graphql 1.9.0 → 2.1.1

data/lib/graphql/schema.rb

@@ -1,24 +1,20 @@
 # frozen_string_literal: true
+require "graphql/schema/addition"
+require "graphql/schema/always_visible"
 require "graphql/schema/base_64_encoder"
-require "graphql/schema/catchall_middleware"
-require "graphql/schema/default_parse_error"
-require "graphql/schema/default_type_error"
+require "graphql/schema/find_inherited_value"
 require "graphql/schema/finder"
 require "graphql/schema/invalid_type_error"
 require "graphql/schema/introspection_system"
 require "graphql/schema/late_bound_type"
-require "graphql/schema/middleware_chain"
 require "graphql/schema/null_mask"
-require "graphql/schema/possible_types"
-require "graphql/schema/rescue_middleware"
-require "graphql/schema/timeout_middleware"
-require "graphql/schema/traversal"
+require "graphql/schema/timeout"
 require "graphql/schema/type_expression"
 require "graphql/schema/unique_within_type"
-require "graphql/schema/validation"
 require "graphql/schema/warden"
 require "graphql/schema/build_from_definition"
 
+require "graphql/schema/validator"
 require "graphql/schema/member"
 require "graphql/schema/wrapper"
 require "graphql/schema/list"
@@ -34,13 +30,19 @@ require "graphql/schema/scalar"
 require "graphql/schema/object"
 require "graphql/schema/union"
 require "graphql/schema/directive"
+require "graphql/schema/directive/deprecated"
 require "graphql/schema/directive/include"
+require "graphql/schema/directive/one_of"
 require "graphql/schema/directive/skip"
 require "graphql/schema/directive/feature"
+require "graphql/schema/directive/flagged"
 require "graphql/schema/directive/transform"
+require "graphql/schema/directive/specified_by"
+require "graphql/schema/type_membership"
 
 require "graphql/schema/resolver"
 require "graphql/schema/mutation"
+require "graphql/schema/has_single_input_argument"
 require "graphql/schema/relay_classic_mutation"
 require "graphql/schema/subscription"
 
@@ -52,7 +54,6 @@ module GraphQL
   #  - types for exposing your application
   #  - query analyzers for assessing incoming queries (including max depth & max complexity restrictions)
   #  - execution strategies for running incoming queries
-  #  - middleware for interacting with execution
   #
   # Schemas start with root types, {Schema#query}, {Schema#mutation} and {Schema#subscription}.
   # The schema will traverse the tree of fields & types, using those as starting points.
@@ -65,777 +66,535 @@ module GraphQL
   # `query_execution_strategy`, `mutation_execution_strategy` and `subscription_execution_strategy`
   # each apply to corresponding root types.
   #
-  # A schema accepts a `Relay::GlobalNodeIdentification` instance for use with Relay IDs.
-  #
   # @example defining a schema
-  #   MySchema = GraphQL::Schema.define do
+  #   class MySchema < GraphQL::Schema
   #     query QueryType
-  #     middleware PermissionMiddleware
-  #     rescue_from(ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound) { "Not found" }
   #     # If types are only connected by way of interfaces, they must be added here
   #     orphan_types ImageType, AudioType
   #   end
   #
   class Schema
-    extend Forwardable
-    extend GraphQL::Schema::Member::AcceptsDefinition
-    include GraphQL::Define::InstanceDefinable
-    accepts_definitions \
-      :query, :mutation, :subscription,
-      :query_execution_strategy, :mutation_execution_strategy, :subscription_execution_strategy,
-      :max_depth, :max_complexity, :default_max_page_size,
-      :orphan_types, :resolve_type, :type_error, :parse_error,
-      :error_bubbling,
-      :raise_definition_error,
-      :object_from_id, :id_from_object,
-      :default_mask,
-      :cursor_encoder,
-      directives: ->(schema, directives) { schema.directives = directives.reduce({}) { |m, d| m[d.name] = d; m } },
-      directive: ->(schema, directive) { schema.directives[directive.graphql_name] = directive },
-      instrument: ->(schema, type, instrumenter, after_built_ins: false) {
-        if type == :field && after_built_ins
-          type = :field_after_built_ins
-        end
-        schema.instrumenters[type] << instrumenter
-      },
-      query_analyzer: ->(schema, analyzer) {
-        if analyzer == GraphQL::Authorization::Analyzer
-          warn("The Authorization query analyzer is deprecated. Authorizing at query runtime is generally a better idea.")
-        end
-        schema.query_analyzers << analyzer
-      },
-      multiplex_analyzer: ->(schema, analyzer) { schema.multiplex_analyzers << analyzer },
-      middleware: ->(schema, middleware) { schema.middleware << middleware },
-      lazy_resolve: ->(schema, lazy_class, lazy_value_method) { schema.lazy_methods.set(lazy_class, lazy_value_method) },
-      rescue_from: ->(schema, err_class, &block) { schema.rescue_from(err_class, &block) },
-      tracer: ->(schema, tracer) { schema.tracers.push(tracer) }
-
-    attr_accessor \
-      :query, :mutation, :subscription,
-      :query_execution_strategy, :mutation_execution_strategy, :subscription_execution_strategy,
-      :max_depth, :max_complexity, :default_max_page_size,
-      :orphan_types, :directives,
-      :query_analyzers, :multiplex_analyzers, :instrumenters, :lazy_methods,
-      :cursor_encoder,
-      :ast_node,
-      :raise_definition_error,
-      :introspection_namespace,
-      :analysis_engine
-
-    # [Boolean] True if this object bubbles validation errors up from a field into its parent InputObject, if there is one.
-    attr_accessor :error_bubbling
-
-    # Single, long-lived instance of the provided subscriptions class, if there is one.
-    # @return [GraphQL::Subscriptions]
-    attr_accessor :subscriptions
-
-    # @return [MiddlewareChain] MiddlewareChain which is applied to fields during execution
-    attr_accessor :middleware
-
-    # @return [<#call(member, ctx)>] A callable for filtering members of the schema
-    # @see {Query.new} for query-specific filters with `except:`
-    attr_accessor :default_mask
-
-    # @see {GraphQL::Query::Context} The parent class of these classes
-    # @return [Class] Instantiated for each query
-    attr_accessor :context_class
-
-    class << self
-      attr_writer :default_execution_strategy
-    end
-
-    def default_filter
-      GraphQL::Filter.new(except: default_mask)
-    end
+    extend GraphQL::Schema::Member::HasAstNode
+    extend GraphQL::Schema::FindInheritedValue
 
-    # @return [Array<#trace(key, data)>] Tracers applied to every query
-    # @see {Query#tracers} for query-specific tracers
-    attr_reader :tracers
-
-    DYNAMIC_FIELDS = ["__type", "__typename", "__schema"]
-
-    attr_reader :static_validator, :object_from_id_proc, :id_from_object_proc, :resolve_type_proc
-
-    def initialize
-      @tracers = []
-      @definition_error = nil
-      @orphan_types = []
-      @directives = self.class.default_directives
-      @static_validator = GraphQL::StaticValidation::Validator.new(schema: self)
-      @middleware = MiddlewareChain.new(final_step: GraphQL::Execution::Execute::FieldResolveStep)
-      @query_analyzers = []
-      @multiplex_analyzers = []
-      @resolve_type_proc = nil
-      @object_from_id_proc = nil
-      @id_from_object_proc = nil
-      @type_error_proc = DefaultTypeError
-      @parse_error_proc = DefaultParseError
-      @instrumenters = Hash.new { |h, k| h[k] = [] }
-      @lazy_methods = GraphQL::Execution::Lazy::LazyMethodMap.new
-      @lazy_methods.set(GraphQL::Execution::Lazy, :value)
-      @cursor_encoder = Base64Encoder
-      # Default to the built-in execution strategy:
-      @analysis_engine = GraphQL::Analysis
-      @query_execution_strategy = self.class.default_execution_strategy
-      @mutation_execution_strategy = self.class.default_execution_strategy
-      @subscription_execution_strategy = self.class.default_execution_strategy
-      @default_mask = GraphQL::Schema::NullMask
-      @rebuilding_artifacts = false
-      @context_class = GraphQL::Query::Context
-      @introspection_namespace = nil
-      @introspection_system = nil
-      @interpreter = false
-      @error_bubbling = false
-    end
-
-    # @return [Boolean] True if using the new {GraphQL::Execution::Interpreter}
-    def interpreter?
-      @interpreter
+    class DuplicateNamesError < GraphQL::Error
+      attr_reader :duplicated_name
+      def initialize(duplicated_name:, duplicated_definition_1:, duplicated_definition_2:)
+        @duplicated_name = duplicated_name
+        super(
+          "Found two visible definitions for `#{duplicated_name}`: #{duplicated_definition_1}, #{duplicated_definition_2}"
+        )
+      end
     end
 
-    # @api private
-    attr_writer :interpreter
-
-    def inspect
-      "#<#{self.class.name} ...>"
+    class UnresolvedLateBoundTypeError < GraphQL::Error
+      attr_reader :type
+      def initialize(type:)
+        @type = type
+        super("Late bound type was never found: #{type.inspect}")
+      end
     end
 
-    def initialize_copy(other)
-      super
-      @orphan_types = other.orphan_types.dup
-      @directives = other.directives.dup
-      @static_validator = GraphQL::StaticValidation::Validator.new(schema: self)
-      @middleware = other.middleware.dup
-      @query_analyzers = other.query_analyzers.dup
-      @multiplex_analyzers = other.multiplex_analyzers.dup
-      @tracers = other.tracers.dup
-      @possible_types = GraphQL::Schema::PossibleTypes.new(self)
-
-      @lazy_methods = other.lazy_methods.dup
+    # Error that is raised when [#Schema#from_definition] is passed an invalid schema definition string.
+    class InvalidDocumentError < Error; end;
 
