cuprum 0.9.1 → 0.10.0.rc.0

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data/CHANGELOG.md

@@ -1,5 +1,25 @@
 # Changelog
 
+## 0.10
+
+The "One Small Step" Update
+
+**Note:** This update may have backwards incompatible changes for versions of Ruby before 2.7 when creating commands whose last parameter is an arguments Hash. See [separation of positional and keyword arguments](https://www.ruby-lang.org/en/news/2019/12/12/separation-of-positional-and-keyword-arguments-in-ruby-3-0/) for more information.
+
+### Commands
+
+Implemented the `#curry` method, which performs partial application of arguments or keywords.
+
+#### Chaining
+
+Added deprecation warnings to all chaining methods, and `Cuprum::Command` no longer includes `Cuprum::Chaining` by default. The `Cuprum::Chaining` module will be removed in version 1.0.
+
+#### Steps
+
+Implemented the `#step` method, which extracts the value of the called command (on a success) or halts execution (on a failure).
+
+Implemented the `#steps` method, which wraps a series of steps and returns first failing result, or the the last result if all steps are passing.
+
 ## 0.9.1
 
 ### Operations

data/DEVELOPMENT.md

@@ -1,25 +1,13 @@
 # Development
 
-## Version 0.9.0
-
-The "'Tis Not Too Late To Seek A Newer World" Update
-
-## Version 0.10.0
-
-The "One Small Step" Update
+## Version 1.0.0
 
-### Commands
+The "Look On My Works, Ye Mighty, and Despair" Update
 
-- Implement #<<, #>> composition methods.
-  - Calls commands in order passing values.
-  - Return Result early on Failure (or not Success), otherwise final Result.
-- Implement #step method (used in #process).
-  - Called with command (block? method?) that returns a Result.
-  - Raise (and catch) exception on non-success Result (test custom status?)
-  - Otherwise return Result#value.
-- Deprecate #chain and its related methods
-
-### Documentation
+- Integration specs.
+- Configuration option to raise, warn, ignore discarded results.
+- Code cleanup: Hash syntax, remove end comments, remove file headers
+- Status Badges!
 
 Steps Case Study: |
 
@@ -35,44 +23,19 @@ Steps Case Study: |
   Create ContentVersion
   Tags.each { FindOrCreate Tag }
 
-### Matcher
-
-- Handle success(), failure(), failure(SomeError) cases.
-  - Custom matcher to handle additional cases - halted, pending, etc?
-
-### RSpec
-
-- be_callable matcher - delegates to respond_to(), but check arguments of
-  private #process method
-- call_command_step matcher
-- (optionally) alias be_a_result family as have_result for operations
-
-## Version 1.0.0
-
-'The "Look On My Works, Ye Mighty, and Despair" Update'
-
-- Integration specs.
-- Configuration option to raise, warn, ignore discarded results.
-- Code cleanup: Hash syntax, remove end comments, remove file headers
-
 ### Commands
 
 - Command#to_proc
-- Remove #chain and its related methods
-
-### Commands - Built In
-
-- MapCommand - wraps a command (or proc) and returns Result with value, errors
-  as array
-- RetryCommand
 
 ## Future Versions
 
 ### Commands
 
-- command currying
+- Implement #<<, #>> composition methods.
+  - Calls commands in order passing values.
+  - Return Result early on Failure (or not Success), otherwise final Result.
 
