geocoder 1.1.9 → 1.8.0

data/README.md

@@ -1,728 +1,721 @@
 Geocoder
 ========
 
-Geocoder is a complete geocoding solution for Ruby. With Rails it adds geocoding (by street or IP address), reverse geocoding (find street address based on given coordinates), and distance queries. It's as simple as calling `geocode` on your objects, and then using a scope like `Venue.near("Billings, MT")`.
+**Complete geocoding solution for Ruby.**
 
+[![Gem Version](https://badge.fury.io/rb/geocoder.svg)](http://badge.fury.io/rb/geocoder)
+[![Code Climate](https://codeclimate.com/github/alexreisner/geocoder/badges/gpa.svg)](https://codeclimate.com/github/alexreisner/geocoder)
+[![Build Status](https://travis-ci.com/alexreisner/geocoder.svg?branch=master)](https://travis-ci.com/alexreisner/geocoder)
 
-Compatibility
--------------
+Key features:
 
-* Supports multiple Ruby versions: Ruby 1.8.7, 1.9.2, 1.9.3, 2.0.0, and JRuby.
-* Supports multiple databases: MySQL, PostgreSQL, SQLite, and MongoDB (1.7.0 and higher).
-* Supports Rails 3 and 4. If you need to use it with Rails 2 please see the `rails2` branch (no longer maintained, limited feature set).
-* Works very well outside of Rails, you just need to install either the `json` (for MRI) or `json_pure` (for JRuby) gem.
+* Forward and reverse geocoding.
+* IP address geocoding.
+* Connects to more than 40 APIs worldwide.
+* Performance-enhancing features like caching.
+* Integrates with ActiveRecord and Mongoid.
+* Basic geospatial queries: search within radius (or rectangle, or ring).
 
+Compatibility:
+
+* Ruby versions: 2.1+, and JRuby.
+* Databases: MySQL, PostgreSQL, SQLite, and MongoDB.
+* Rails: 5.x, 6.x, and 7.x.
+* Works outside of Rails with the `json` (for MRI) or `json_pure` (for JRuby) gem.
 
-Installation
-------------
 
-Install Geocoder like any other Ruby gem:
+Table of Contents
+-----------------
 
-    gem install geocoder
+Basic Features:
 
-Or, if you're using Rails/Bundler, add this to your Gemfile:
+* [Basic Search](#basic-search)
+* [Geocoding Objects](#geocoding-objects)
+* [Geospatial Database Queries](#geospatial-database-queries)
+* [Geocoding HTTP Requests](#geocoding-http-requests)
+* [Geocoding Service ("Lookup") Configuration](#geocoding-service-lookup-configuration)
 
-    gem "geocoder"
+Advanced Features:
 
-and run at the command prompt:
+* [Performance and Optimization](#performance-and-optimization)
+* [Advanced Model Configuration](#advanced-model-configuration)
+* [Advanced Database Queries](#advanced-database-queries)
+* [Geospatial Calculations](#geospatial-calculations)
+* [Batch Geocoding](#batch-geocoding)
+* [Testing](#testing)
+* [Error Handling](#error-handling)
+* [Command Line Interface](#command-line-interface)
 
-    bundle install
+The Rest:
 
+* [Technical Discussions](#technical-discussions)
+* [Troubleshooting](#troubleshooting)
+* [Known Issues](#known-issues)
+* [Reporting Issues](https://github.com/alexreisner/geocoder/blob/master/CONTRIBUTING.md#reporting-bugs)
+* [Contributing](https://github.com/alexreisner/geocoder/blob/master/CONTRIBUTING.md#making-changes)
 
-Object Geocoding
-----------------
+See Also:
 
-### ActiveRecord
+* [Guide to Geocoding APIs](https://github.com/alexreisner/geocoder/blob/master/README_API_GUIDE.md) (formerly part of this README)
 
-Your model must have two attributes (database columns) for storing latitude and longitude coordinates. By default they should be called `latitude` and `longitude` but this can be changed (see "Model Configuration" below):
 
-    rails generate migration AddLatitudeAndLongitudeToModel latitude:float longitude:float
-    rake db:migrate
+Basic Search
+------------
 
-For reverse geocoding your model must provide a method that returns an address. This can be a single attribute, but it can also be a method that returns a string assembled from different attributes (eg: `city`, `state`, and `country`).
+In its simplest form, Geocoder takes an address and searches for its latitude/longitude coordinates:
 
-Next, your model must tell Geocoder which method returns your object's geocodable address:
+```ruby
+results = Geocoder.search("Paris")
+results.first.coordinates
+# => [48.856614, 2.3522219]  # latitude and longitude
+```
 
-    geocoded_by :full_street_address   # can also be an IP address
-    after_validation :geocode          # auto-fetch coordinates
+The reverse is possible too. Given coordinates, it finds an address:
 
-For reverse geocoding, tell Geocoder which attributes store latitude and longitude:
+```ruby
+results = Geocoder.search([48.856614, 2.3522219])
+results.first.address
+# => "Hôtel de Ville, 75004 Paris, France"
+```
 
-    reverse_geocoded_by :latitude, :longitude
-    after_validation :reverse_geocode  # auto-fetch address
+You can also look up the location of an IP address:
 
-### Mongoid
+```ruby
+results = Geocoder.search("172.56.21.89")
+results.first.coordinates
+# => [30.267153, -97.7430608]
+results.first.country
+# => "United States"
+```
 
-First, your model must have an array field for storing coordinates:
+**The success and accuracy of geocoding depends entirely on the API being used to do these lookups.** Most queries work fairly well with the default configuration, but every application has different needs and every API has its particular strengths and weaknesses. If you need better coverage for your application you'll want to get familiar with the large number of supported APIs, listed in the [API Guide](https://github.com/alexreisner/geocoder/blob/master/README_API_GUIDE.md).
 
-    field :coordinates, :type => Array
 
-You may also want an address field, like this:
+Geocoding Objects
+-----------------
+
+To automatically geocode your objects:
 
-    field :address
+**1.** Your model must provide a method that returns an address to geocode. This can be a single attribute, but it can also be a method that returns a string assembled from different attributes (eg: `city`, `state`, and `country`). For example, if your model has `street`, `city`, `state`, and `country` attributes you might do something like this:
 
-but if you store address components (city, state, country, etc) in separate fields you can instead define a method called `address` that combines them into a single string which will be used to query the geocoding service.
+```ruby
+def address
+  [street, city, state, country].compact.join(', ')
+end
+```
 
-Once your fields are defined, include the `Geocoder::Model::Mongoid` module and then call `geocoded_by`:
+**2.** Your model must have a way to store latitude/longitude coordinates. With ActiveRecord, add two attributes/columns (of type float or decimal) called `latitude` and `longitude`. For MongoDB, use a single field (of type Array) called `coordinates` (i.e., `field :coordinates, type: Array`). (See [Advanced Model Configuration](#advanced-model-configuration) for using different attribute names.)
 
-    include Geocoder::Model::Mongoid
-    geocoded_by :address               # can also be an IP address
-    after_validation :geocode          # auto-fetch coordinates
+**3.** In your model, tell geocoder where to find the object's address:
 
-Reverse geocoding is similar:
+```ruby
+geocoded_by :address
+```
 
-    include Geocoder::Model::Mongoid
-    reverse_geocoded_by :coordinates
-    after_validation :reverse_geocode  # auto-fetch address
+This adds a `geocode` method which you can invoke via callback:
 
-Once you've set up your model you'll need to create the necessary spatial indices in your database:
+```ruby
+after_validation :geocode
+```
 
-    rake db:mongoid:create_indexes
+Reverse geocoding (given lat/lon coordinates, find an address) is similar:
 
-Be sure to read _Latitude/Longitude Order_ in the _Notes on MongoDB_ section below on how to properly retrieve latitude/longitude coordinates from your objects.
+```ruby
+reverse_geocoded_by :latitude, :longitude
+after_validation :reverse_geocode
+```
 
-### MongoMapper
+With any geocoded objects, you can do the following:
 
-MongoMapper is very similar to Mongoid, just be sure to include `Geocoder::Model::MongoMapper`.
+```ruby
+obj.distance_to([43.9,-98.6])  # distance from obj to point
+obj.bearing_to([43.9,-98.6])   # bearing from obj to point
+obj.bearing_from(obj2)         # bearing from obj2 to obj
+```
 
-### Mongo Indices
+The `bearing_from/to` methods take a single argument which can be: a `[lat,lon]` array, a geocoded object, or a geocodable address (string). The `distance_from/to` methods also take a units argument (`:mi`, `:km`, or `:nm` for nautical miles). See [Distance and Bearing](#distance-and-bearing) below for more info.
 