-      @instrumenters = Hash.new { |h, k| h[k] = [] }
-      other.instrumenters.each do |key, insts|
-        @instrumenters[key].concat(insts)
+    class << self
+      # Create schema with the result of an introspection query.
+      # @param introspection_result [Hash] A response from {GraphQL::Introspection::INTROSPECTION_QUERY}
+      # @return [Class<GraphQL::Schema>] the schema described by `input`
+      def from_introspection(introspection_result)
+        GraphQL::Schema::Loader.load(introspection_result)
+      end
+
+      # Create schema from an IDL schema or file containing an IDL definition.
+      # @param definition_or_path [String] A schema definition string, or a path to a file containing the definition
+      # @param default_resolve [<#call(type, field, obj, args, ctx)>] A callable for handling field resolution
+      # @param parser [Object] An object for handling definition string parsing (must respond to `parse`)
+      # @param using [Hash] Plugins to attach to the created schema with `use(key, value)`
+      # @return [Class] the schema described by `document`
+      def from_definition(definition_or_path, default_resolve: nil, parser: GraphQL.default_parser, using: {})
+        # If the file ends in `.graphql` or `.graphqls`, treat it like a filepath
+        if definition_or_path.end_with?(".graphql") || definition_or_path.end_with?(".graphqls")
+          GraphQL::Schema::BuildFromDefinition.from_definition_path(
+            self,
+            definition_or_path,
+            default_resolve: default_resolve,
+            parser: parser,
+            using: using,
+          )
+        else
+          GraphQL::Schema::BuildFromDefinition.from_definition(
+            self,
+            definition_or_path,
+            default_resolve: default_resolve,
+            parser: parser,
+            using: using,
+          )
+        end
       end
 
-      if other.rescues?
-        @rescue_middleware = other.rescue_middleware
+      def deprecated_graphql_definition
+        graphql_definition(silence_deprecation_warning: true)
       end
 
-      # This will be rebuilt when it's requested
-      # or during a later `define` call
-      @types = nil
-      @introspection_system = nil
-    end
-
-    def rescue_from(*args, &block)
-      rescue_middleware.rescue_from(*args, &block)
-    end
-
-    def remove_handler(*args, &block)
-      rescue_middleware.remove_handler(*args, &block)
-    end
-
-    def using_ast_analysis?
-      @analysis_engine == GraphQL::Analysis::AST
-    end
-
-    # For forwards-compatibility with Schema classes
-    alias :graphql_definition :itself
-
-    # Validate a query string according to this schema.
-    # @param string_or_document [String, GraphQL::Language::Nodes::Document]
-    # @return [Array<GraphQL::StaticValidation::Error >]
-    def validate(string_or_document, rules: nil)
-      doc = if string_or_document.is_a?(String)
-        GraphQL.parse(string_or_document)
-      else
-        string_or_document
-      end
-      query = GraphQL::Query.new(self, document: doc)
-      validator_opts = { schema: self }
-      rules && (validator_opts[:rules] = rules)
-      validator = GraphQL::StaticValidation::Validator.new(validator_opts)
-      res = validator.validate(query)
-      res[:errors]
-    end
-
-    def define(**kwargs, &block)
-      super
-      ensure_defined
-      # Assert that all necessary configs are present:
-      validation_error = Validation.validate(self)
-      validation_error && raise(NotImplementedError, validation_error)
-      rebuild_artifacts
-
-      @definition_error = nil
-      nil
-    rescue StandardError => err
-      if @raise_definition_error || err.is_a?(CyclicalDefinitionError)
-        raise
-      else
-        # Raise this error _later_ to avoid messing with Rails constant loading
-        @definition_error = err
-      end
-      nil
-    end
-
-    # Attach `instrumenter` to this schema for instrumenting events of `instrumentation_type`.
-    # @param instrumentation_type [Symbol]
-    # @param instrumenter
-    # @return [void]
-    def instrument(instrumentation_type, instrumenter)
-      @instrumenters[instrumentation_type] << instrumenter
-      if instrumentation_type == :field
-        rebuild_artifacts
+      # @return [GraphQL::Subscriptions]
+      def subscriptions(inherited: true)
+        defined?(@subscriptions) ? @subscriptions : (inherited ? find_inherited_value(:subscriptions, nil) : nil)
       end
-    end
 
-    # @return [Array<GraphQL::BaseType>] The root types of this schema
-    def root_types
-      @root_types ||= begin
-        rebuild_artifacts
-        @root_types
+      def subscriptions=(new_implementation)
+        @subscriptions = new_implementation
       end
-    end
 
-    # @see [GraphQL::Schema::Warden] Restricted access to members of a schema
-    # @return [GraphQL::Schema::TypeMap] `{ name => type }` pairs of types in this schema
-    def types
-      @types ||= begin
-        rebuild_artifacts
-        @types
+      def trace_class(new_class = nil)
+        if new_class
+          trace_mode(:default, new_class)
+          backtrace_class = Class.new(new_class)
+          backtrace_class.include(GraphQL::Backtrace::Trace)
+          trace_mode(:default_backtrace, backtrace_class)
+        end
+        trace_class_for(:default)
+      end
+
+      # @return [Class] Return the trace class to use for this mode, looking one up on the superclass if this Schema doesn't have one defined.
+      def trace_class_for(mode)
+        @trace_modes ||= {}
+        @trace_modes[mode] ||= begin
+          case mode
+          when :default
+            superclass_base_class = if superclass.respond_to?(:trace_class_for)
+              superclass.trace_class_for(mode)
+            else
+              GraphQL::Tracing::Trace
+            end
+            Class.new(superclass_base_class)
+          when :default_backtrace
+            schema_base_class = trace_class_for(:default)
+            Class.new(schema_base_class) do
+              include(GraphQL::Backtrace::Trace)
+            end
+          else
+            mods = trace_modules_for(mode)
+            Class.new(trace_class_for(:default)) do
+              mods.any? && include(*mods)
+            end
+          end
+        end
       end
-    end
 
-    # @api private
-    def introspection_system
-      @introspection_system ||= begin
-        rebuild_artifacts
-        @introspection_system
+      # Configure `trace_class` to be used whenever `context: { trace_mode: mode_name }` is requested.
+      # `:default` is used when no `trace_mode: ...` is requested.
+      # @param mode_name [Symbol]
+      # @param trace_class [Class] subclass of GraphQL::Tracing::Trace
+      # @return void
+      def trace_mode(mode_name, trace_class)
+        @trace_modes ||= {}
+        @trace_modes[mode_name] = trace_class
+        nil
       end
-    end
-
-    # Returns a list of Arguments and Fields referencing a certain type
-    # @param type_name [String]
-    # @return [Hash]
-    def references_to(type_name)
-      rebuild_artifacts unless defined?(@type_reference_map)
-      @type_reference_map.fetch(type_name, [])
-    end
 
-    # Returns a list of Union types in which a type is a member
-    # @param type [GraphQL::ObjectType]
-    # @return [Array<GraphQL::UnionType>] list of union types of which the type is a member
-    def union_memberships(type)
-      rebuild_artifacts unless defined?(@union_memberships)
-      @union_memberships.fetch(type.name, [])
-    end
-
-    # Execute a query on itself. Raises an error if the schema definition is invalid.
-    # @see {Query#initialize} for arguments.
-    # @return [Hash] query result, ready to be serialized as JSON
-    def execute(query_str = nil, **kwargs)
-      if query_str
-        kwargs[:query] = query_str
-      end
-      # Some of the query context _should_ be passed to the multiplex, too
-      multiplex_context = if (ctx = kwargs[:context])
-        {
-          backtrace: ctx[:backtrace],
-          tracers: ctx[:tracers],
-        }
-      else
-        {}
+      def own_trace_modules
+        @own_trace_modules ||= Hash.new { |h, k| h[k] = [] }
       end
-      # Since we're running one query, don't run a multiplex-level complexity analyzer
-      all_results = multiplex([kwargs], max_complexity: nil, context: multiplex_context)
-      all_results[0]
-    end
-
-    # Execute several queries on itself. Raises an error if the schema definition is invalid.
-    # @example Run several queries at once
-    #   context = { ... }
-    #   queries = [
-    #     { query: params[:query_1], variables: params[:variables_1], context: context },
-    #     { query: params[:query_2], variables: params[:variables_2], context: context },
-    #   ]
-    #   results = MySchema.multiplex(queries)
-    #   render json: {
-    #     result_1: results[0],
-    #     result_2: results[1],
-    #   }
-    #
-    # @see {Query#initialize} for query keyword arguments
-    # @see {Execution::Multiplex#run_queries} for multiplex keyword arguments
-    # @param queries [Array<Hash>] Keyword arguments for each query
-    # @param context [Hash] Multiplex-level context
-    # @return [Array<Hash>] One result for each query in the input
-    def multiplex(queries, **kwargs)
-      with_definition_error_check {
-        GraphQL::Execution::Multiplex.run_all(self, queries, **kwargs)
-      }
-    end
-
-    # Search for a schema member using a string path
-    # @example Finding a Field
-    # Schema.find("Ensemble.musicians")
-    #
-    # @see {GraphQL::Schema::Finder} for more examples
-    # @param path [String] A dot-separated path to the member
-    # @raise [Schema::Finder::MemberNotFoundError] if path could not be found
-    # @return [GraphQL::BaseType, GraphQL::Field, GraphQL::Argument, GraphQL::Directive] A GraphQL Schema Member
-    def find(path)
-      rebuild_artifacts unless defined?(@finder)
-      @find_cache[path] ||= @finder.find(path)
-    end
 