-#### Cuprum::DSL
+#### DSL
 
 - ::process - shortcut for defining #process
 - ::rescue - `rescue StandardError do ... end`, rescues matched errors in #process
@@ -89,3 +52,46 @@ Steps Case Study: |
 #### Dependency Injection
 
 - shorthand for referencing a sequence of operations
+
+### Commands - Built In
+
+- MapCommand - wraps a command (or proc) and returns Result with value, errors
+  as array
+- RetryCommand - takes command, retry count
+  - optional only:, except: - restrict what errors are retried
+
+### Matcher
+
+- Handle success(), failure(), failure(SomeError) cases.
+  - Custom matcher to handle additional cases - halted, pending, etc?
+
+### Middleware
+
+- Implement Command.subclass
+  - Curries constructor arguments
+- Implement Cuprum::Middleware
+  - #process takes next command, \*args, \*\*kwargs
+    - calls next command with \*args, \*\*kwargs
+  - .apply takes middleware: array, root: command
+- Implement Cuprum::AppliedMiddleware < Cuprum::Command
+  - has readers #root (Class), #middleware (Array<Class>)
+  - #initialize
+    - initializes root command (passing constructor parameters)
+    - initializes each middleware command
+      - if Class defining .instance, call .instance
+      - if Class, call .new
+      - if Proc, call #call with constructor parameters
+    - calls Middleware.apply and caches as private #applied
+  - #call
+    - delegates to #applied
+
+### RSpec
+
+- be_callable matcher - delegates to respond_to(), but check arguments of
+  private #process method
+- call_command_step matcher
+- (optionally) alias be_a_result family as have_result for operations
+
+### Steps::Strict
+
+- #step raises exception unless block or method returns a result

data/README.md

@@ -23,12 +23,12 @@ Traditional frameworks such as Rails focus on the objects of your application -
 
 ### Alternatives
 
-If you want to extract your logic but Cuprum is not the right solution for you, here are several alternatives:
-
-- Service objects. A common pattern used when first refactoring an application that has outgrown its abstractions. Service objects are simple and let you group related functionality, but they are harder to compose and require firm conventions to tame.
-- The [Interactor](https://github.com/collectiveidea/interactor) gem. Provides an `Action` module to implement logic and an `Organizer` module to manage control flow. Supports before, around, and after hooks.
-- The [Waterfall](https://github.com/apneadiving/waterfall) gem. Focused more on control flow.
-- [Trailblazer](http://trailblazer.to/) Operations. A pipeline-based approach to control flow, and can integrate tightly with other Trailblazer elements.
+If you want to extract your logic but Cuprum is not the right solution for you, there are a number of alternatives, including
+[ActiveInteraction](https://github.com/AaronLasseigne/active_interaction),
+[Dry::Monads](https://dry-rb.org/gems/dry-monads/),
+[Interactor](https://github.com/collectiveidea/interactor),
+[Trailblazer](http://trailblazer.to/) Operations,
+and [Waterfall](https://github.com/apneadiving/waterfall).
 