-By default, the methods `geocoded_by` and `reverse_geocoded_by` create a geospatial index. You can avoid index creation with the `:skip_index option`, for example:
+### One More Thing for MongoDB!
 
-    include Geocoder::Model::Mongoid
-    geocoded_by :address, :skip_index => true
+Before you can call `geocoded_by` you'll need to include the necessary module using one of the following:
 
-### Bulk Geocoding
+```ruby
+include Geocoder::Model::Mongoid
+include Geocoder::Model::MongoMapper
+```
 
-If you have just added geocoding to an existing application with a lot of objects you can use this Rake task to geocode them all:
+### Latitude/Longitude Order in MongoDB
 
-    rake geocode:all CLASS=YourModel
+Everywhere coordinates are passed to methods as two-element arrays, Geocoder expects them to be in the order: `[lat, lon]`. However, as per [the GeoJSON spec](http://geojson.org/geojson-spec.html#positions), MongoDB requires that coordinates be stored longitude-first (`[lon, lat]`), so internally they are stored "backwards." Geocoder's methods attempt to hide this, so calling `obj.to_coordinates` (a method added to the object by Geocoder via `geocoded_by`) returns coordinates in the conventional order:
 
-Geocoder will print warnings if you exceed the rate limit for your geocoding service. Some services — Google notably — enforce a per-second limit in addition to a per-day limit. To avoid exceeding the per-second limit, you can add a `sleep` option to the rake task, like so:
+```ruby
+obj.to_coordinates  # => [37.7941013, -122.3951096] # [lat, lon]
+```
 
-    rake geocode:all CLASS=YourModel sleep=0.25
+whereas calling the object's coordinates attribute directly (`obj.coordinates` by default) returns the internal representation which is probably the reverse of what you want:
 
+```ruby
+obj.coordinates     # => [-122.3951096, 37.7941013] # [lon, lat]
+```
 
-Request Geocoding by IP Address
--------------------------------
+So, be careful.
 
-Geocoder adds a `location` method to the standard `Rack::Request` object so you can easily look up the location of any HTTP request by IP address. For example, in a Rails controller or a Sinatra app:
+### Use Outside of Rails
 
-    # returns Geocoder::Result object
-    result = request.location
+To use Geocoder with ActiveRecord and a framework other than Rails (like Sinatra or Padrino), you will need to add this in your model before calling Geocoder methods:
 
-Note that this will usually return `nil` in your test and development environments because things like "localhost" and "0.0.0.0" are not an Internet IP addresses.
+```ruby
+extend Geocoder::Model::ActiveRecord
+```
 
-See _Advanced Geocoding_ below for more information about `Geocoder::Result` objects.
 
+Geospatial Database Queries
+---------------------------
 
-Location-Aware Database Queries
--------------------------------
+### For ActiveRecord models:
 
 To find objects by location, use the following scopes:
 
-    Venue.near('Omaha, NE, US', 20)    # venues within 20 miles of Omaha
-    Venue.near([40.71, 100.23], 20)    # venues within 20 miles of a point
-    Venue.near([40.71, 100.23], 20, :units => :km)
-                                       # venues within 20 kilometres of a point
-    Venue.geocoded                     # venues with coordinates
-    Venue.not_geocoded                 # venues without coordinates
+```ruby
+Venue.near('Omaha, NE, US')                   # venues within 20 miles of Omaha
+Venue.near([40.71, -100.23], 50)              # venues within 50 miles of a point
+Venue.near([40.71, -100.23], 50, units: :km)  # venues within 50 kilometres of a point
+Venue.geocoded                                # venues with coordinates
+Venue.not_geocoded                            # venues without coordinates
+```
 
 With geocoded objects you can do things like this:
 
-    if obj.geocoded?
-      obj.nearbys(30)                      # other objects within 30 miles
-      obj.distance_from([40.714,-100.234]) # distance from arbitrary point to object
-      obj.bearing_to("Paris, France")      # direction from object to arbitrary point
-    end
+```ruby
+if obj.geocoded?
+  obj.nearbys(30)                       # other objects within 30 miles
+  obj.distance_from([40.714,-100.234])  # distance from arbitrary point to object
+  obj.bearing_to("Paris, France")       # direction from object to arbitrary point
+end
+```
 
-Some utility methods are also available:
+### For MongoDB-backed models:
 
-    # look up coordinates of some location (like searching Google Maps)
-    Geocoder.coordinates("25 Main St, Cooperstown, NY")
-     => [42.700149, -74.922767]
+Please do not use Geocoder's `near` method. Instead use MongoDB's built-in [geospatial query language](https://docs.mongodb.org/manual/reference/command/geoNear/), which is faster. Mongoid also provides [a DSL](http://mongoid.github.io/en/mongoid/docs/querying.html#geo_near) for geospatial queries.
 
-    # distance (in miles) between Eiffel Tower and Empire State Building
-    Geocoder::Calculations.distance_between([47.858205,2.294359], [40.748433,-73.985655])
-     => 3619.77359999382
 
-    # find the geographic center (aka center of gravity) of objects or points
-    Geocoder::Calculations.geographic_center([city1, city2, [40.22,-73.99], city4])
-     => [35.14968, -90.048929]
+Geocoding HTTP Requests
+-----------------------
 
-Please see the code for more methods and detailed information about arguments (eg, working with kilometers).
+Geocoder adds `location` and `safe_location` methods to the standard `Rack::Request` object so you can easily look up the location of any HTTP request by IP address. For example, in a Rails controller or a Sinatra app:
 
+```ruby
+# returns Geocoder::Result object
+result = request.location
+```
 
-Distance and Bearing
---------------------
+**The `location` method is vulnerable to trivial IP address spoofing via HTTP headers.**  If that's a problem for your application, use `safe_location` instead, but be aware that `safe_location` will *not* try to trace a request's originating IP through proxy headers; you will instead get the location of the last proxy the request passed through, if any (excepting any proxies you have explicitly whitelisted in your Rack config).
 
-When you run a location-aware query the returned objects have two attributes added to them (only w/ ActiveRecord):
+Note that these methods will usually return `nil` in test and development environments because things like "localhost" and "0.0.0.0" are not geocodable IP addresses.
 
-* `obj.distance` - number of miles from the search point to this object
-* `obj.bearing` - direction from the search point to this object
 
-Results are automatically sorted by distance from the search point, closest to farthest. Bearing is given as a number of clockwise degrees from due north, for example:
+Geocoding Service ("Lookup") Configuration
+------------------------------------------
 
-* `0` - due north
-* `180` - due south
-* `90` - due east
-* `270` - due west
-* `230.1` - southwest
-* `359.9` - almost due north
-
-You can convert these numbers to compass point names by using the utility method provided:
+Geocoder supports a variety of street and IP address geocoding services. The default lookups are `:nominatim` for street addresses and `:ipinfo_io` for IP addresses. Please see the [API Guide](https://github.com/alexreisner/geocoder/blob/master/README_API_GUIDE.md) for details on specific geocoding services (not all settings are supported by all services).
 