-    # Resolve field named `field_name` for type `parent_type`.
-    # Handles dynamic fields `__typename`, `__type` and `__schema`, too
-    # @param parent_type [String, GraphQL::BaseType]
-    # @param field_name [String]
-    # @return [GraphQL::Field, nil] The field named `field_name` on `parent_type`
-    # @see [GraphQL::Schema::Warden] Restricted access to members of a schema
-    def get_field(parent_type, field_name)
-      with_definition_error_check do
-        parent_type_name = case parent_type
-        when GraphQL::BaseType
-          parent_type.name
-        when String
-          parent_type
-        else
-          raise "Unexpected parent_type: #{parent_type}"
+      # @return [Array<Module>] Modules added for tracing in `trace_mode`, including inherited ones
+      def trace_modules_for(trace_mode)
+        modules = own_trace_modules[trace_mode]
+        if superclass.respond_to?(:trace_modules_for)
+          modules += superclass.trace_modules_for(trace_mode)
         end
-
-        defined_field = @instrumented_field_map[parent_type_name][field_name]
-        if defined_field
-          defined_field
-        elsif parent_type == query && (entry_point_field = introspection_system.entry_point(name: field_name))
-          entry_point_field
-        elsif (dynamic_field = introspection_system.dynamic_field(name: field_name))
-          dynamic_field
+        modules
+      end
+
+
+      # Returns the JSON response of {Introspection::INTROSPECTION_QUERY}.
+      # @see {#as_json}
+      # @return [String]
+      def to_json(**args)
+        JSON.pretty_generate(as_json(**args))
+      end
+
+      # Return the Hash response of {Introspection::INTROSPECTION_QUERY}.
+      # @param context [Hash]
+      # @param only [<#call(member, ctx)>]
+      # @param except [<#call(member, ctx)>]
+      # @param include_deprecated_args [Boolean] If true, deprecated arguments will be included in the JSON response
+      # @param include_schema_description [Boolean] If true, the schema's description will be queried and included in the response
+      # @param include_is_repeatable [Boolean] If true, `isRepeatable: true|false` will be included with the schema's directives
+      # @param include_specified_by_url [Boolean] If true, scalar types' `specifiedByUrl:` will be included in the response
+      # @param include_is_one_of [Boolean] If true, `isOneOf: true|false` will be included with input objects
+      # @return [Hash] GraphQL result
+      def as_json(context: {}, include_deprecated_args: true, include_schema_description: false, include_is_repeatable: false, include_specified_by_url: false, include_is_one_of: false)
+        introspection_query = Introspection.query(
+          include_deprecated_args: include_deprecated_args,
+          include_schema_description: include_schema_description,
+          include_is_repeatable: include_is_repeatable,
+          include_is_one_of: include_is_one_of,
+          include_specified_by_url: include_specified_by_url,
+        )
+
+        execute(introspection_query, context: context).to_h
+      end
+
+      # Return the GraphQL IDL for the schema
+      # @param context [Hash]
+      # @return [String]
+      def to_definition(context: {})
+        GraphQL::Schema::Printer.print_schema(self, context: context)
+      end
+
+      # Return the GraphQL::Language::Document IDL AST for the schema
+      # @return [GraphQL::Language::Document]
+      def to_document
+        GraphQL::Language::DocumentFromSchemaDefinition.new(self).document
+      end
+
+      # @return [String, nil]
+      def description(new_description = nil)
+        if new_description
+          @description = new_description
+        elsif defined?(@description)
+          @description
         else
-          nil
+          find_inherited_value(:description, nil)
         end
       end
-    end
-
-    # Fields for this type, after instrumentation is applied
-    # @return [Hash<String, GraphQL::Field>]
-    def get_fields(type)
-      @instrumented_field_map[type.graphql_name]
-    end
-
-    def type_from_ast(ast_node)
-      GraphQL::Schema::TypeExpression.build_type(self.types, ast_node)
-    end
-
-    # @see [GraphQL::Schema::Warden] Restricted access to members of a schema
-    # @param type_defn [GraphQL::InterfaceType, GraphQL::UnionType] the type whose members you want to retrieve
-    # @return [Array<GraphQL::ObjectType>] types which belong to `type_defn` in this schema
-    def possible_types(type_defn)
-      @possible_types ||= GraphQL::Schema::PossibleTypes.new(self)
-      @possible_types.possible_types(type_defn)
-    end
 
-    # @see [GraphQL::Schema::Warden] Resticted access to root types
-    # @return [GraphQL::ObjectType, nil]
-    def root_type_for_operation(operation)
-      case operation
-      when "query"
-        query
-      when "mutation"
-        mutation
-      when "subscription"
-        subscription
-      else
-        raise ArgumentError, "unknown operation type: #{operation}"
+      def find(path)
+        if !@finder
+          @find_cache = {}
+          @finder ||= GraphQL::Schema::Finder.new(self)
+        end
+        @find_cache[path] ||= @finder.find(path)
       end
-    end
 
-    def execution_strategy_for_operation(operation)
-      case operation
-      when "query"
-        query_execution_strategy
-      when "mutation"
-        mutation_execution_strategy
-      when "subscription"
-        subscription_execution_strategy
-      else
-        raise ArgumentError, "unknown operation type: #{operation}"
+      def static_validator
+        GraphQL::StaticValidation::Validator.new(schema: self)
       end
-    end
 
-    # Determine the GraphQL type for a given object.
-    # This is required for unions and interfaces (including Relay's `Node` interface)
-    # @see [GraphQL::Schema::Warden] Restricted access to members of a schema
-    # @param type [GraphQL::UnionType, GraphQL:InterfaceType] the abstract type which is being resolved
-    # @param object [Any] An application object which GraphQL is currently resolving on
-    # @param ctx [GraphQL::Query::Context] The context for the current query
-    # @return [GraphQL::ObjectType] The type for exposing `object` in GraphQL
-    def resolve_type(type, object, ctx = :__undefined__)
-      check_resolved_type(type, object, ctx) do |ok_type, ok_object, ok_ctx|
-        if @resolve_type_proc.nil?
-          raise(NotImplementedError, "Can't determine GraphQL type for: #{ok_object.inspect}, define `resolve_type (type, obj, ctx) -> { ... }` inside `Schema.define`.")
+      def use(plugin, **kwargs)
+        if kwargs.any?
+          plugin.use(self, **kwargs)
+        else
+          plugin.use(self)
         end
-        @resolve_type_proc.call(ok_type, ok_object, ok_ctx)
+        own_plugins << [plugin, kwargs]
       end
-    end
 
-    # This is a compatibility hack so that instance-level and class-level
-    # methods can get correctness checks without calling one another
-    # @api private
-    def check_resolved_type(type, object, ctx = :__undefined__)
-      if ctx == :__undefined__
-        # Old method signature
-        ctx = object
-        object = type
-        type = nil
+      def plugins
+        find_inherited_value(:plugins, EMPTY_ARRAY) + own_plugins
+      end
+
+      # Build a map of `{ name => type }` and return it
+      # @return [Hash<String => Class>] A dictionary of type classes by their GraphQL name
+      # @see get_type Which is more efficient for finding _one type_ by name, because it doesn't merge hashes.
+      def types(context = GraphQL::Query::NullContext)
+        all_types = non_introspection_types.merge(introspection_system.types)
+        visible_types = {}
+        all_types.each do |k, v|
+          visible_types[k] =if v.is_a?(Array)
+            visible_t = nil
+            v.each do |t|
+              if t.visible?(context)
+                if visible_t.nil?
+                  visible_t = t
+                else
+                  raise DuplicateNamesError.new(
+                    duplicated_name: k, duplicated_definition_1: visible_t.inspect, duplicated_definition_2: t.inspect
+                  )
+                end
+              end
+            end
+            visible_t
+          else
+            v
+          end
+        end
+        visible_types
       end
 
-      if object.is_a?(GraphQL::Schema::Object)
-        object = object.object
-      end
+      # @param type_name [String]
+      # @return [Module, nil] A type, or nil if there's no type called `type_name`
+      def get_type(type_name, context = GraphQL::Query::NullContext)
+        local_entry = own_types[type_name]
+        type_defn = case local_entry
+        when nil
+          nil
+        when Array
+          visible_t = nil
+          warden = Warden.from_context(context)
+          local_entry.each do |t|
+            if warden.visible_type?(t, context)
+              if visible_t.nil?
+                visible_t = t
+              else
+                raise DuplicateNamesError.new(
+                  duplicated_name: type_name, duplicated_definition_1: visible_t.inspect, duplicated_definition_2: t.inspect
+                )
+              end
+            end
+          end
+          visible_t
+        when Module
+          local_entry
+        else
+          raise "Invariant: unexpected own_types[#{type_name.inspect}]: #{local_entry.inspect}"
+        end
 
-      if type.respond_to?(:graphql_definition)
-        type = type.graphql_definition
+        type_defn ||
+          introspection_system.types[type_name] || # todo context-specific introspection?
+          (superclass.respond_to?(:get_type) ? superclass.get_type(type_name, context) : nil)
       end
 
-      # Prefer a type-local function; fall back to the schema-level function
-      type_proc = type && type.resolve_type_proc
-      type_result = if type_proc
-        type_proc.call(object, ctx)
-      else
-        yield(type, object, ctx)
-      end
+      # @api private
+      attr_writer :connections
 
-      if type_result.nil?
-        nil
-      else
-        after_lazy(type_result) do |resolved_type_result|
-          if resolved_type_result.respond_to?(:graphql_definition)
-            resolved_type_result = resolved_type_result.graphql_definition
-          end
-          if !resolved_type_result.is_a?(GraphQL::BaseType)
-            type_str = "#{resolved_type_result} (#{resolved_type_result.class.name})"
-            raise "resolve_type(#{object}) returned #{type_str}, but it should return a GraphQL type"
+      # @return [GraphQL::Pagination::Connections] if installed
+      def connections
+        if defined?(@connections)
+          @connections
+        else
+          inherited_connections = find_inherited_value(:connections, nil)
+          # This schema is part of an inheritance chain which is using new connections,
+          # make a new instance, so we don't pollute the upstream one.
+          if inherited_connections
+            @connections = Pagination::Connections.new(schema: self)
           else
-            resolved_type_result
+            nil
           end
         end
       end
-    end
 