 ### Compatibility
 
@@ -213,7 +213,61 @@ result.value    #=> book
 book.published? #=> false
 ```
 
-#### Composing Commands
+#### Command Currying
+
+Cuprum::Command defines the `#curry` method, which allows for partial application of command objects. Partial application (more commonly referred to, if imprecisely, as currying) refers to fixing some number of arguments to a function, resulting in a function with a smaller number of arguments.
+
+In Cuprum's case, a curried (partially applied) command takes an original command and pre-defines some of its arguments. When the curried command is called, the predefined arguments and/or keywords will be combined with the arguments passed to #call.
+
+##### Currying Arguments
+
+We start by defining the base command. In this case, our base command takes two string arguments - a greeting and a person to be greeted.
+
+```ruby
+say_command = Cuprum::Command.new do |greeting, person|
+  "#{greeting}, #{person}!"
+end
+say_command.call('Hello', 'world')
+#=> returns a result with value 'Hello, world!'
+```
+
+Next, we create a curried command. Here, we pass in one argument. This will set the first argument to always be "Greetings"; therefore, our curried command only takes one argument, the name of the person being greeted.
+
+```ruby
+greet_command = say_command.curry('Greetings')
+greet_command.call('programs')
+#=> returns a result with value 'Greetings, programs!'
+```
+
+Alternatively, we could pass both arguments to `#curry`. In this case, our curried argument does not take any arguments, and will always return the same string.
+
+```ruby
+recruit_command = say_command.curry('Greetings', 'starfighter')
+recruit_command.call
+#=> returns a result with value 'Greetings, starfighter!'
+```
+
+##### Currying Keywords
+
+We can also pass keywords to `#curry`. Again, we start by defining our base command. In this case, our base command takes a mathematical operation (addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc) and a list of operands.
+
+```ruby
+math_command = Cuprum::Command.new do |operands:, operation:|
+  operations.reduce(&operation)
+end
+math_command.call(operands: [2, 2], operation: :+)
+#=> returns a result with value 4
+```
+
+Our curried command still takes two keywords, but now the operation keyword is optional. It now defaults to :\*, for multiplication.
+
+```ruby
+multiply_command = math_command.curry(operation: :*)
+multiply_command.call(operands: [3, 3])
+#=> returns a result with value 9
+```
+
+### Composing Commands
 
 Because Cuprum::Command instances are proper objects, they can be composed like any other object. For example, we could define some basic mathematical operations by composing commands:
 
@@ -224,6 +278,8 @@ increment_command.call(2).value #=> 3
 increment_command.call(3).value #=> 4
 
 add_command = Cuprum::Command.new do |addend, i|
+  # Here, we are composing commands together by calling the increment_command
+  # instance from inside the add_command definition.
   addend.times { i = increment_command(i).value }
 
   i
@@ -270,289 +326,305 @@ add_two_command.call(1).value #=> 3
 add_two_command.call(8).value #=> 10
 ```
 
-### Chaining Commands
+You can achieve even more powerful composition by passing in a command as an argument to a method, or by creating a method that returns a command.
+
+#### Commands As Arguments
 
-Cuprum::Command also defines methods for chaining commands together. When a chain of commands is called, each command in the chain is called in sequence and passed the value of the previous command. The result of the last command in the chain is returned from the chained call.
+Since commands are objects, they can be passed in as arguments to a method or to another command. For example, consider a command that calls another command a given number of times:
 
 ```ruby
-name_command       = Cuprum::Command.new { |klass| klass.name }
-pluralize_command  = Cuprum::Command.new { |str| str.pluralize }
-underscore_command = Cuprum::Command.new { |str| str.underscore }
+class RepeatCommand
+  def initialize(count)
+    @count = count
+  end
+
+  private
 
-table_name_command =
-  name_command
-    .chain(pluralize_command)
-    .chain(underscore_command)
+  def process(command)
+    @count.times { command.call }
+  end
+end
 
-result = table_name_command.call(LibraryCard)
-result.class #=> Cuprum::Result
-result.value #=> 'library_cards'
+greet_command  = Cuprum::Command.new { puts 'Greetings, programs!' }
+repeat_command = RepeatCommand.new(3)
+repeat_command.call(greet_command) #=> prints 'Greetings, programs!' 3 times
 ```
 
-When the `table_name_command` is called, the class (in our case `LibraryCard`) is passed to the first command in the chain, which is the `name_command`. This produces a Result with a value of 'LibraryCard'. This value is then passed to `pluralize_command`, which returns a Result with a value of 'LibraryCards'. Finally, `underscore_command` is called and returns a Result with a value of 'library_cards'. Since there are no more commands in the chain, this final result is then returned.
+This is an implementation of the Strategy pattern, which allows us to customize the behavior of a part of our system by passing in implementation code rather than burying conditionals in our logic.
 