-    Geocoder::Calculations.compass_point(355) # => "N"
-    Geocoder::Calculations.compass_point(45)  # => "NE"
-    Geocoder::Calculations.compass_point(208) # => "SW"
+To create a Rails initializer with sample configuration:
 
-_Note: when using SQLite `distance` and `bearing` values are provided for interface consistency only. They are not very accurate._
+```sh
+rails generate geocoder:config
+```
 
-To calculate accurate distance and bearing with SQLite or MongoDB:
+Some common options are:
 
-    obj.distance_to([43.9,-98.6])  # distance from obj to point
-    obj.bearing_to([43.9,-98.6])   # bearing from obj to point
-    obj.bearing_from(obj2)         # bearing from obj2 to obj
+```ruby
+# config/initializers/geocoder.rb
+Geocoder.configure(
+  # street address geocoding service (default :nominatim)
+  lookup: :yandex,
 
-The `bearing_from/to` methods take a single argument which can be: a `[lat,lon]` array, a geocoded object, or a geocodable address (string). The `distance_from/to` methods also take a units argument (`:mi`, `:km`, or `:nm` for nautical miles).
+  # IP address geocoding service (default :ipinfo_io)
+  ip_lookup: :maxmind,
 
+  # to use an API key:
+  api_key: "...",
 
-Model Configuration
--------------------
+  # geocoding service request timeout, in seconds (default 3):
+  timeout: 5,
 
-You are not stuck with using the `latitude` and `longitude` database column names (with ActiveRecord) or the `coordinates` array (Mongo) for storing coordinates. For example:
+  # set default units to kilometers:
+  units: :km,
 
-    geocoded_by :address, :latitude  => :lat, :longitude => :lon # ActiveRecord
-    geocoded_by :address, :coordinates => :coords                # MongoDB
+  # caching (see Caching section below for details):
+  cache: Redis.new,
+  cache_options: {
+    expiration: 1.day, # Defaults to `nil`
+    prefix: "another_key:" # Defaults to `geocoder:`
+  }
+)
+```
 
-The `address` method can return any string you'd use to search Google Maps. For example, any of the following are acceptable:
+Please see [`lib/geocoder/configuration.rb`](https://github.com/alexreisner/geocoder/blob/master/lib/geocoder/configuration.rb) for a complete list of configuration options. Additionally, some lookups have their own special configuration options which are directly supported by Geocoder. For example, to specify a value for Google's `bounds` parameter:
 
-* "714 Green St, Big Town, MO"
-* "Eiffel Tower, Paris, FR"
-* "Paris, TX, US"
+```ruby
+# with Google:
+Geocoder.search("Middletown", bounds: [[40.6,-77.9], [39.9,-75.9]])
+```
 
-If your model has `street`, `city`, `state`, and `country` attributes you might do something like this:
+Please see the [source code for each lookup](https://github.com/alexreisner/geocoder/tree/master/lib/geocoder/lookups) to learn about directly supported parameters. Parameters which are not directly supported can be specified using the `:params` option, which appends options to the query string of the geocoding request. For example:
 
-    geocoded_by :address
+```ruby
+# Nominatim's `countrycodes` parameter:
+Geocoder.search("Rome", params: {countrycodes: "us,ca"})
 
-    def address
-      [street, city, state, country].compact.join(', ')
-    end
+# Google's `region` parameter:
+Geocoder.search("Rome", params: {region: "..."})
+```
 
-For reverse geocoding you can also specify an alternate name attribute where the address will be stored, for example:
+### Configuring Multiple Services
 
-    reverse_geocoded_by :latitude, :longitude, :address => :location  # ActiveRecord
-    reverse_geocoded_by :coordinates, :address => :loc                # MongoDB
+You can configure multiple geocoding services at once by using the service's name as a key for a sub-configuration hash, like this:
 
+```ruby
+Geocoder.configure(
 
-Advanced Querying
------------------
+  timeout: 2,
+  cache: Redis.new,
 
-When querying for objects (if you're using ActiveRecord) you can also look within a square rather than a radius (circle) by using the `within_bounding_box` scope:
+  yandex: {
+    api_key: "...",
+    timeout: 5
+  },
 
-    distance = 20
-    center_point = [40.71, 100.23]
-    box = Geocoder::Calculations.bounding_box(center_point, distance)
-    Venue.within_bounding_box(box)
+  baidu: {
+    api_key: "..."
+  },
 
-This can also dramatically improve query performance, especially when used in conjunction with indexes on the latitude/longitude columns. Note, however, that returned results do not include `distance` and `bearing` attributes. Note that `#near` performs both bounding box and radius queries for speed.
+  maxmind: {
+    api_key: "...",
+    service: :omni
+  }
 
+)
+```
 
-Advanced Geocoding
-------------------
+Lookup-specific settings override global settings so, in this example, the timeout for all lookups is 2 seconds, except for Yandex which is 5.
 
-So far we have looked at shortcuts for assigning geocoding results to object attributes. However, if you need to do something fancy you can skip the auto-assignment by providing a block (takes the object to be geocoded and an array of `Geocoder::Result` objects) in which you handle the parsed geocoding result any way you like, for example:
 
-    reverse_geocoded_by :latitude, :longitude do |obj,results|
-      if geo = results.first
-        obj.city    = geo.city
-        obj.zipcode = geo.postal_code
-        obj.country = geo.country_code
-      end
-    end
-    after_validation :reverse_geocode
+Performance and Optimization
+----------------------------
 
-Every `Geocoder::Result` object, `result`, provides the following data:
-
-* `result.latitude` - float
-* `result.longitude` - float
-* `result.coordinates` - array of the above two
-* `result.address` - string
-* `result.city` - string
-* `result.state` - string
-* `result.state_code` - string
-* `result.postal_code` - string
-* `result.country` - string
-* `result.country_code` - string
+### Database Indices
 
-If you're familiar with the results returned by the geocoding service you're using you can access even more data, but you'll need to be familiar with the particular `Geocoder::Result` object you're using and the structure of your geocoding service's responses. (See below for links to geocoding service documentation.)
+In MySQL and Postgres, queries use a bounding box to limit the number of points over which a more precise distance calculation needs to be done. To take advantage of this optimisation, you need to add a composite index on latitude and longitude. In your Rails migration:
 
+```ruby
+add_index :table, [:latitude, :longitude]
+```
 
-Geocoding Services
-------------------
+In MongoDB, by default, the methods `geocoded_by` and `reverse_geocoded_by` create a geospatial index. You can avoid index creation with the `:skip_index option`, for example:
 
-By default Geocoder uses Google's geocoding API to fetch coordinates and street addresses (FreeGeoIP is the default for IP address info). However there are several other APIs supported, as well as a variety of settings. Please see the listing and comparison below for details on specific geocoding services (not all settings are supported by all services). Some common configuration options are:
+```ruby
+include Geocoder::Model::Mongoid
+geocoded_by :address, skip_index: true
+```
 
-    # config/initializers/geocoder.rb
-    Geocoder.configure(
+### Avoiding Unnecessary API Requests
 
-      # geocoding service (see below for supported options):
-      :lookup => :yandex,
+Geocoding only needs to be performed under certain conditions. To avoid unnecessary work (and quota usage) you will probably want to geocode an object only when:
 
-      # to use an API key:
-      :api_key => "...",
+* an address is present
+* the address has been changed since last save (or it has never been saved)
 
-      # geocoding service request timeout, in seconds (default 3):
-      :timeout => 5,
+The exact code will vary depending on the method you use for your geocodable string, but it would be something like this:
 
-      # set default units to kilometers:
-      :units => :km,
+```ruby
+after_validation :geocode, if: ->(obj){ obj.address.present? and obj.address_changed? }
+```
 
-      # caching (see below for details):
-      :cache => Redis.new,
-      :cache_prefix => "..."
+### Caching
 
-    )
+When relying on any external service, it's always a good idea to cache retrieved data. When implemented correctly, it improves your app's response time and stability. It's easy to cache geocoding results with Geocoder -- just configure a cache store:
 