-    def resolve_type=(new_resolve_type_proc)
-      callable = GraphQL::BackwardsCompatibility.wrap_arity(new_resolve_type_proc, from: 2, to: 3, last: true, name: "Schema#resolve_type(type, obj, ctx)")
-      @resolve_type_proc = callable
-    end
-
-    # Fetch an application object by its unique id
-    # @param id [String] A unique identifier, provided previously by this GraphQL schema
-    # @param ctx [GraphQL::Query::Context] The context for the current query
-    # @return [Any] The application object identified by `id`
-    def object_from_id(id, ctx)
-      if @object_from_id_proc.nil?
-        raise(NotImplementedError, "Can't fetch an object for id \"#{id}\" because the schema's `object_from_id (id, ctx) -> { ... }` function is not defined")
-      else
-        @object_from_id_proc.call(id, ctx)
+      def new_connections?
+        !!connections
       end
-    end
 
-    # @param new_proc [#call] A new callable for fetching objects by ID
-    def object_from_id=(new_proc)
-      @object_from_id_proc = new_proc
-    end
-
-    # When we encounter a type error during query execution, we call this hook.
-    #
-    # You can use this hook to write a log entry,
-    # add a {GraphQL::ExecutionError} to the response (with `ctx.add_error`)
-    # or raise an exception and halt query execution.
-    #
-    # @example A `nil` is encountered by a non-null field
-    #   type_error ->(err, query_ctx) {
-    #     err.is_a?(GraphQL::InvalidNullError) # => true
-    #   }
-    #
-    # @example An object doesn't resolve to one of a {UnionType}'s members
-    #   type_error ->(err, query_ctx) {
-    #     err.is_a?(GraphQL::UnresolvedTypeError) # => true
-    #   }
-    #
-    # @see {DefaultTypeError} is the default behavior.
-    # @param err [GraphQL::TypeError] The error encountered during execution
-    # @param ctx [GraphQL::Query::Context] The context for the field where the error occurred
-    # @return void
-    def type_error(err, ctx)
-      @type_error_proc.call(err, ctx)
-    end
-
-    # @param new_proc [#call] A new callable for handling type errors during execution
-    def type_error=(new_proc)
-      @type_error_proc = new_proc
-    end
-
-    # Can't delegate to `class`
-    alias :_schema_class :class
-    def_delegators :_schema_class, :visible?, :accessible?, :authorized?, :unauthorized_object, :unauthorized_field, :inaccessible_fields
-    def_delegators :_schema_class, :directive
-
-    # A function to call when {#execute} receives an invalid query string
-    #
-    # @see {DefaultParseError} is the default behavior.
-    # @param err [GraphQL::ParseError] The error encountered during parsing
-    # @param ctx [GraphQL::Query::Context] The context for the query where the error occurred
-    # @return void
-    def parse_error(err, ctx)
-      @parse_error_proc.call(err, ctx)
-    end
-
-    # @param new_proc [#call] A new callable for handling parse errors during execution
-    def parse_error=(new_proc)
-      @parse_error_proc = new_proc
-    end
-
-    # Get a unique identifier from this object
-    # @param object [Any] An application object
-    # @param type [GraphQL::BaseType] The current type definition
-    # @param ctx [GraphQL::Query::Context] the context for the current query
-    # @return [String] a unique identifier for `object` which clients can use to refetch it
-    def id_from_object(object, type, ctx)
-      if @id_from_object_proc.nil?
-        raise(NotImplementedError, "Can't generate an ID for #{object.inspect} of type #{type}, schema's `id_from_object` must be defined")
-      else
-        @id_from_object_proc.call(object, type, ctx)
+      def query(new_query_object = nil)
+        if new_query_object
+          if @query_object
+            raise GraphQL::Error, "Second definition of `query(...)` (#{new_query_object.inspect}) is invalid, already configured with #{@query_object.inspect}"
+          else
+            @query_object = new_query_object
+            add_type_and_traverse(new_query_object, root: true)
+            nil
+          end
+        else
+          @query_object || find_inherited_value(:query)
+        end
       end
-    end
-
-    # @param new_proc [#call] A new callable for generating unique IDs
-    def id_from_object=(new_proc)
-      @id_from_object_proc = new_proc
-    end
-
-    # Create schema with the result of an introspection query.
-    # @param introspection_result [Hash] A response from {GraphQL::Introspection::INTROSPECTION_QUERY}
-    # @return [GraphQL::Schema] the schema described by `input`
-    def self.from_introspection(introspection_result)
-      GraphQL::Schema::Loader.load(introspection_result)
-    end
-
-    # Create schema from an IDL schema or file containing an IDL definition.
-    # @param definition_or_path [String] A schema definition string, or a path to a file containing the definition
-    # @param default_resolve [<#call(type, field, obj, args, ctx)>] A callable for handling field resolution
-    # @param parser [Object] An object for handling definition string parsing (must respond to `parse`)
-    # @return [GraphQL::Schema] the schema described by `document`
-    def self.from_definition(definition_or_path, default_resolve: BuildFromDefinition::DefaultResolve, parser: BuildFromDefinition::DefaultParser)
-      # If the file ends in `.graphql`, treat it like a filepath
-      definition = if definition_or_path.end_with?(".graphql")
-        File.read(definition_or_path)
-      else
-        definition_or_path
-      end
-      GraphQL::Schema::BuildFromDefinition.from_definition(definition, default_resolve: default_resolve, parser: parser)
-    end
-
-    # Error that is raised when [#Schema#from_definition] is passed an invalid schema definition string.
-    class InvalidDocumentError < Error; end;
-
-    # @return [Symbol, nil] The method name to lazily resolve `obj`, or nil if `obj`'s class wasn't registered wtih {#lazy_resolve}.
-    def lazy_method_name(obj)
-      @lazy_methods.get(obj)
-    end
-
-    # @return [Boolean] True if this object should be lazily resolved
-    def lazy?(obj)
-      !!lazy_method_name(obj)
-    end
-
-    # Return the GraphQL IDL for the schema
-    # @param context [Hash]
-    # @param only [<#call(member, ctx)>]
-    # @param except [<#call(member, ctx)>]
-    # @return [String]
-    def to_definition(only: nil, except: nil, context: {})
-      GraphQL::Schema::Printer.print_schema(self, only: only, except: except, context: context)
-    end
-
-    # Return the GraphQL::Language::Document IDL AST for the schema
-    # @return [GraphQL::Language::Document]
-    def to_document
-      GraphQL::Language::DocumentFromSchemaDefinition.new(self).document
-    end
-
-    # Return the Hash response of {Introspection::INTROSPECTION_QUERY}.
-    # @param context [Hash]
-    # @param only [<#call(member, ctx)>]
-    # @param except [<#call(member, ctx)>]
-    # @return [Hash] GraphQL result
-    def as_json(only: nil, except: nil, context: {})
-      execute(Introspection::INTROSPECTION_QUERY, only: only, except: except, context: context).to_h
-    end
 
-    # Returns the JSON response of {Introspection::INTROSPECTION_QUERY}.
-    # @see {#as_json}
-    # @return [String]
-    def to_json(*args)
-      JSON.pretty_generate(as_json(*args))
-    end
-
-    class << self
-      extend Forwardable
-      # For compatibility, these methods all:
-      # - Cause the Schema instance to be created, if it hasn't been created yet
-      # - Delegate to that instance
-      # Eventually, the methods will be moved into this class, removing the need for the singleton.
-      def_delegators :graphql_definition,
-        # Schema structure
-        :as_json, :to_json, :to_document, :to_definition,
-        # Execution
-        :execute, :multiplex,
-        :static_validator, :introspection_system,
-        :query_analyzers, :tracers, :instrumenters,
-        :execution_strategy_for_operation,
-        :validate, :multiplex_analyzers, :lazy?, :lazy_method_name, :after_lazy, :sync_lazy,
-        # Configuration
-        :analysis_engine, :analysis_engine=, :using_ast_analysis?, :interpreter?,
-        :max_complexity=, :max_depth=,
-        :error_bubbling=,
-        :metadata,
-        :default_mask,
-        :default_filter, :redefine,
-        :id_from_object_proc, :object_from_id_proc,
-        :id_from_object=, :object_from_id=,
-        :remove_handler,
-        # Members
-        :types, :get_fields, :find,
-        :root_type_for_operation,
-        :subscriptions,
-        :union_memberships,
-        :get_field, :root_types, :references_to, :type_from_ast,
-        :possible_types
-
-      def graphql_definition
-        @graphql_definition ||= to_graphql
-      end
-
-      def use(plugin, options = {})
-        plugins << [plugin, options]
+      def mutation(new_mutation_object = nil)
+        if new_mutation_object
+          if @mutation_object
+            raise GraphQL::Error, "Second definition of `mutation(...)` (#{new_mutation_object.inspect}) is invalid, already configured with #{@mutation_object.inspect}"
+          else
+            @mutation_object = new_mutation_object
+            add_type_and_traverse(new_mutation_object, root: true)
+            nil
+          end
+        else
+          @mutation_object || find_inherited_value(:mutation)
+        end
       end
 
