);
+  }
+  if (error == GRPC_ERROR_NONE) {
+    gpr_log(GPR_INFO, "Failed to connect to channel, retrying");
+    c->ContinueConnectingLocked();
+    gpr_mu_unlock(&c->mu_);
+  } else {
+    gpr_mu_unlock(&c->mu_);
+    GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_WEAK_UNREF(c, "connecting");
+  }
+  GRPC_ERROR_UNREF(error);
+}
 
-ConnectedSubchannel::~ConnectedSubchannel() {
-  grpc_channel_args_destroy(args_);
-  GRPC_CHANNEL_STACK_UNREF(channel_stack_, "connected_subchannel_dtor");
+void Subchannel::ContinueConnectingLocked() {
+  grpc_connect_in_args args;
+  args.interested_parties = pollset_set_;
+  const grpc_millis min_deadline =
+      min_connect_timeout_ms_ + ExecCtx::Get()->Now();
+  next_attempt_deadline_ = backoff_.NextAttemptTime();
+  args.deadline = std::max(next_attempt_deadline_, min_deadline);
+  args.channel_args = args_;
+  SetConnectivityStateLocked(GRPC_CHANNEL_CONNECTING, GRPC_ERROR_NONE,
+                             "connecting");
+  grpc_connectivity_state_set(&state_and_health_tracker_,
+                              GRPC_CHANNEL_CONNECTING, GRPC_ERROR_NONE,
+                              "connecting");
+  grpc_connector_connect(connector_, &args, &connecting_result_,
+                         &on_connecting_finished_);
 }
 
-void ConnectedSubchannel::NotifyOnStateChange(
-    grpc_pollset_set* interested_parties, grpc_connectivity_state* state,
-    grpc_closure* closure) {
-  grpc_transport_op* op = grpc_make_transport_op(nullptr);
-  grpc_channel_element* elem;
-  op->connectivity_state = state;
-  op->on_connectivity_state_change = closure;
-  op->bind_pollset_set = interested_parties;
-  elem = grpc_channel_stack_element(channel_stack_, 0);
-  elem->filter->start_transport_op(elem, op);
+void Subchannel::OnConnectingFinished(void* arg, grpc_error* error) {
+  auto* c = static_cast<Subchannel*>(arg);
+  grpc_channel_args* delete_channel_args = c->connecting_result_.channel_args;
+  GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_WEAK_REF(c, "on_connecting_finished");
+  gpr_mu_lock(&c->mu_);
+  c->connecting_ = false;
+  if (c->connecting_result_.transport != nullptr &&
+      c->PublishTransportLocked()) {
+    // Do nothing, transport was published.
+  } else if (c->disconnected_) {
+    GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_WEAK_UNREF(c, "connecting");
+  } else {
+    c->SetConnectivityStateLocked(
+        GRPC_CHANNEL_TRANSIENT_FAILURE,
+        grpc_error_set_int(GRPC_ERROR_CREATE_REFERENCING_FROM_STATIC_STRING(
+                               "Connect Failed", &error, 1),
+                           GRPC_ERROR_INT_GRPC_STATUS, GRPC_STATUS_UNAVAILABLE),
+        "connect_failed");
+    grpc_connectivity_state_set(
+        &c->state_and_health_tracker_, GRPC_CHANNEL_TRANSIENT_FAILURE,
+        grpc_error_set_int(GRPC_ERROR_CREATE_REFERENCING_FROM_STATIC_STRING(
+                               "Connect Failed", &error, 1),
+                           GRPC_ERROR_INT_GRPC_STATUS, GRPC_STATUS_UNAVAILABLE),
+        "connect_failed");
+
+    const char* errmsg = grpc_error_string(error);
+    gpr_log(GPR_INFO, "Connect failed: %s", errmsg);
+
+    c->MaybeStartConnectingLocked();
+    GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_WEAK_UNREF(c, "connecting");
+  }
+  gpr_mu_unlock(&c->mu_);
+  GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_WEAK_UNREF(c, "on_connecting_finished");
+  grpc_channel_args_destroy(delete_channel_args);
 }
 
-void ConnectedSubchannel::Ping(grpc_closure* on_initiate,
-                               grpc_closure* on_ack) {
-  grpc_transport_op* op = grpc_make_transport_op(nullptr);
-  grpc_channel_element* elem;
-  op->send_ping.on_initiate = on_initiate;
-  op->send_ping.on_ack = on_ack;
-  elem = grpc_channel_stack_element(channel_stack_, 0);
-  elem->filter->start_transport_op(elem, op);
+namespace {
+
+void ConnectionDestroy(void* arg, grpc_error* error) {
+  grpc_channel_stack* stk = static_cast<grpc_channel_stack*>(arg);
+  grpc_channel_stack_destroy(stk);
+  gpr_free(stk);
 }
 