-Please see lib/geocoder/configuration.rb for a complete list of configuration options. Additionally, some lookups have their own configuration options, some of which are directly supported by Geocoder. For example, to specify a value for Google's `bounds` parameter:
-
-    # with Google:
-    Geocoder.search("Paris", :bounds => [[32.1,-95.9], [33.9,-94.3]])
-
-Please see the [source code for each lookup](https://github.com/alexreisner/geocoder/tree/master/lib/geocoder/lookups) to learn about directly supported parameters. Parameters which are not directly supported can be specified using the `:params` option, by which you can pass arbitrary parameters to any geocoding service. For example, to use Nominatim's `countrycodes` parameter:
-
-    # with Nominatim:
-    Geocoder.search("Paris", :params => {:countrycodes => "gb,de,fr,es,us"})
-
-
-### Listing and Comparison
-
-The following is a comparison of the supported geocoding APIs. The "Limitations" listed for each are a very brief and incomplete summary of some special limitations beyond basic data source attribution. Please read the official Terms of Service for a service before using it.
-
-#### Google (`:google`, `:google_premier`)
-
-* **API key**: required for Premier (do NOT use a key for the free version)
-* **Key signup**: https://developers.google.com/maps/documentation/business/
-* **Quota**: 2,500 requests/day, 100,000 with Google Maps API Premier
-* **Region**: world
-* **SSL support**: yes
-* **Languages**: ar, eu, bg, bn, ca, cs, da, de, el, en, en-AU, en-GB, es, eu, fa, fi, fil, fr, gl, gu, hi, hr, hu, id, it, iw, ja, kn, ko, lt, lv, ml, mr, nl, no, pl, pt, pt-BR, pt-PT, ro, ru, sk, sl, sr, sv, tl, ta, te, th, tr, uk, vi, zh-CN, zh-TW (see http://spreadsheets.google.com/pub?key=p9pdwsai2hDMsLkXsoM05KQ&gid=1)
-* **Extra options**: `:bounds` - pass SW and NE coordinates as an array of two arrays to bias results towards a viewport
-* **Documentation**: http://code.google.com/apis/maps/documentation/geocoding/#JSON
-* **Terms of Service**: http://code.google.com/apis/maps/terms.html#section_10_12
-* **Limitations**: "You must not use or display the Content without a corresponding Google map, unless you are explicitly permitted to do so in the Maps APIs Documentation, or through written permission from Google." "You must not pre-fetch, cache, or store any Content, except that you may store: (i) limited amounts of Content for the purpose of improving the performance of your Maps API Implementation..."
-* **Notes**: To use Google Premier set `Geocoder.configure(:lookup => :google_premier, :api_key => [key, client, channel])`.
-
-#### Yahoo BOSS (`:yahoo`)
-
-Yahoo BOSS is **not a free service**. As of November 17, 2012 Yahoo no longer offers a free geocoding API.
-
-* **API key**: requires OAuth consumer key and secret (set `Geocoder.configure(:api_key => [key, secret])`)
-* **Key signup**: http://developer.yahoo.com/boss/geo/
-* **Quota**: unlimited, but subject to usage fees
-* **Region**: world
-* **SSL support**: no
-* **Languages**: en, fr, de, it, es, pt, nl, zh, ja, ko
-* **Documentation**: http://developer.yahoo.com/boss/geo/docs/index.html
-* **Terms of Service**: http://info.yahoo.com/legal/us/yahoo/boss/tou/?pir=ucJPcJ1ibUn.h.d.lVmlcbcEkoHjwJ_PvxG9SLK9VIbIQAw1XFrnDqY-
-* **Limitations**: No mass downloads, no commercial map production based on the data, no storage of data except for caching.
-
-#### Bing (`:bing`)
-
-* **API key**: required
-* **Key signup**: http://www.bingmapsportal.com
-* **Quota**: 50,000 requests/24 hrs
-* **Region**: world
-* **SSL support**: no
-* **Languages**: ?
-* **Documentation**: http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ff701715.aspx
-* **Terms of Service**: http://www.microsoft.com/maps/product/terms.html
-* **Limitations**: No country codes or state names. Must be used on "public-facing, non-password protected web sites," "in conjunction with Bing Maps or an application that integrates Bing Maps."
-
-#### Nominatim (`:nominatim`)
-
-* **API key**: none
-* **Quota**: 1 request/second
-* **Region**: world
-* **SSL support**: no
-* **Languages**: ?
-* **Documentation**: http://wiki.openstreetmap.org/wiki/Nominatim
-* **Terms of Service**: http://wiki.openstreetmap.org/wiki/Nominatim_usage_policy
-* **Limitations**: Please limit request rate to 1 per second and include your contact information in User-Agent headers (eg: `Geocoder.configure(:http_headers => { "User-Agent" => "your contact info" })`). Data licensed under CC-BY-SA (you must provide attribution).
-
-#### Yandex (`:yandex`)
-
-* **API key**: none
-* **Quota**: 25000 requests / day
-* **Region**: world
-* **SSL support**: no
-* **Languages**: Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian, English, Turkish (only for maps of Turkey)
-* **Documentation**: http://api.yandex.com.tr/maps/doc/intro/concepts/intro.xml
-* **Terms of Service**: http://api.yandex.com.tr/maps/doc/intro/concepts/intro.xml#rules
-* **Limitations**: ?
-
-#### Geocoder.ca (`:geocoder_ca`)
-
-* **API key**: none
-* **Quota**: ?
-* **Region**: US and Canada
-* **SSL support**: no
-* **Languages**: English
-* **Documentation**: ?
-* **Terms of Service**: http://geocoder.ca/?terms=1
-* **Limitations**: "Under no circumstances can our data be re-distributed or re-sold by anyone to other parties without our written permission."
-
-#### Geocoder.us (`:geocoder_us`)
-
-* **API key**: HTTP Basic Auth
-* **Sign up**: http://geocoder.us/user/signup
-* **Quota**: You can purchase 20,000 credits at a time for $50
-* **Region**: US
-* **SSL support**: no
-* **Languages**: English
-* **Documentation**: http://geocoder.us/help/
-* **Terms of Service**: http://geocoder.us/terms.shtml
-* **Limitations**: ?
-
-#### Mapquest (`:mapquest`)
-
-* **API key**: required
-* **Key signup**: http://developer.mapquest.com/web/products/open
-* **Quota**: ?
-* **HTTP Headers**: in order to use the licensed API you can configure the http_headers to include a referer as so:
-    `Geocoder.configure(:http_headers => { "Referer" => "http://foo.com" })`
-  You can also allow a blank referer from the API management console via mapquest but it is potentially a security risk that someone else could use your API key from another domain.
-* **Region**: world
-* **SSL support**: no
-* **Languages**: English
-* **Documentation**: http://www.mapquestapi.com/geocoding/
-* **Terms of Service**: http://info.mapquest.com/terms-of-use/
-* **Limitations**: ?
-* **Notes**: You can specify the licensed API by setting: `Geocoder.configure(:mapquest => {:licensed => true})` (defaults to free "open" version)
-
-#### Ovi/Nokia (`:ovi`)
-
-* **API key**: not required, but performance restricted without it
-* **Quota**: ?
-* **Region**: world
-* **SSL support**: no
-* **Languages**: English
-* **Documentation**: http://api.maps.ovi.com/devguide/overview.html
-* **Terms of Service**: http://www.developer.nokia.com/Develop/Maps/TC.html
-* **Limitations**: ?
-
-#### ESRI (`:esri`)
-
-* **API key**: none
-* **Quota**: Required for some scenarios (see Terms of Service)
-* **Region**: world
-* **SSL support**: yes
-* **Languages**: English
-* **Documentation**: http://resources.arcgis.com/en/help/arcgis-online-geocoding-rest-api/
-* **Terms of Service**: http://www.esri.com/software/arcgis/arcgisonline/services/geoservices
-* **Limitations**: ?
-* **Notes**: You can specify which projection you want to use by setting, for example: `Geocoder.configure(:esri => {:outSR => 102100})`.
-
-#### Data Science Toolkit (`:dstk`)
-
-Data Science Toolkit provides an API whose reponse format is like Google's but which can be set up as a privately hosted service.
-
-* **API key**: none
-* **Quota**: None quota if you are self-hosting the service.
-* **Region**: world
-* **SSL support**: ?
-* **Languages**: en
-* **Documentation**: http://www.datasciencetoolkit.org/developerdocs
-* **Terms of Service**: http://www.datasciencetoolkit.org/developerdocs#googlestylegeocoder
-* **Limitations**: No reverse geocoding.
-* **Notes**: If you are hosting your own DSTK server you will need to configure the host name, eg: `Geocoder.configure(:lookup => :dstk, :host => "localhost:4567")`.
-
-#### FreeGeoIP (`:freegeoip`)
-
-* **API key**: none
-* **Quota**: 10000 requests per hour. After reaching the hourly quota, all of your requests will result in HTTP 403 (Forbidden) until it clears up on the next roll over.
-* **Region**: world
-* **SSL support**: no
-* **Languages**: English
-* **Documentation**: http://github.com/fiorix/freegeoip/blob/master/README.md
-* **Terms of Service**: ?
-* **Limitations**: ?
-
-#### MaxMind Web Services (`:maxmind`)
-
-* **API key**: required
-* **Quota**: Request Packs can be purchased
-* **Region**: world
-* **SSL support**: yes
-* **Languages**: English
-* **Documentation**: http://www.maxmind.com/app/web_services
-* **Terms of Service**: ?
-* **Limitations**: ?
-* **Notes**: You must specify which MaxMind service you are using in your configuration. For example: `Geocoder.configure(:maxmind => {:service => :omni})`.
-
-#### Baidu (`:baidu`)
-
-* **API key**: required
-* **Quota**: No quota limits for geocoding
-* **Region**: China
-* **SSL support**: no
-* **Languages**: Chinese (Simplified)
-* **Documentation**: http://developer.baidu.com/map/webservice-geocoding.htm
-* **Terms of Service**: http://developer.baidu.com/map/law.htm
-* **Limitations**: Only good for non-commercial use. For commercial usage please check http://developer.baidu.com/map/question.htm#qa0013
-* **Notes**: To use Baidu set `Geocoder.configure(:lookup => :baidu, :api_key => "your_api_key")`.
-
-Caching
--------
-
-It's a good idea, when relying on any external service, to cache retrieved data. When implemented correctly it improves your app's response time and stability. It's easy to cache geocoding results with Geocoder, just configure a cache store:
-
-    Geocoder.configure(:cache => Redis.new)
+```ruby
+Geocoder.configure(cache: Redis.new)
+```
 