-Chained commands can also be defined with a block. This creates an anonymous command, equivalent to `Cuprum::Command.new {}`. Thus, the `table_name_command` could have been defined as either of these:
+Consider a more concrete example. Suppose we are running an online bookstore that sells both physuical and electronic books, and serves both domestic and international customers. Depending on what the customer ordered and where they live, our business logic for fulfilling an order will have different shipping instructions.
+
+Traditionally this would be handled with a conditional inside the order fulfillment code, which adds complexity. However, we can use the Strategy pattern and pass in our shipping code as a command.
 
 ```ruby
-table_name_command =
-  Cuprum::Command.new { |klass| klass.name }
-    .chain { |str| str.pluralize }
-    .chain { |str| str.underscore }
+class DeliverEbook < Cuprum::Command; end
+
+class ShipDomestic < Cuprum::Command; end
+
+class ShipInternational < Cuprum::Command; end
+
+class FulfillOrder < Cuprum::Command
+  def initialize(delivery_command)
+    @delivery_command = delivery_command
+  end
 
-table_name_command =
-  Cuprum::Command.new(&:name).chain(&:pluralize).chain(&:underscore)
+  private
+
+  def process(book:, user:)
+    # Here we will check inventory, process payments, and so on. The final step
+    # is actually delivering the book to the user:
+    delivery_command.call(book: book, user: user)
+  end
+end
 ```
 
-#### Chaining Details
+This pattern is also useful for testing. When writing specs for the FulfillOrder command, simply pass in a mock double as the delivery command. This removes any need to stub out the implementation of whatever shipping method is used (or worse, calls to external services).
 
-The `#chain` method is defined for instances of `Cuprum::Command` (or object that extend `Cuprum::Chaining`). Calling `#chain` on a command will always create a copy of the command. The given command is then added to the command chain for the copied command. The original command is unchanged. Thus:
+#### Commands As Returned Values
+
+We can also return commands as an object from a method call or from another command. One use case for this is the Abstract Factory pattern.
+
+Consider our shipping example, above. The traditional way to generate a shipping command is to use an `if-then-else` or `case` construct, which would be embedded in whatever code is calling `FulfillOrder`. This adds complexity and increases the testing burden.
+
+Instead, let's create a factory command. This command will take a user and a book, and will return the command used to ship that item.
 
 ```ruby
-first_command = Cuprum::Command.new { puts 'First command!' }
-first_command.call #=> Outputs 'First command!' to STDOUT.
+class ShippingMethod < Cuprum::Command
+  private
 
-second_command = first_command.chain { puts 'Second command!' }
-second_command.call #=> Outputs 'First command!' then 'Second command!'.
+  def process(book:, user:)
+    return DeliverEbook.new(user.email) if book.ebook?
 
-# The original command is unchanged.
-first_command.call #=> Outputs 'First command!' to STDOUT.
-```
+    return ShipDomestic.new(user.address) if user.address&.domestic?
 
-When a chained command is called, the original command is called with whatever parameters are passed in to the `#call` method, and the command executes the `#process` method as normal. Rather than returning the result, however, the next command in the chain is called. If the next command does not take any arguments, it is not passed any arguments. If the next command takes one or more arguments, it is passed the `#value` of that previous result. When the final command in the chain is called, that result is returned.
+    return ShipInternational.new(user.address) if user.address&.international?
 
-```ruby
-double_command    = Cuprum::Command.new { |i| 2 * i }
-increment_command = Cuprum::Command.new { |i| 1 + i }
-square_command    = Cuprum::Command.new { |i| i * i }
-chained_command   =
-  double_command
-    .chain(increment_command)
-    .chain(square_command)
-
-# First, the double_commmand is called with 2. This returns a Cuprum::Result
-# with a value of 4.
-#
-# Next, the increment_command is called with 4, returning a result with value 5.
-#
-# Finally, the square_command is called with 5, returning a result with a value
-# of 25. This final result is returned by #call.
-result = chained_command.call(2)
-result.class #=> Cuprum::Result
-result.value #=> 25
+    err = Cuprum::Error.new(message: 'user does not have a valid address')
+
+    failure(err)
+  end
+end
 ```
 
-#### Conditional Chaining
+Notice that our factory includes error handling - if the user does not have a valid address, that is handled immediately rather than when trying to ship the item.
 