-      def plugins
-        @plugins ||= []
-      end
-
-      def to_graphql
-        schema_defn = self.new
-        schema_defn.raise_definition_error = true
-        schema_defn.query = query
-        schema_defn.mutation = mutation
-        schema_defn.subscription = subscription
-        schema_defn.max_complexity = max_complexity
-        schema_defn.error_bubbling = error_bubbling
-        schema_defn.max_depth = max_depth
-        schema_defn.default_max_page_size = default_max_page_size
-        schema_defn.orphan_types = orphan_types
-
-        prepped_dirs = {}
-        directives.each { |k, v| prepped_dirs[k] = v.graphql_definition}
-        schema_defn.directives = prepped_dirs
-        schema_defn.introspection_namespace = introspection
-        schema_defn.resolve_type = method(:resolve_type)
-        schema_defn.object_from_id = method(:object_from_id)
-        schema_defn.id_from_object = method(:id_from_object)
-        schema_defn.type_error = method(:type_error)
-        schema_defn.context_class = context_class
-        schema_defn.cursor_encoder = cursor_encoder
-        schema_defn.tracers.concat(defined_tracers)
-        schema_defn.query_analyzers.concat(defined_query_analyzers)
-
-        schema_defn.middleware.concat(defined_middleware)
-        schema_defn.multiplex_analyzers.concat(defined_multiplex_analyzers)
-        schema_defn.query_execution_strategy = query_execution_strategy
-        schema_defn.mutation_execution_strategy = mutation_execution_strategy
-        schema_defn.subscription_execution_strategy = subscription_execution_strategy
-        defined_instrumenters.each do |step, insts|
-          insts.each do |inst|
-            schema_defn.instrumenters[step] << inst
+      def subscription(new_subscription_object = nil)
+        if new_subscription_object
+          if @subscription_object
+            raise GraphQL::Error, "Second definition of `subscription(...)` (#{new_subscription_object.inspect}) is invalid, already configured with #{@subscription_object.inspect}"
+          else
+            @subscription_object = new_subscription_object
+            add_subscription_extension_if_necessary
+            add_type_and_traverse(new_subscription_object, root: true)
+            nil
           end
+        else
+          @subscription_object || find_inherited_value(:subscription)
         end
-        lazy_classes.each do |lazy_class, value_method|
-          schema_defn.lazy_methods.set(lazy_class, value_method)
+      end
+
+      # @see [GraphQL::Schema::Warden] Restricted access to root types
+      # @return [GraphQL::ObjectType, nil]
+      def root_type_for_operation(operation)
+        case operation
+        when "query"
+          query
+        when "mutation"
+          mutation
+        when "subscription"
+          subscription
+        else
+          raise ArgumentError, "unknown operation type: #{operation}"
         end
-        if @rescues
-          @rescues.each do |err_class, handler|
-            schema_defn.rescue_from(err_class, &handler)
-          end
+      end
+
+      def root_types
+        @root_types
+      end
+
+      def warden_class
+        if defined?(@warden_class)
+          @warden_class
+        elsif superclass.respond_to?(:warden_class)
+          superclass.warden_class
+        else
+          GraphQL::Schema::Warden
         end
+      end
 
-        if plugins.any?
-          schema_plugins = plugins
-          # TODO don't depend on .define
-          schema_defn = schema_defn.redefine do
-            schema_plugins.each do |plugin, options|
-              if options.any?
-                use(plugin, **options)
-              else
-                use(plugin)
+      attr_writer :warden_class
+
+      # @param type [Module] The type definition whose possible types you want to see
+      # @return [Hash<String, Module>] All possible types, if no `type` is given.
+      # @return [Array<Module>] Possible types for `type`, if it's given.
+      def possible_types(type = nil, context = GraphQL::Query::NullContext)
+        if type
+          # TODO duck-typing `.possible_types` would probably be nicer here
+          if type.kind.union?
+            type.possible_types(context: context)
+          else
+            stored_possible_types = own_possible_types[type.graphql_name]
+            visible_possible_types = if stored_possible_types && type.kind.interface?
+              stored_possible_types.select do |possible_type|
+                possible_type.interfaces(context).include?(type)
               end
+            else
+              stored_possible_types
             end
+            visible_possible_types ||
+              introspection_system.possible_types[type.graphql_name] ||
+              (
+                superclass.respond_to?(:possible_types) ?
+                  superclass.possible_types(type, context) :
+                  EMPTY_ARRAY
+              )
           end
+        else
+          find_inherited_value(:possible_types, EMPTY_HASH)
+            .merge(own_possible_types)
+            .merge(introspection_system.possible_types)
         end
-        # Do this after `plugins` since Interpreter is a plugin
-        if schema_defn.query_execution_strategy != GraphQL::Execution::Interpreter
-          schema_defn.instrumenters[:query] << GraphQL::Schema::Member::Instrumentation
+      end
+
+      def union_memberships(type = nil)
+        if type
+          own_um = own_union_memberships.fetch(type.graphql_name, EMPTY_ARRAY)
+          inherited_um = find_inherited_value(:union_memberships, EMPTY_HASH).fetch(type.graphql_name, EMPTY_ARRAY)
+          own_um + inherited_um
+        else
+          joined_um = own_union_memberships.dup
+          find_inherited_value(:union_memberhips, EMPTY_HASH).each do |k, v|
+            um = joined_um[k] ||= []
+            um.concat(v)
+          end
+          joined_um
         end
-        schema_defn.send(:rebuild_artifacts)
+      end
 
-        schema_defn
+      # @api private
+      # @see GraphQL::Dataloader
+      def dataloader_class
+        @dataloader_class || GraphQL::Dataloader::NullDataloader
       end
 
-      def query(new_query_object = nil)
-        if new_query_object
-          @query_object = new_query_object
+      attr_writer :dataloader_class
+
+      def references_to(to_type = nil, from: nil)
+        @own_references_to ||= Hash.new { |h, k| h[k] = [] }
+        if to_type
+          if !to_type.is_a?(String)
+            to_type = to_type.graphql_name
+          end
+
+          if from
+            @own_references_to[to_type] << from
+          else
+            own_refs = @own_references_to[to_type]
+            inherited_refs = find_inherited_value(:references_to, EMPTY_HASH)[to_type] || EMPTY_ARRAY
+            own_refs + inherited_refs
+          end
         else
-          @query_object.respond_to?(:graphql_definition) ? @query_object.graphql_definition : @query_object
+          # `@own_references_to` can be quite large for big schemas,
+          # and generally speaking, we won't inherit any values.
+          # So optimize the most common case -- don't create a duplicate Hash.
+          inherited_value = find_inherited_value(:references_to, EMPTY_HASH)
+          if inherited_value.any?
+            inherited_value.merge(@own_references_to)
+          else
+            @own_references_to
+          end
         end
       end
 
-      def mutation(new_mutation_object = nil)
-        if new_mutation_object
-          @mutation_object = new_mutation_object
+      def type_from_ast(ast_node, context: nil)
+        type_owner = context ? context.warden : self
+        GraphQL::Schema::TypeExpression.build_type(type_owner, ast_node)
+      end
+
+      def get_field(type_or_name, field_name, context = GraphQL::Query::NullContext)
+        parent_type = case type_or_name
+        when LateBoundType
+          get_type(type_or_name.name, context)
+        when String
+          get_type(type_or_name, context)
+        when Module
+          type_or_name
         else
-          @mutation_object.respond_to?(:graphql_definition) ? @mutation_object.graphql_definition : @mutation_object
+          raise GraphQL::InvariantError, "Unexpected field owner for #{field_name.inspect}: #{type_or_name.inspect} (#{type_or_name.class})"
         end
-      end
 
-      def subscription(new_subscription_object = nil)
-        if new_subscription_object
-          @subscription_object = new_subscription_object
+        if parent_type.kind.fields? && (field = parent_type.get_field(field_name, context))
+          field
+        elsif parent_type == query && (entry_point_field = introspection_system.entry_point(name: field_name))
+          entry_point_field
+        elsif (dynamic_field = introspection_system.dynamic_field(name: field_name))
+          dynamic_field
         else
-          @subscription_object.respond_to?(:graphql_definition) ? @subscription_object.graphql_definition : @subscription_object
+          nil
         end
       end
 
+      def get_fields(type, context = GraphQL::Query::NullContext)
+        type.fields(context)
+      end
+
       def introspection(new_introspection_namespace = nil)
         if new_introspection_namespace
           @introspection = new_introspection_namespace
+          # reset this cached value:
+          @introspection_system = nil
         else
-          @introspection
+          @introspection || find_inherited_value(:introspection)
+        end
+      end
+
+      def introspection_system
+        if !@introspection_system
+          @introspection_system = Schema::IntrospectionSystem.new(self)
+          @introspection_system.resolve_late_bindings
         end
+        @introspection_system
       end
 
       def cursor_encoder(new_encoder = nil)
         if new_encoder
           @cursor_encoder = new_encoder
         end
-        @cursor_encoder || Base64Encoder
+        @cursor_encoder || find_inherited_value(:cursor_encoder, Base64Encoder)
       end
 
       def default_max_page_size(new_default_max_page_size = nil)
         if new_default_max_page_size
           @default_max_page_size = new_default_max_page_size
         else
-          @default_max_page_size
+          @default_max_page_size || find_inherited_value(:default_max_page_size)
+        end
+      end
+
+      def default_page_size(new_default_page_size = nil)
+        if new_default_page_size
+          @default_page_size = new_default_page_size
+        else
+          @default_page_size || find_inherited_value(:default_page_size)
         end
       end
 
@@ -843,7 +602,7 @@ module GraphQL
         if new_query_execution_strategy
           @query_execution_strategy = new_query_execution_strategy
         else
-          @query_execution_strategy || self.default_execution_strategy
+          @query_execution_strategy || find_inherited_value(:query_execution_strategy, self.default_execution_strategy)
         end
       end
 
@@ -851,7 +610,7 @@ module GraphQL
         if new_mutation_execution_strategy
           @mutation_execution_strategy = new_mutation_execution_strategy
         else
-          @mutation_execution_strategy || self.default_execution_strategy
+          @mutation_execution_strategy || find_inherited_value(:mutation_execution_strategy, self.default_execution_strategy)
         end
       end
 