 This example uses Redis, but the cache store can be any object that supports these methods:
 
 * `store#[](key)` or `#get` or `#read` - retrieves a value
 * `store#[]=(key, value)` or `#set` or `#write` - stores a value
 * `store#del(url)` - deletes a value
+* `store#keys` - (Optional) Returns array of keys. Used if you wish to expire the entire cache (see below).
 
 Even a plain Ruby hash will work, though it's not a great choice (cleared out when app is restarted, not shared between app instances, etc).
 
+When using Rails use the Generic cache store as an adapter around `Rails.cache`:
+
+```ruby
+Geocoder.configure(cache: Geocoder::CacheStore::Generic.new(Rails.cache, {}))
+```
+
 You can also set a custom prefix to be used for cache keys:
 
-    Geocoder.configure(:cache_prefix => "...")
+```ruby
+Geocoder.configure(cache_options: { prefix: "..." })
+```
 
 By default the prefix is `geocoder:`
 
 If you need to expire cached content:
 
-    Geocoder.cache.expire("http://...") # expire cached result for a URL
-    Geocoder.cache.expire(:all)         # expire all cached results
+```ruby
+Geocoder::Lookup.get(Geocoder.config[:lookup]).cache.expire(:all)  # expire cached results for current Lookup
+Geocoder::Lookup.get(:nominatim).cache.expire("http://...")        # expire cached result for a specific URL
+Geocoder::Lookup.get(:nominatim).cache.expire(:all)                # expire cached results for Google Lookup
+# expire all cached results for all Lookups.
+# Be aware that this methods spawns a new Lookup object for each Service
+Geocoder::Lookup.all_services.each{|service| Geocoder::Lookup.get(service).cache.expire(:all)}
+```
 
-Do *not* include the prefix when passing a URL to be expired. Expiring `:all` will only expire keys with the configured prefix (won't kill every entry in your key/value store).
+Do *not* include the prefix when passing a URL to be expired. Expiring `:all` will only expire keys with the configured prefix -- it will *not* expire every entry in your key/value store.
 
-For an example of a cache store with URL expiry please see examples/autoexpire_cache.rb
+For an example of a cache store with URL expiry, please see examples/autoexpire_cache.rb
 
 _Before you implement caching in your app please be sure that doing so does not violate the Terms of Service for your geocoding service._
 
 
-Forward and Reverse Geocoding in the Same Model
------------------------------------------------
+Advanced Model Configuration
+----------------------------
 
-If you apply both forward and reverse geocoding functionality to the same model (say users can supply an address or coordinates and you want to fill in whatever's missing), you will provide two address methods:
+You are not stuck with the `latitude` and `longitude` database column names (with ActiveRecord) or the `coordinates` array (Mongo) for storing coordinates. For example:
 
-* one for storing the fetched address (reverse geocoding)
-* one for providing an address to use when fetching coordinates (forward geocoding)
+```ruby
+geocoded_by :address, latitude: :lat, longitude: :lon  # ActiveRecord
+geocoded_by :address, coordinates: :coords             # MongoDB
+```
 
-For example:
+For reverse geocoding, you can specify the attribute where the address will be stored. For example:
 
-    class Venue
+```ruby
+reverse_geocoded_by :latitude, :longitude, address: :loc    # ActiveRecord
+reverse_geocoded_by :coordinates, address: :street_address  # MongoDB
+```
 
-      # build an address from street, city, and state attributes
-      geocoded_by :address_from_components
+To specify geocoding parameters in your model:
 
-      # store the fetched address in the full_address attribute
-      reverse_geocoded_by :latitude, :longitude, :address => :full_address
-    end
+```ruby
+geocoded_by :address, params: {region: "..."}
+```
 
-However, there can be only one set of latitude/longitude attributes, and whichever you specify last will be used. For example:
+Supported parameters: `:lookup`, `:ip_lookup`, `:language`, and `:params`. You can specify an anonymous function if you want to set these on a per-request basis. For example, to use different lookups for objects in different regions:
 
-    class Venue
+```ruby
+geocoded_by :address, lookup: lambda{ |obj| obj.geocoder_lookup }
 
-      geocoded_by :address,
-        :latitude  => :fetched_latitude,  # this will be overridden by the below
-        :longitude => :fetched_longitude  # same here
+def geocoder_lookup
+  if country_code == "RU"
+    :yandex
+  elsif country_code == "CN"
+    :baidu
+  else
+    :nominatim
+  end
+end
+```
 
-      reverse_geocoded_by :latitude, :longitude
-    end
+### Custom Result Handling
 
-The reason for this is that we don't want ambiguity when doing distance calculations. We need a single, authoritative source for coordinates!
+So far we have seen examples where geocoding results are assigned automatically to predefined object attributes. However, you can skip the auto-assignment by providing a block which handles the parsed geocoding results any way you like, for example:
 
-Once both forward and reverse geocoding has been applied, it is possible to call them sequentially.
+```ruby
+reverse_geocoded_by :latitude, :longitude do |obj,results|
+  if geo = results.first
+    obj.city    = geo.city
+    obj.zipcode = geo.postal_code
+    obj.country = geo.country_code
+  end
+end
 
-For example:
+after_validation :reverse_geocode
+```
 
-    class Venue
+Every `Geocoder::Result` object, `result`, provides the following data:
 
-      after_validation :geocode, :reverse_geocode
+* `result.latitude` - float
+* `result.longitude` - float
+* `result.coordinates` - array of the above two in the form of `[lat,lon]`
+* `result.address` - string
+* `result.city` - string
+* `result.state` - string
+* `result.state_code` - string
+* `result.postal_code` - string
+* `result.country` - string
+* `result.country_code` - string
 
-    end
+Most APIs return other data in addition to these globally-supported attributes. To directly access the full response, call the `#data` method of any Geocoder::Result object. See the [API Guide](https://github.com/alexreisner/geocoder/blob/master/README_API_GUIDE.md) for links to documentation for all geocoding services.
 