-grpc_error* ConnectedSubchannel::CreateCall(const CallArgs& args,
-                                            grpc_subchannel_call** call) {
-  const size_t allocation_size =
-      GetInitialCallSizeEstimate(args.parent_data_size);
-  *call = new (gpr_arena_alloc(args.arena, allocation_size))
-      grpc_subchannel_call(this, args);
-  grpc_call_stack* callstk = SUBCHANNEL_CALL_TO_CALL_STACK(*call);
-  RefCountedPtr<ConnectedSubchannel> connection =
-      Ref(DEBUG_LOCATION, "subchannel_call");
-  connection.release();  // Ref is passed to the grpc_subchannel_call object.
-  const grpc_call_element_args call_args = {
-      callstk,           /* call_stack */
-      nullptr,           /* server_transport_data */
-      args.context,      /* context */
-      args.path,         /* path */
-      args.start_time,   /* start_time */
-      args.deadline,     /* deadline */
-      args.arena,        /* arena */
-      args.call_combiner /* call_combiner */
-  };
-  grpc_error* error = grpc_call_stack_init(
-      channel_stack_, 1, subchannel_call_destroy, *call, &call_args);
-  if (GPR_UNLIKELY(error != GRPC_ERROR_NONE)) {
-    const char* error_string = grpc_error_string(error);
-    gpr_log(GPR_ERROR, "error: %s", error_string);
-    return error;
+}  // namespace
+
+bool Subchannel::PublishTransportLocked() {
+  // Construct channel stack.
+  grpc_channel_stack_builder* builder = grpc_channel_stack_builder_create();
+  grpc_channel_stack_builder_set_channel_arguments(
+      builder, connecting_result_.channel_args);
+  grpc_channel_stack_builder_set_transport(builder,
+                                           connecting_result_.transport);
+  if (!grpc_channel_init_create_stack(builder, GRPC_CLIENT_SUBCHANNEL)) {
+    grpc_channel_stack_builder_destroy(builder);
+    return false;
   }
-  grpc_call_stack_set_pollset_or_pollset_set(callstk, args.pollent);
-  if (channelz_subchannel_ != nullptr) {
-    channelz_subchannel_->RecordCallStarted();
+  grpc_channel_stack* stk;
+  grpc_error* error = grpc_channel_stack_builder_finish(
+      builder, 0, 1, ConnectionDestroy, nullptr,
+      reinterpret_cast<void**>(&stk));
+  if (error != GRPC_ERROR_NONE) {
+    grpc_transport_destroy(connecting_result_.transport);
+    gpr_log(GPR_ERROR, "error initializing subchannel stack: %s",
+            grpc_error_string(error));
+    GRPC_ERROR_UNREF(error);
+    return false;
+  }
+  intptr_t socket_uuid = connecting_result_.socket_uuid;
+  memset(&connecting_result_, 0, sizeof(connecting_result_));
+  if (disconnected_) {
+    grpc_channel_stack_destroy(stk);
+    gpr_free(stk);
+    return false;
   }
-  return GRPC_ERROR_NONE;
+  // Publish.
+  connected_subchannel_.reset(
+      New<ConnectedSubchannel>(stk, args_, channelz_node_, socket_uuid));
+  gpr_log(GPR_INFO, "New connected subchannel at %p for subchannel %p",
+          connected_subchannel_.get(), this);
+  // Instantiate state watcher.  Will clean itself up.
+  connected_subchannel_watcher_ =
+      MakeOrphanable<ConnectedSubchannelStateWatcher>(this);
+  return true;
 }
 
-size_t ConnectedSubchannel::GetInitialCallSizeEstimate(
-    size_t parent_data_size) const {
-  size_t allocation_size =
-      GPR_ROUND_UP_TO_ALIGNMENT_SIZE(sizeof(grpc_subchannel_call));
-  if (parent_data_size > 0) {
-    allocation_size +=
-        GPR_ROUND_UP_TO_ALIGNMENT_SIZE(channel_stack_->call_stack_size) +
-        parent_data_size;
-  } else {
-    allocation_size += channel_stack_->call_stack_size;
+void Subchannel::Disconnect() {
+  // The subchannel_pool is only used once here in this subchannel, so the
+  // access can be outside of the lock.
+  if (subchannel_pool_ != nullptr) {
+    subchannel_pool_->UnregisterSubchannel(key_);
+    subchannel_pool_.reset();
   }
-  return allocation_size;
+  MutexLock lock(&mu_);
+  GPR_ASSERT(!disconnected_);
+  disconnected_ = true;
+  grpc_connector_shutdown(connector_, GRPC_ERROR_CREATE_FROM_STATIC_STRING(
+                                          "Subchannel disconnected"));
+  connected_subchannel_.reset();
+  connected_subchannel_watcher_.reset();
+}
+
+gpr_atm Subchannel::RefMutate(
+    gpr_atm delta, int barrier GRPC_SUBCHANNEL_REF_MUTATE_EXTRA_ARGS) {
+  gpr_atm old_val = barrier ? gpr_atm_full_fetch_add(&ref_pair_, delta)
+                            : gpr_atm_no_barrier_fetch_add(&ref_pair_, delta);
+#ifndef NDEBUG
+  if (grpc_trace_stream_refcount.enabled()) {
+    gpr_log(file, line, GPR_LOG_SEVERITY_DEBUG,
+            "SUBCHANNEL: %p %12s 0x%" PRIxPTR " -> 0x%" PRIxPTR " [%s]", this,
+            purpose, old_val, old_val + delta, reason);
+  }
+#endif
+  return old_val;
 }
 
 }  // namespace grpc_core