@@ -859,39 +618,159 @@ module GraphQL
         if new_subscription_execution_strategy
           @subscription_execution_strategy = new_subscription_execution_strategy
         else
-          @subscription_execution_strategy || self.default_execution_strategy
+          @subscription_execution_strategy || find_inherited_value(:subscription_execution_strategy, self.default_execution_strategy)
+        end
+      end
+
+      attr_writer :validate_timeout
+
+      def validate_timeout(new_validate_timeout = nil)
+        if new_validate_timeout
+          @validate_timeout = new_validate_timeout
+        elsif defined?(@validate_timeout)
+          @validate_timeout
+        else
+          find_inherited_value(:validate_timeout)
         end
       end
 
+      # Validate a query string according to this schema.
+      # @param string_or_document [String, GraphQL::Language::Nodes::Document]
+      # @return [Array<GraphQL::StaticValidation::Error >]
+      def validate(string_or_document, rules: nil, context: nil)
+        doc = if string_or_document.is_a?(String)
+          GraphQL.parse(string_or_document)
+        else
+          string_or_document
+        end
+        query = GraphQL::Query.new(self, document: doc, context: context)
+        validator_opts = { schema: self }
+        rules && (validator_opts[:rules] = rules)
+        validator = GraphQL::StaticValidation::Validator.new(**validator_opts)
+        res = validator.validate(query, timeout: validate_timeout, max_errors: validate_max_errors)
+        res[:errors]
+      end
+
+      attr_writer :validate_max_errors
+
+      def validate_max_errors(new_validate_max_errors = nil)
+        if new_validate_max_errors
+          @validate_max_errors = new_validate_max_errors
+        elsif defined?(@validate_max_errors)
+          @validate_max_errors
+        else
+          find_inherited_value(:validate_max_errors)
+        end
+      end
+
+      attr_writer :max_complexity
+
       def max_complexity(max_complexity = nil)
         if max_complexity
           @max_complexity = max_complexity
-        else
+        elsif defined?(@max_complexity)
           @max_complexity
+        else
+          find_inherited_value(:max_complexity)
         end
       end
 
+      attr_writer :analysis_engine
+
+      def analysis_engine
+        @analysis_engine || find_inherited_value(:analysis_engine, self.default_analysis_engine)
+      end
+
+      def using_ast_analysis?
+        true
+      end
+
+      def interpreter?
+        true
+      end
+
+      attr_writer :interpreter
+
       def error_bubbling(new_error_bubbling = nil)
         if !new_error_bubbling.nil?
           @error_bubbling = new_error_bubbling
         else
-          @error_bubbling
+          @error_bubbling.nil? ? find_inherited_value(:error_bubbling) : @error_bubbling
         end
       end
 
+      attr_writer :error_bubbling
+
+      attr_writer :max_depth
+
       def max_depth(new_max_depth = nil)
         if new_max_depth
           @max_depth = new_max_depth
-        else
+        elsif defined?(@max_depth)
           @max_depth
+        else
+          find_inherited_value(:max_depth)
+        end
+      end
+
+      def disable_introspection_entry_points
+        @disable_introspection_entry_points = true
+        # TODO: this clears the cache made in `def types`. But this is not a great solution.
+        @introspection_system = nil
+      end
+
+      def disable_schema_introspection_entry_point
+        @disable_schema_introspection_entry_point = true
+        # TODO: this clears the cache made in `def types`. But this is not a great solution.
+        @introspection_system = nil
+      end
+
+      def disable_type_introspection_entry_point
+        @disable_type_introspection_entry_point = true
+        # TODO: this clears the cache made in `def types`. But this is not a great solution.
+        @introspection_system = nil
+      end
+
+      def disable_introspection_entry_points?
+        if instance_variable_defined?(:@disable_introspection_entry_points)
+          @disable_introspection_entry_points
+        else
+          find_inherited_value(:disable_introspection_entry_points?, false)
+        end
+      end
+
+      def disable_schema_introspection_entry_point?
+        if instance_variable_defined?(:@disable_schema_introspection_entry_point)
+          @disable_schema_introspection_entry_point
+        else
+          find_inherited_value(:disable_schema_introspection_entry_point?, false)
+        end
+      end
+
+      def disable_type_introspection_entry_point?
+        if instance_variable_defined?(:@disable_type_introspection_entry_point)
+          @disable_type_introspection_entry_point
+        else
+          find_inherited_value(:disable_type_introspection_entry_point?, false)
         end
       end
 
       def orphan_types(*new_orphan_types)
         if new_orphan_types.any?
-          @orphan_types = new_orphan_types.flatten
+          new_orphan_types = new_orphan_types.flatten
+          add_type_and_traverse(new_orphan_types, root: false)
+          own_orphan_types.concat(new_orphan_types.flatten)
+        end
+
+        inherited_ot = find_inherited_value(:orphan_types, nil)
+        if inherited_ot
+          if own_orphan_types.any?
+            inherited_ot + own_orphan_types
+          else
+            inherited_ot
+          end
         else
-          @orphan_types || []
+          own_orphan_types
         end
       end
 
@@ -899,7 +778,15 @@ module GraphQL
         if superclass <= GraphQL::Schema
           superclass.default_execution_strategy
         else
-          @default_execution_strategy ||= GraphQL::Execution::Execute
+          @default_execution_strategy ||= GraphQL::Execution::Interpreter
+        end
+      end
+
+      def default_analysis_engine
+        if superclass <= GraphQL::Schema
+          superclass.default_analysis_engine
+        else
+          @default_analysis_engine ||= GraphQL::Analysis::AST
         end
       end
 
@@ -907,14 +794,73 @@ module GraphQL
         if new_context_class
           @context_class = new_context_class
         else
-          @context_class || GraphQL::Query::Context
+          @context_class || find_inherited_value(:context_class, GraphQL::Query::Context)
         end
       end
 
       def rescue_from(*err_classes, &handler_block)
-        @rescues ||= {}
         err_classes.each do |err_class|
-          @rescues[err_class] = handler_block
+          Execution::Errors.register_rescue_from(err_class, error_handlers[:subclass_handlers], handler_block)
+        end
+      end
+
+      NEW_HANDLER_HASH = ->(h, k) {
+        h[k] = {
+          class: k,
+          handler: nil,
+          subclass_handlers: Hash.new(&NEW_HANDLER_HASH),
+         }
+      }
+
+      def error_handlers
+        @error_handlers ||= {
+          class: nil,
+          handler: nil,
+          subclass_handlers: Hash.new(&NEW_HANDLER_HASH),
+        }
+      end
+
+      # @api private
+      def handle_or_reraise(context, err)
+        handler = Execution::Errors.find_handler_for(self, err.class)
+        if handler
+          obj = context[:current_object]
+          args = context[:current_arguments]
+          args = args && args.respond_to?(:keyword_arguments) ? args.keyword_arguments : nil
+          field = context[:current_field]
+          if obj.is_a?(GraphQL::Schema::Object)
+            obj = obj.object
+          end
+          handler[:handler].call(err, obj, args, context, field)
+        else
+          raise err
+        end
+      end
+
+      # rubocop:disable Lint/DuplicateMethods
+      module ResolveTypeWithType
+        def resolve_type(type, obj, ctx)
+          maybe_lazy_resolve_type_result = if type.is_a?(Module) && type.respond_to?(:resolve_type)
+            type.resolve_type(obj, ctx)
+          else
+            super
+          end
+
+          after_lazy(maybe_lazy_resolve_type_result) do |resolve_type_result|
+            if resolve_type_result.is_a?(Array) && resolve_type_result.size == 2
+              resolved_type = resolve_type_result[0]
+              resolved_value = resolve_type_result[1]
+            else
+              resolved_type = resolve_type_result
+              resolved_value = obj
+            end
+
+            if resolved_type.nil? || (resolved_type.is_a?(Module) && resolved_type.respond_to?(:kind))
+              [resolved_type, resolved_value]
+            else
+              raise ".resolve_type should return a type definition, but got #{resolved_type.inspect} (#{resolved_type.class}) from `resolve_type(#{type}, #{obj}, #{ctx})`"
+            end
+          end
         end
       end
 
@@ -922,36 +868,38 @@ module GraphQL
         if type.kind.object?
           type
         else
-          raise NotImplementedError, "#{self.name}.resolve_type(type, obj, ctx) must be implemented to use Union types or Interface types (tried to resolve: #{type.name})"
+          raise GraphQL::RequiredImplementationMissingError, "#{self.name}.resolve_type(type, obj, ctx) must be implemented to use Union types or Interface types (tried to resolve: #{type.name})"
+        end
+      end
+      # rubocop:enable Lint/DuplicateMethods
+
+      def inherited(child_class)
+        if self == GraphQL::Schema
+          child_class.directives(default_directives.values)
         end
+        child_class.singleton_class.prepend(ResolveTypeWithType)
+        super
       end
 
       def object_from_id(node_id, ctx)
-        raise NotImplementedError, "#{self.name}.object_from_id(node_id, ctx) must be implemented to load by ID (tried to load from id `#{node_id}`)"
+        raise GraphQL::RequiredImplementationMissingError, "#{self.name}.object_from_id(node_id, ctx) must be implemented to load by ID (tried to load from id `#{node_id}`)"
       end
 
       def id_from_object(object, type, ctx)
-        raise NotImplementedError, "#{self.name}.id_from_object(object, type, ctx) must be implemented to create global ids (tried to create an id for `#{object.inspect}`)"
+        raise GraphQL::RequiredImplementationMissingError, "#{self.name}.id_from_object(object, type, ctx) must be implemented to create global ids (tried to create an id for `#{object.inspect}`)"
       end
 