-For certain geolocation services such as Google geolocation API this may cause issues during subsequent updates to database records if the longtitude and latitude coordinates cannot be associated known location address (on a large body of water for example). On subsequent callbacks the following call:
+### Forward and Reverse Geocoding in the Same Model
 
-     after_validation :geocode
+You can apply both forward and reverse geocoding to the same model (i.e. users can supply an address or coordinates and Geocoder fills in whatever's missing) but you'll need to provide two different address methods:
 
-will alter the longtitude and latitude attributes based on the location field, which would be the closest known location to the original coordinates. In this case it is better to add conditions to each call, as not to override coordinates that do not have known location addresses associated with them.
+* one for storing the fetched address (when reverse geocoding)
+* one for providing an address to use when fetching coordinates (forward geocoding)
 
 For example:
 
-    class Venue
+```ruby
+class Venue
+  # build an address from street, city, and state attributes
+  geocoded_by :address_from_components
 
-      after_validation :reverse_geocode, :if => :has_coordinates
-      after_validation :geocode, :if => :has_location, :unless => :has_coordinates
+  # store the fetched address in the full_address attribute
+  reverse_geocoded_by :latitude, :longitude, address: :full_address
+end
+```
 
-    end
+The same goes for latitude/longitude. However, for purposes of querying the database, there can be only one authoritative set of latitude/longitude attributes for use in database queries. This is whichever you specify last. For example, here the attributes *without* the `fetched_` prefix will be authoritative:
 
-Use Outside of Rails
---------------------
+```ruby
+class Venue
+  geocoded_by :address,
+    latitude: :fetched_latitude,
+    longitude: :fetched_longitude
+  reverse_geocoded_by :latitude, :longitude
+end
+```
 
-You can use Geocoder outside of Rails by calling the `Geocoder.search` method:
 
-    results = Geocoder.search("McCarren Park, Brooklyn, NY")
+Advanced Database Queries
+-------------------------
 
-This returns an array of `Geocoder::Result` objects with all data provided by the geocoding service.
+*The following apply to ActiveRecord only. For MongoDB, please use the built-in geospatial features.*
 
+The default `near` search looks for objects within a circle. To search within a doughnut or ring use the `:min_radius` option:
 
-Testing Apps that Use Geocoder
-------------------------------
+```ruby
+Venue.near("Austin, TX", 200, min_radius: 40)
+```
 
-When writing tests for an app that uses Geocoder it may be useful to avoid network calls and have Geocoder return consistent, configurable results. To do this, configure and use the `:test` lookup. For example:
+To search within a rectangle (note that results will *not* include `distance` and `bearing` attributes):
 
-    Geocoder.configure(:lookup => :test)
+```ruby
+sw_corner = [40.71, 100.23]
+ne_corner = [36.12, 88.65]
+Venue.within_bounding_box(sw_corner, ne_corner)
+```
 
-    Geocoder::Lookup::Test.add_stub(
-      "New York, NY", [
-        {
-          'latitude'     => 40.7143528,
-          'longitude'    => -74.0059731,
-          'address'      => 'New York, NY, USA',
-          'state'        => 'New York',
-          'state_code'   => 'NY',
-          'country'      => 'United States',
-          'country_code' => 'US'
-        }
-      ]
-    )
+To search for objects near a certain point where each object has a different distance requirement (which is defined in the database), you can pass a column name for the radius:
 
-Now, any time Geocoder looks up "New York, NY" its results array will contain one result with the above attributes. You can also set a default stub:
+```ruby
+Venue.near([40.71, 99.23], :effective_radius)
+```
 
-    Geocoder.configure(:lookup => :test)
+If you store multiple sets of coordinates for each object, you can specify latitude and longitude columns to use for a search:
 
-    Geocoder::Lookup::Test.set_default_stub(
-      [
-        {
-          'latitude'     => 40.7143528,
-          'longitude'    => -74.0059731,
-          'address'      => 'New York, NY, USA',
-          'state'        => 'New York',
-          'state_code'   => 'NY',
-          'country'      => 'United States',
-          'country_code' => 'US'
-        }
-      ]
-    )
+```ruby
+Venue.near("Paris", 50, latitude: :secondary_latitude, longitude: :secondary_longitude)
+```
 
-Any query that hasn't been explicitly stubbed will return that result.
+### Distance and Bearing
 
-Command Line Interface
-----------------------
+When you run a geospatial query, the returned objects have two attributes added:
 
-When you install the Geocoder gem it adds a `geocode` command to your shell. You can search for a street address, IP address, postal code, coordinates, etc just like you can with the Geocoder.search method for example:
+* `obj.distance` - number of miles from the search point to this object
+* `obj.bearing` - direction from the search point to this object
 
-    $ geocode 29.951,-90.081
-    Latitude:         29.952211
-    Longitude:        -90.080563
-    Full address:     1500 Sugar Bowl Dr, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
-    City:             New Orleans
-    State/province:   Louisiana
-    Postal code:      70112
-    Country:          United States
-    Google map:       http://maps.google.com/maps?q=29.952211,-90.080563
+Results are automatically sorted by distance from the search point, closest to farthest. Bearing is given as a number of degrees clockwise from due north, for example:
 
-There are also a number of options for setting the geocoding API, key, and language, viewing the raw JSON reponse, and more. Please run `geocode -h` for details.
+* `0` - due north
+* `180` - due south
+* `90` - due east
+* `270` - due west
+* `230.1` - southwest
+* `359.9` - almost due north
 
-Numeric Data Types and Precision
---------------------------------
+You can convert these to compass point names via provided method:
 
-Geocoder works with any numeric data type (e.g. float, double, decimal) on which trig (and other mathematical) functions can be performed.
+```ruby
+Geocoder::Calculations.compass_point(355) # => "N"
+Geocoder::Calculations.compass_point(45)  # => "NE"
+Geocoder::Calculations.compass_point(208) # => "SW"
+```
 
-A summary of the relationship between geographic precision and the number of decimal places in latitude and longitude degree values is available on [Wikipedia](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_degrees#Accuracy). As an example: at the equator, latitude/longitude values with 4 decimal places give about 11 metres precision, whereas 5 decimal places gives roughly 1 metre precision.
+_Note: when running queries on SQLite, `distance` and `bearing` are provided for consistency only. They are not very accurate._
 
-Notes on MongoDB
-----------------
+For more advanced geospatial querying, please see the [rgeo gem](https://github.com/rgeo/rgeo).
 
-### The Near Method
 
-Mongo document classes (Mongoid and MongoMapper) have a built-in `near` scope, but since it only works two-dimensions Geocoder overrides it with its own spherical `near` method in geocoded classes.
+Geospatial Calculations
+-----------------------
 
-### Latitude/Longitude Order
+The `Geocoder::Calculations` module contains some useful methods:
 
-Coordinates are generally printed and spoken as latitude, then longitude ([lat,lon]). Geocoder respects this convention and always expects method arguments to be given in [lat,lon] order. However, MongoDB requires that coordinates be stored in [lon,lat] order as per the GeoJSON spec (http://geojson.org/geojson-spec.html#positions), so internally they are stored "backwards." However, this does not affect order of arguments to methods when using Mongoid or MongoMapper.
+```ruby
+# find the distance between two arbitrary points
+Geocoder::Calculations.distance_between([47.858205,2.294359], [40.748433,-73.985655])
+ => 3619.77359999382 # in configured units (default miles)
 
-To access an object's coordinates in the conventional order, use the `to_coordinates` instance method provided by Geocoder. For example:
+# find the geographic center (aka center of gravity) of objects or points
+Geocoder::Calculations.geographic_center([city1, city2, [40.22,-73.99], city4])
+ => [35.14968, -90.048929]
+```
 
-    obj.to_coordinates  # => [37.7941013, -122.3951096] # [lat, lon]
+See [the code](https://github.com/alexreisner/geocoder/blob/master/lib/geocoder/calculations.rb) for more!
 
-Calling `obj.coordinates` directly returns the internal representation of the coordinates which, in the case of MongoDB, is probably the reverse of what you want:
 
-    obj.coordinates     # => [-122.3951096, 37.7941013] # [lon, lat]
+Batch Geocoding
+---------------
 
-For consistency with the rest of Geocoder, always use the `to_coordinates` method instead.
+If you have just added geocoding to an existing application with a lot of objects, you can use this Rake task to geocode them all:
 
-Notes on Non-Rails Frameworks
------------------------------
+```sh
+rake geocode:all CLASS=YourModel
+```
 
-If you are using Geocoder with ActiveRecord and a framework other than Rails (like Sinatra or Padrino) you will need to add this in your model before calling Geocoder methods:
+If you need reverse geocoding instead, call the task with REVERSE=true:
 
-    extend Geocoder::Model::ActiveRecord
+```sh
+rake geocode:all CLASS=YourModel REVERSE=true
+```
 
-Optimisation of Distance Queries
---------------------------------
+In either case, it won't try to geocode objects that are already geocoded. The task will print warnings if you exceed the rate limit for your geocoding service. Some services enforce a per-second limit in addition to a per-day limit. To avoid exceeding the per-second limit, you can add a `SLEEP` option to pause between requests for a given amount of time. You can also load objects in batches to save memory, for example:
 
-In MySQL and Postgres the finding of objects near a given point is speeded up by using a bounding box to limit the number of points over which a full distance calculation needs to be done.
+```sh
+rake geocode:all CLASS=YourModel SLEEP=0.25 BATCH=100
+```
 
-To take advantage of this optimisation you need to add a composite index on latitude and longitude. In your Rails migration:
+To avoid exceeding per-day limits you can add a `LIMIT` option. However, this will ignore the `BATCH` value, if provided.
 
-    add_index :table, [:latitude, :longitude]
+```sh
+rake geocode:all CLASS=YourModel LIMIT=1000
+```
 
 
-Distance Queries in SQLite
---------------------------
+Testing
+-------
 
-SQLite's lack of trigonometric functions requires an alternate implementation of the `near` scope. When using SQLite, Geocoder will automatically use a less accurate algorithm for finding objects near a given point. Results of this algorithm should not be trusted too much as it will return objects that are outside the given radius, along with inaccurate distance and bearing calculations.
+When writing tests for an app that uses Geocoder it may be useful to avoid network calls and have Geocoder return consistent, configurable results. To do this, configure the `:test` lookup and/or `:ip_lookup`
+
+```ruby
+Geocoder.configure(lookup: :test, ip_lookup: :test)
+```
+
+Add stubs to define the results that will be returned:
+
+```ruby
+Geocoder::Lookup::Test.add_stub(
+  "New York, NY", [
+    {
+      'coordinates'  => [40.7143528, -74.0059731],
+      'address'      => 'New York, NY, USA',
+      'state'        => 'New York',
+      'state_code'   => 'NY',
+      'country'      => 'United States',
+      'country_code' => 'US'
+    }
+  ]
+)
+```
+
+With the above stub defined, any query for "New York, NY" will return the results array that follows. You can also set a default stub, to be returned when no other stub matches a given query:
+
+```ruby
+Geocoder::Lookup::Test.set_default_stub(
+  [
+    {
+      'coordinates'  => [40.7143528, -74.0059731],
+      'address'      => 'New York, NY, USA',
+      'state'        => 'New York',
+      'state_code'   => 'NY',
+      'country'      => 'United States',
+      'country_code' => 'US'
+    }
+  ]
+)
+```
+
+You may also delete a single stub, or reset all stubs _including the default stub_:
+
+```ruby
+Geocoder::Lookup::Test.delete_stub('New York, NY')
+Geocoder::Lookup::Test.reset
+```
+
+Notes:
+
+- Keys must be strings (not symbols) when calling `add_stub` or `set_default_stub`. For example `'country' =>` not `:country =>`.
+- The stubbed result objects returned by the Test lookup do not support all the methods real result objects do. If you need to test interaction with real results it may be better to use an external stubbing tool and something like WebMock or VCR to prevent network calls.
 
 
-### Discussion
+Error Handling
+--------------
 
-There are few options for finding objects near a given point in SQLite without installing extensions:
+By default Geocoder will rescue any exceptions raised by calls to a geocoding service and return an empty array. You can override this on a per-exception basis, and also have Geocoder raise its own exceptions for certain events (eg: API quota exceeded) by using the `:always_raise` option:
 
-1. Use a square instead of a circle for finding nearby points. For example, if you want to find points near 40.71, 100.23, search for objects with latitude between 39.71 and 41.71 and longitude between 99.23 and 101.23. One degree of latitude or longitude is at most 69 miles so divide your radius (in miles) by 69.0 to get the amount to add and subtract from your center coordinates to get the upper and lower bounds. The results will not be very accurate (you'll get points outside the desired radius), but you will get all the points within the required radius.
+```ruby
+Geocoder.configure(always_raise: [SocketError, Timeout::Error])
+```
 
-2. Load all objects into memory and compute distances between them using the `Geocoder::Calculations.distance_between` method. This will produce accurate results but will be very slow (and use a lot of memory) if you have a lot of objects in your database.
+You can also do this to raise all exceptions:
 
-3. If you have a large number of objects (so you can't use approach #2) and you need accurate results (better than approach #1 will give), you can use a combination of the two. Get all the objects within a square around your center point, and then eliminate the ones that are too far away using `Geocoder::Calculations.distance_between`.
+```ruby
+Geocoder.configure(always_raise: :all)
+```
 
-Because Geocoder needs to provide this functionality as a scope, we must go with option #1, but feel free to implement #2 or #3 if you need more accuracy.
+The raise-able exceptions are:
 
+```ruby
+SocketError
+Timeout::Error
+Geocoder::OverQueryLimitError
+Geocoder::RequestDenied
+Geocoder::InvalidRequest
+Geocoder::InvalidApiKey
+Geocoder::ServiceUnavailable
+```
 
-Tests
------
+Note that only a few of the above exceptions are raised by any given lookup, so there's no guarantee if you configure Geocoder to raise `ServiceUnavailable` that it will actually be raised under those conditions (because most APIs don't return 503 when they should; you may get a `Timeout::Error` instead). Please see the source code for your particular lookup for details.
 
-Geocoder comes with a test suite (just run `rake test`) that mocks ActiveRecord and is focused on testing the aspects of Geocoder that do not involve executing database queries. Geocoder uses many database engine-specific queries which must be tested against all supported databases (SQLite, MySQL, etc). Ideally this involves creating a full, working Rails application, and that seems beyond the scope of the included test suite. As such, I have created a separate repository which includes a full-blown Rails application and some utilities for easily running tests against multiple environments:
 
-http://github.com/alexreisner/geocoder_test
+Command Line Interface
+----------------------
 
+When you install the Geocoder gem it adds a `geocode` command to your shell. You can search for a street address, IP address, postal code, coordinates, etc just like you can with the Geocoder.search method for example:
 
-Error Handling
---------------
+```sh
+$ geocode 29.951,-90.081
+Latitude:         29.952211
+Longitude:        -90.080563
+Full address:     1500 Sugar Bowl Dr, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
+City:             New Orleans
+State/province:   Louisiana
+Postal code:      70112
+Country:          United States
+Map:              http://maps.google.com/maps?q=29.952211,-90.080563
+```
 
-By default Geocoder will rescue any exceptions raised by calls to a geocoding service and return an empty array (using warn() to inform you of the error). You can override this on a per-exception basis, and also have Geocoder raise its own exceptions for certain events (eg: API quota exceeded) by using the `:always_raise` option:
+There are also a number of options for setting the geocoding API, key, and language, viewing the raw JSON response, and more. Please run `geocode -h` for details.
 