-      def visible?(member, context)
-        call_on_type_class(member, :visible?, context, default: true)
+      def visible?(member, ctx)
+        member.visible?(ctx)
       end
 
-      def accessible?(member, context)
-        call_on_type_class(member, :accessible?, context, default: true)
+      def schema_directive(dir_class, **options)
+        @own_schema_directives ||= []
+        Member::HasDirectives.add_directive(self, @own_schema_directives, dir_class, options)
       end
 
-      # This hook is called when a client tries to access one or more
-      # fields that fail the `accessible?` check.
-      #
-      # By default, an error is added to the response. Override this hook to
-      # track metrics or return a different error to the client.
-      #
-      # @param error [InaccessibleFieldsError] The analysis error for this check
-      # @return [AnalysisError, nil] Return an error to skip the query
-      def inaccessible_fields(error)
-        error
+      def schema_directives
+        Member::HasDirectives.get_directives(self, @own_schema_directives, :schema_directives)
       end
 
       # This hook is called when an object fails an `authorized?` check.
@@ -989,221 +937,400 @@ module GraphQL
         unauthorized_object(unauthorized_error)
       end
 
-      def type_error(type_err, ctx)
-        DefaultTypeError.call(type_err, ctx)
+      def type_error(type_error, ctx)
+        case type_error
+        when GraphQL::InvalidNullError
+          ctx.errors << type_error
+        when GraphQL::UnresolvedTypeError, GraphQL::StringEncodingError, GraphQL::IntegerEncodingError
+          raise type_error
+        when GraphQL::IntegerDecodingError
+          nil
+        end
+      end
+
+      # A function to call when {#execute} receives an invalid query string
+      #
+      # The default is to add the error to `context.errors`
+      # @param parse_err [GraphQL::ParseError] The error encountered during parsing
+      # @param ctx [GraphQL::Query::Context] The context for the query where the error occurred
+      # @return void
+      def parse_error(parse_err, ctx)
+        ctx.errors.push(parse_err)
       end
 
       def lazy_resolve(lazy_class, value_method)
-        lazy_classes[lazy_class] = value_method
+        lazy_methods.set(lazy_class, value_method)
       end
 
       def instrument(instrument_step, instrumenter, options = {})
-        step = if instrument_step == :field && options[:after_built_ins]
-          :field_after_built_ins
-        else
-          instrument_step
-        end
-        defined_instrumenters[step] << instrumenter
+        own_instrumenters[instrument_step] << instrumenter
       end
 
-      def directives(new_directives = nil)
-        if new_directives
-          @directives = new_directives.reduce({}) { |m, d| m[d.name] = d; m }
+      # Add several directives at once
+      # @param new_directives [Class]
+      def directives(*new_directives)
+        if new_directives.any?
+          new_directives.flatten.each { |d| directive(d) }
         end
 
-        @directives ||= default_directives
+        inherited_dirs = find_inherited_value(:directives, default_directives)
+        if own_directives.any?
+          inherited_dirs.merge(own_directives)
+        else
+          inherited_dirs
+        end
       end
 
+      # Attach a single directive to this schema
+      # @param new_directive [Class]
+      # @return void
       def directive(new_directive)
-        directives[new_directive.graphql_name] = new_directive
+        add_type_and_traverse(new_directive, root: false)
       end
 
       def default_directives
-        {
-          "include" => GraphQL::Directive::IncludeDirective,
-          "skip" => GraphQL::Directive::SkipDirective,
-          "deprecated" => GraphQL::Directive::DeprecatedDirective,
-        }
+        @default_directives ||= {
+          "include" => GraphQL::Schema::Directive::Include,
+          "skip" => GraphQL::Schema::Directive::Skip,
+          "deprecated" => GraphQL::Schema::Directive::Deprecated,
+          "oneOf" => GraphQL::Schema::Directive::OneOf,
+          "specifiedBy" => GraphQL::Schema::Directive::SpecifiedBy,
+        }.freeze
       end
 
       def tracer(new_tracer)
-        defined_tracers << new_tracer
+        if !(trace_class_for(:default) < GraphQL::Tracing::CallLegacyTracers)
+          trace_with(GraphQL::Tracing::CallLegacyTracers)
+        end
+
+        own_tracers << new_tracer
       end
 
-      def query_analyzer(new_analyzer)
-        if new_analyzer == GraphQL::Authorization::Analyzer
-          warn("The Authorization query analyzer is deprecated. Authorizing at query runtime is generally a better idea.")
-        end
-        defined_query_analyzers << new_analyzer
+      def tracers
+        find_inherited_value(:tracers, EMPTY_ARRAY) + own_tracers
       end
 
-      def middleware(new_middleware = nil)
-        if new_middleware
-          defined_middleware << new_middleware
+      # Mix `trace_mod` into this schema's `Trace` class so that its methods
+      # will be called at runtime.
+      #
+      # @param trace_mod [Module] A module that implements tracing methods
+      # @param mode [Symbol] Trace module will only be used for this trade mode
+      # @param options [Hash] Keywords that will be passed to the tracing class during `#initialize`
+      # @return [void]
+      def trace_with(trace_mod, mode: :default, **options)
+        if mode.is_a?(Array)
+          mode.each { |m| trace_with(trace_mod, mode: m, **options) }
         else
-          graphql_definition.middleware
+          tc = trace_class_for(mode)
+          tc.include(trace_mod)
+          if mode != :default
+            own_trace_modules[mode] << trace_mod
+          end
+          t_opts = trace_options_for(mode)
+          t_opts.merge!(options)
         end
+        nil
       end
 
-      def multiplex_analyzer(new_analyzer)
-        defined_multiplex_analyzers << new_analyzer
+      # The options hash for this trace mode
+      # @return [Hash]
+      def trace_options_for(mode)
+        @trace_options_for_mode ||= {}
+        @trace_options_for_mode[mode] ||= begin
+          if superclass.respond_to?(:trace_options_for)
+            superclass.trace_options_for(mode).dup
+          else
+            {}
+          end
+        end
       end
 
-      private
+      # Create a trace instance which will include the trace modules specified for the optional mode.
+      #
+      # @param mode [Symbol] Trace modules for this trade mode will be included
+      # @param options [Hash] Keywords that will be passed to the tracing class during `#initialize`
+      # @return [Tracing::Trace]
+      def new_trace(mode: nil, **options)
+        target = options[:query] || options[:multiplex]
+        mode ||= target && target.context[:trace_mode]
+
+        trace_mode = if mode
+          mode
+        elsif target && target.context[:backtrace]
+          :default_backtrace
+        else
+          :default
+        end
 
-      def lazy_classes
-        @lazy_classes ||= {}
+        base_trace_options = trace_options_for(trace_mode)
+        trace_options = base_trace_options.merge(options)
+        trace_class_for_mode = trace_class_for(trace_mode)
+        trace_class_for_mode.new(**trace_options)
       end
 
-      def defined_instrumenters
-        @defined_instrumenters ||= Hash.new { |h,k| h[k] = [] }
+      def query_analyzer(new_analyzer)
+        own_query_analyzers << new_analyzer
       end
 
-      def defined_tracers
-        @defined_tracers ||= []
+      def query_analyzers
+        find_inherited_value(:query_analyzers, EMPTY_ARRAY) + own_query_analyzers
       end
 
-      def defined_query_analyzers
-        @defined_query_analyzers ||= []
+      def multiplex_analyzer(new_analyzer)
+        own_multiplex_analyzers << new_analyzer
       end
 
-      def defined_middleware
-        @defined_middleware ||= []
+      def multiplex_analyzers
+        find_inherited_value(:multiplex_analyzers, EMPTY_ARRAY) + own_multiplex_analyzers
       end
 
-      def defined_multiplex_analyzers
-        @defined_multiplex_analyzers ||= []
+      def sanitized_printer(new_sanitized_printer = nil)
+        if new_sanitized_printer
+          @own_sanitized_printer = new_sanitized_printer
+        else
+          @own_sanitized_printer || GraphQL::Language::SanitizedPrinter
+        end
       end
 
-      # Given this schema member, find the class-based definition object
-      # whose `method_name` should be treated as an application hook
-      # @see {.visible?}
-      # @see {.accessible?}
-      # @see {.authorized?}
-      def call_on_type_class(member, method_name, *args, default:)
-        member = if member.respond_to?(:metadata) && member.metadata
-          member.metadata[:type_class] || member
+      # Execute a query on itself.
+      # @see {Query#initialize} for arguments.
+      # @return [Hash] query result, ready to be serialized as JSON
+      def execute(query_str = nil, **kwargs)
+        if query_str
+          kwargs[:query] = query_str
+        end
+        # Some of the query context _should_ be passed to the multiplex, too
+        multiplex_context = if (ctx = kwargs[:context])
+          {
+            backtrace: ctx[:backtrace],
+            tracers: ctx[:tracers],
+            trace: ctx[:trace],
+            dataloader: ctx[:dataloader],
+            trace_mode: ctx[:trace_mode],
+          }
         else
-          member
+          {}
+        end
+        # Since we're running one query, don't run a multiplex-level complexity analyzer
+        all_results = multiplex([kwargs], max_complexity: nil, context: multiplex_context)
+        all_results[0]
+      end
+
+      # Execute several queries on itself, concurrently.
+      #
+      # @example Run several queries at once
+      #   context = { ... }
+      #   queries = [
+      #     { query: params[:query_1], variables: params[:variables_1], context: context },
+      #     { query: params[:query_2], variables: params[:variables_2], context: context },
+      #   ]
+      #   results = MySchema.multiplex(queries)
+      #   render json: {
+      #     result_1: results[0],
+      #     result_2: results[1],
+      #   }
+      #
+      # @see {Query#initialize} for query keyword arguments
+      # @see {Execution::Multiplex#run_all} for multiplex keyword arguments
+      # @param queries [Array<Hash>] Keyword arguments for each query
+      # @param context [Hash] Multiplex-level context
+      # @return [Array<Hash>] One result for each query in the input
+      def multiplex(queries, **kwargs)
+        GraphQL::Execution::Interpreter.run_all(self, queries, **kwargs)
+      end
+
+      def instrumenters
+        inherited_instrumenters = find_inherited_value(:instrumenters) || Hash.new { |h,k| h[k] = [] }
+        inherited_instrumenters.merge(own_instrumenters) do |_step, inherited, own|
+          inherited + own
         end
+      end
 