-    Geocoder.configure(:always_raise => [SocketError, TimeoutError])
 
-You can also do this to raise all exceptions:
+Technical Discussions
+---------------------
 
-    Geocoder.configure(:always_raise => :all)
+### Distance Queries in SQLite
 
-The raise-able exceptions are:
+SQLite's lack of trigonometric functions requires an alternate implementation of the `near` scope. When using SQLite, Geocoder will automatically use a less accurate algorithm for finding objects near a given point. Results of this algorithm should not be trusted too much as it will return objects that are outside the given radius, along with inaccurate distance and bearing calculations.
+
+There are few options for finding objects near a given point in SQLite without installing extensions:
+
+1. Use a square instead of a circle for finding nearby points. For example, if you want to find points near 40.71, 100.23, search for objects with latitude between 39.71 and 41.71 and longitude between 99.23 and 101.23. One degree of latitude or longitude is at most 69 miles so divide your radius (in miles) by 69.0 to get the amount to add and subtract from your center coordinates to get the upper and lower bounds. The results will not be very accurate (you'll get points outside the desired radius), but you will get all the points within the required radius.
+
+2. Load all objects into memory and compute distances between them using the `Geocoder::Calculations.distance_between` method. This will produce accurate results but will be very slow (and use a lot of memory) if you have a lot of objects in your database.
+
+3. If you have a large number of objects (so you can't use approach #2) and you need accurate results (better than approach #1 will give), you can use a combination of the two. Get all the objects within a square around your center point, and then eliminate the ones that are too far away using `Geocoder::Calculations.distance_between`.
+
+Because Geocoder needs to provide this functionality as a scope, we must go with option #1, but feel free to implement #2 or #3 if you need more accuracy.
 
-    SocketError
-    TimeoutError
-    Geocoder::OverQueryLimitError
-    Geocoder::RequestDenied
-    Geocoder::InvalidRequest
-    Geocoder::InvalidApiKey
+### Numeric Data Types and Precision
 
-Note that not all lookups support all exceptions.
+Geocoder works with any numeric data type (e.g. float, double, decimal) on which trig (and other mathematical) functions can be performed.
+
+A summary of the relationship between geographic precision and the number of decimal places in latitude and longitude degree values is available on [Wikipedia](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_degrees#Accuracy). As an example: at the equator, latitude/longitude values with 4 decimal places give about 11 metres precision, whereas 5 decimal places gives roughly 1 metre precision.
 
 
 Troubleshooting
@@ -732,8 +725,10 @@ Troubleshooting
 
 If you get one of these errors:
 
-    uninitialized constant Geocoder::Model::Mongoid
-    uninitialized constant Geocoder::Model::Mongoid::Mongo
+```ruby
+uninitialized constant Geocoder::Model::Mongoid
+uninitialized constant Geocoder::Model::Mongoid::Mongo
+```
 
 you should check your Gemfile to make sure the Mongoid gem is listed _before_ Geocoder. If Mongoid isn't loaded when Geocoder is initialized, Geocoder will not load support for Mongoid.
 
@@ -744,53 +739,62 @@ A lot of debugging time can be saved by understanding how Geocoder works with Ac
 * using the `pluck` method (selects only a single column)
 * specifying another model through `includes` (selects columns from other tables)
 
+### Geocoding is Slow
+
+With most lookups, addresses are translated into coordinates via an API that must be accessed through the Internet. These requests are subject to the same bandwidth constraints as every other HTTP request, and will vary in speed depending on network conditions. Furthermore, many of the services supported by Geocoder are free and thus very popular. Often they cannot keep up with demand and their response times become quite bad.
+
+If your application requires quick geocoding responses you will probably need to pay for a non-free service, or--if you're doing IP address geocoding--use a lookup that doesn't require an external (network-accessed) service.
+
+For IP address lookups in Rails applications, it is generally NOT a good idea to run `request.location` during a synchronous page load without understanding the speed/behavior of your configured lookup. If the lookup becomes slow, so will your website.
+
+For the most part, the speed of geocoding requests has little to do with the Geocoder gem. Please take the time to learn about your configured lookup (links to documentation are provided above) before posting performance-related issues.
+
 ### Unexpected Responses from Geocoding Services
 
-Take a look at the server's raw JSON response. You can do this by getting the request URL in an app console:
+Take a look at the server's raw response. You can do this by getting the request URL in an app console:
+
+```ruby
+Geocoder::Lookup.get(:nominatim).query_url(Geocoder::Query.new("..."))
+```
 
-    Geocoder::Lookup.get(:google).query_url(Geocoder::Query.new("..."))
+Replace `:nominatim` with the lookup you are using and replace `...` with the address you are trying to geocode. Then visit the returned URL in your web browser. Often the API will return an error message that helps you resolve the problem. If, after reading the raw response, you believe there is a problem with Geocoder, please post an issue and include both the URL and raw response body.
 
-Replace `:google` with the lookup you are using and replace `...` with the address you are trying to geocode. Then visit the returned URL in your web browser. Often the API will return an error message that helps you resolve the problem. If, after reading the raw response, you believe there is a problem with Geocoder, please post an issue and include both the URL and raw response body.
+You can also fetch the response in the console:
 
+```ruby
+Geocoder::Lookup.get(:nominatim).send(:fetch_raw_data, Geocoder::Query.new("..."))
+```
 
-Reporting Issues
-----------------
 
-When reporting an issue, please list the version of Geocoder you are using and any relevant information about your application (Rails version, database type and version, etc). Also avoid vague language like "it doesn't work." Please describe as specifically as you can what behavior your are actually seeing (eg: an error message? a nil return value?).
+Known Issues
+------------
+
+### Using `count` with Rails 4.1+
 
+Due to [a change in ActiveRecord's `count` method](https://github.com/rails/rails/pull/10710) you will need to use `count(:all)` to explicitly count all columns ("*") when using a `near` scope. Using `near` and calling `count` with no argument will cause exceptions in many cases.
 
-Known Issue
------------
+### Using `near` with `includes`
 
 You cannot use the `near` scope with another scope that provides an `includes` option because the `SELECT` clause generated by `near` will overwrite it (or vice versa).
 
 Instead of using `includes` to reduce the number of database queries, try using `joins` with either the `:select` option or a call to `preload`. For example:
 
-    # Pass a :select option to the near scope to get the columns you want.
-    # Instead of City.near(...).includes(:venues), try:
-    City.near("Omaha, NE", 20, :select => "cities.*, venues.*").joins(:venues)
+```ruby
+# Pass a :select option to the near scope to get the columns you want.
+# Instead of City.near(...).includes(:venues), try:
+City.near("Omaha, NE", 20, select: "cities.*, venues.*").joins(:venues)
 
-    # This preload call will normally trigger two queries regardless of the
-    # number of results; one query on hotels, and one query on administrators.
-    # Instead of Hotel.near(...).includes(:administrator), try:
-    Hotel.near("London, UK", 50).joins(:administrator).preload(:administrator)
+# This preload call will normally trigger two queries regardless of the
+# number of results; one query on hotels, and one query on administrators.
+# Instead of Hotel.near(...).includes(:administrator), try:
+Hotel.near("London, UK", 50).joins(:administrator).preload(:administrator)
+```
 
 If anyone has a more elegant solution to this problem I am very interested in seeing it.
 
+### Using `near` with objects close to the 180th meridian
 
-Contributing
-------------
-
-Contributions are welcome via pull requests on Github. Please respect the following guidelines:
-
-* Each pull request should implement ONE feature or bugfix. If you want to add or fix more than one thing, submit more than one pull request.
-* Do not commit changes to files that are irrelevant to your feature or bugfix (eg: `.gitignore`).
-* Do not add dependencies on other gems.
-* Do not add unnecessary `require` statements which could cause LoadErrors on certain systems.
-* Remember: Geocoder needs to run outside of Rails. Don't assume things like ActiveSupport are available.
-* Do not add to base configuration options; instead document required lookup-specific options in the README.
-* Be willing to accept criticism and work on improving your code; Geocoder is used by thousands of developers and care must be taken not to introduce bugs.
-* Be aware that the pull request review process is not immediate, and is generally proportional to the size of the pull request.
+The `near` method will not look across the 180th meridian to find objects close to a given point. In practice this is rarely an issue outside of New Zealand and certain surrounding islands. This problem does not exist with the zero-meridian. The problem is due to a shortcoming of the Haversine formula which Geocoder uses to calculate distances.
 
 
-Copyright (c) 2009-12 Alex Reisner, released under the MIT license
+Copyright :copyright: 2009-2021 Alex Reisner, released under the MIT license.