-        if member.respond_to?(:relay_node_type) && (t = member.relay_node_type)
-          member = t
+      # @api private
+      def add_subscription_extension_if_necessary
+        if !defined?(@subscription_extension_added) && subscription && self.subscriptions
+          @subscription_extension_added = true
+          subscription.all_field_definitions.each do |field|
+            if !field.extensions.any? { |ext| ext.is_a?(Subscriptions::DefaultSubscriptionResolveExtension) }
+              field.extension(Subscriptions::DefaultSubscriptionResolveExtension)
+            end
+          end
         end
+      end
+
+      def query_stack_error(query, err)
+        query.context.errors.push(GraphQL::ExecutionError.new("This query is too large to execute."))
+      end
 
-        if member.respond_to?(method_name)
-          member.public_send(method_name, *args)
+      # Call the given block at the right time, either:
+      # - Right away, if `value` is not registered with `lazy_resolve`
+      # - After resolving `value`, if it's registered with `lazy_resolve` (eg, `Promise`)
+      # @api private
+      def after_lazy(value, &block)
+        if lazy?(value)
+          GraphQL::Execution::Lazy.new do
+            result = sync_lazy(value)
+            # The returned result might also be lazy, so check it, too
+            after_lazy(result, &block)
+          end
         else
-          default
+          yield(value) if block_given?
         end
       end
-    end
 
+      # Override this method to handle lazy objects in a custom way.
+      # @param value [Object] an instance of a class registered with {.lazy_resolve}
+      # @return [Object] A GraphQL-ready (non-lazy) object
+      # @api private
+      def sync_lazy(value)
+        lazy_method = lazy_method_name(value)
+        if lazy_method
+          synced_value = value.public_send(lazy_method)
+          sync_lazy(synced_value)
+        else
+          value
+        end
+      end
 
-    def self.inherited(child_class)
-      child_class.singleton_class.class_eval do
-        prepend(MethodWrappers)
+      # @return [Symbol, nil] The method name to lazily resolve `obj`, or nil if `obj`'s class wasn't registered with {#lazy_resolve}.
+      def lazy_method_name(obj)
+        lazy_methods.get(obj)
       end
-    end
 
-    module MethodWrappers
-      # Wrap the user-provided resolve-type in a correctness check
-      def resolve_type(type, obj, ctx = :__undefined__)
-        graphql_definition.check_resolved_type(type, obj, ctx) do |ok_type, ok_obj, ok_ctx|
-          super(ok_type, ok_obj, ok_ctx)
-        end
+      # @return [Boolean] True if this object should be lazily resolved
+      def lazy?(obj)
+        !!lazy_method_name(obj)
       end
-    end
 
-    # Call the given block at the right time, either:
-    # - Right away, if `value` is not registered with `lazy_resolve`
-    # - After resolving `value`, if it's registered with `lazy_resolve` (eg, `Promise`)
-    # @api private
-    def after_lazy(value)
-      if lazy?(value)
-        GraphQL::Execution::Lazy.new do
-          result = sync_lazy(value)
-          # The returned result might also be lazy, so check it, too
-          after_lazy(result) do |final_result|
-            yield(final_result) if block_given?
+      # Return a lazy if any of `maybe_lazies` are lazy,
+      # otherwise, call the block eagerly and return the result.
+      # @param maybe_lazies [Array]
+      # @api private
+      def after_any_lazies(maybe_lazies)
+        if maybe_lazies.any? { |l| lazy?(l) }
+          GraphQL::Execution::Lazy.all(maybe_lazies).then do |result|
+            yield result
           end
+        else
+          yield maybe_lazies
         end
-      else
-        yield(value) if block_given?
       end
-    end
 
-    # Override this method to handle lazy objects in a custom way.
-    # @param value [Object] an instance of a class registered with {.lazy_resolve}
-    # @param ctx [GraphQL::Query::Context] the context for this query
-    # @return [Object] A GraphQL-ready (non-lazy) object
-    def self.sync_lazy(value)
-      if block_given?
-        # This was already hit by the instance, just give it back
-        yield(value)
-      else
-        # This was called directly on the class, hit the instance
-        # which has the lazy method map
-        self.graphql_definition.sync_lazy(value)
+      private
+
+      # @param t [Module, Array<Module>]
+      # @return [void]
+      def add_type_and_traverse(t, root:)
+        if root
+          @root_types ||= []
+          @root_types << t
+        end
+        new_types = Array(t)
+        addition = Schema::Addition.new(schema: self, own_types: own_types, new_types: new_types)
+        addition.types.each do |name, types_entry| # rubocop:disable Development/ContextIsPassedCop -- build-time, not query-time
+          if (prev_entry = own_types[name])
+            prev_entries = case prev_entry
+            when Array
+              prev_entry
+            when Module
+              own_types[name] = [prev_entry]
+            else
+              raise "Invariant: unexpected prev_entry at #{name.inspect} when adding #{t.inspect}"
+            end
+
+            case types_entry
+            when Array
+              prev_entries.concat(types_entry)
+              prev_entries.uniq! # in case any are being re-visited
+            when Module
+              if !prev_entries.include?(types_entry)
+                prev_entries << types_entry
+              end
+            else
+              raise "Invariant: unexpected types_entry at #{name} when adding #{t.inspect}"
+            end
+          else
+            if types_entry.is_a?(Array)
+              types_entry.uniq!
+            end
+            own_types[name] = types_entry
+          end
+        end
+
+        own_possible_types.merge!(addition.possible_types) { |key, old_val, new_val| old_val + new_val }
+        own_union_memberships.merge!(addition.union_memberships)
+
+        addition.references.each { |thing, pointers|
+          pointers.each { |pointer| references_to(thing, from: pointer) }
+        }
+
+        addition.directives.each { |dir_class| own_directives[dir_class.graphql_name] = dir_class }
+
+        addition.arguments_with_default_values.each do |arg|
+          arg.validate_default_value
+        end
       end
-    end
 
-    # @see Schema.sync_lazy for a hook to override
-    # @api private
-    def sync_lazy(value)
-      self.class.sync_lazy(value) { |v|
-        lazy_method = lazy_method_name(v)
-        if lazy_method
-          synced_value = value.public_send(lazy_method)
-          sync_lazy(synced_value)
-        else
-          v
+      def lazy_methods
+        if !defined?(@lazy_methods)
+          if inherited_map = find_inherited_value(:lazy_methods)
+            # this isn't _completely_ inherited :S (Things added after `dup` won't work)
+            @lazy_methods = inherited_map.dup
+          else
+            @lazy_methods = GraphQL::Execution::Lazy::LazyMethodMap.new
+            @lazy_methods.set(GraphQL::Execution::Lazy, :value)
+            @lazy_methods.set(GraphQL::Dataloader::Request, :load)
+          end
         end
-      }
-    end
+        @lazy_methods
+      end
 
-    protected
+      def own_types
+        @own_types ||= {}
+      end
 
-    def rescues?
-      !!@rescue_middleware
-    end
+      def non_introspection_types
+        find_inherited_value(:non_introspection_types, EMPTY_HASH).merge(own_types)
+      end
 
-    # Lazily create a middleware and add it to the schema
-    # (Don't add it if it's not used)
-    def rescue_middleware
-      @rescue_middleware ||= GraphQL::Schema::RescueMiddleware.new.tap { |m| middleware.insert(0, m) }
-    end
+      def own_plugins
+        @own_plugins ||= []
+      end
 
-    private
-
-    def rebuild_artifacts
-      if @rebuilding_artifacts
-        raise CyclicalDefinitionError, "Part of the schema build process re-triggered the schema build process, causing an infinite loop. Avoid using Schema#types, Schema#possible_types, and Schema#get_field during schema build."
-      else
-        @rebuilding_artifacts = true
-        @introspection_system = Schema::IntrospectionSystem.new(self)
-        traversal = Traversal.new(self)
-        @types = traversal.type_map
-        @root_types = [query, mutation, subscription]
-        @instrumented_field_map = traversal.instrumented_field_map
-        @type_reference_map = traversal.type_reference_map
-        @union_memberships = traversal.union_memberships
-        @find_cache = {}
-        @finder = Finder.new(self)
-      end
-    ensure
-      @rebuilding_artifacts = false
-    end
+      def own_orphan_types
+        @own_orphan_types ||= []
+      end
 
-    class CyclicalDefinitionError < GraphQL::Error
-    end
+      def own_possible_types
+        @own_possible_types ||= {}
+      end
 
-    def with_definition_error_check
-      if @definition_error
-        raise @definition_error
-      else
-        yield
+      def own_union_memberships
+        @own_union_memberships ||= {}
+      end
+
+      def own_directives
+        @own_directives ||= {}
+      end
+
+      def own_instrumenters
+        @own_instrumenters ||= Hash.new { |h,k| h[k] = [] }
+      end
+
+      def own_tracers
+        @own_tracers ||= []
+      end
+
+      def own_query_analyzers
+        @defined_query_analyzers ||= []
+      end
+
+      def own_multiplex_analyzers
+        @own_multiplex_analyzers ||= []
       end
     end
+
+    # Install these here so that subclasses will also install it.
+    self.connections = GraphQL::Pagination::Connections.new(schema: self)
   end
 end