-The `#chain` method can be passed an optional `on: value` keyword. This keyword determines whether or not the chained command will execute, based on the previous result status. Possible values are `:success`, `:failure`, `:always`, or `nil`. The default value is `nil`.
+The [Command Factory](#label-Command+Factories) defined by Cuprum is another example of using the Abstract Factory pattern to return command instances. One use case for a command factory would be defining CRUD operations for data records. Depending on the class or the type of record passed in, the factory could return a generic command or a specific command tied to that specific record type.
 
-If the command is chained with `on: :always`, or if the `:on` keyword is omitted, the chained command will always be executed after the previous command.
+### Command Steps
 
-If the command is chained with `on: :success`, then the chained command will only execute if the previous result is passing, e.g. the `#success?` method returns true. A result is passing if there is no `#error`, or if the status is set to `:success`.
+Separating out business logic into commands is a powerful tool, but it does come with some overhead, particularly when checking whether a result is passing, or when converting between results and values. When a process has many steps, each of which can fail or return a value, this can result in a lot of boilerplate.
 
-If the command is chained with `on: :failure`, then the chained command will only execute if the previous result is failing, e.g. the `#success?` method returns false. A result is failing if there is an `#error`, or if the status is set to `:failure`.
+The solution Cuprum provides is the `#step` method, which calls either a named method or a given block. If the result of the block or method is passing, then the `#step` method returns the value of the result.
 
 ```ruby
-find_command =
-  Cuprum::Command.new do |attributes|
-    book = Book.where(id: attributes[:id]).first
-
-    return book if book
-
-    Cuprum::Result.new(error: 'Book not found')
-  end
-create_command =
-  Cuprum::Command.new do |attributes|
-    book = Book.new(attributes)
+triple_command = Cuprum::Command.new { |i| success(3 * i) }
 
-    return book if book.save
+int = 2
+int = step { triple_command.call(int) } #=> returns 6
+int = step { triple_command.call(int) } #=> returns 18
+```
 
-    Cuprum::Result.new(error: book.errors.full_messages)
-  end
+Notice that in each step, we are returning the *value* of the result from `#step`, not the result itself. This means we do not need explicit calls to the `#value` method.
 
-find_or_create_command = find_command.chain(create_command, on: :failure)
+Of course, not all commands return a passing result. If the result of the block or method is failing, then `#step` will throw `:cuprum_failed_result` and the result, immediately halting the execution chain. If the `#step` method is used inside a command definition (or inside a `#steps` block; [see below](#label-Using+Steps+Outside+Of+Commands)), that symbol will be caught and the failing result returned by `#call`.
 
-# With a book that exists in the database, the find_command is called and
-# returns a result with no error and a value of the found book. The
-# create_command is not called.
-hsh    = { id: 0, title: 'Journey to the West' }
-result = find_or_create_command.call(hsh)
-book   = result.value
-book.id         #=> 0
-book.title      #=> 'Journey to the West'
-result.success? #=> true
-result.error    #=> nil
+```ruby
+divide_command = Cuprum::Command.new do |dividend, divisor|
+  return failure('divide by zero') if divisor.zero?
 
-# With a book that does not exist but with valid attributes, the find command
-# returns a failing result with a value of nil. The create_command is called and
-# creates a new book with the attributes, returning a passing result.
-hsh    = { id: 1, title: 'The Ramayana' }
-result = find_or_create_command.call(hsh)
-book   = result.value
-book.id         #=> 1
-book.title      #=> 'The Ramayana'
-result.success? #=> true
-result.error    #=> nil
+  success(dividend / divisor)
+end
 
-# With a book that does not exist and with invalid attributes, the find command
-# returns a failing result with a value of nil. The create_command is called and
-# is unable to create a new book with the attributes, returning the
-# (non-persisted) book and adding the validation errors.
-hsh    = { id: 2, title: nil }
-result = find_or_create_command.call(hsh)
-book   = result.value
-book.id         #=> 2
-book.title      #=> nil
-result.success? #=> false
-result.error    #=> ["Title can't be blank"]
+value = step { divide_command.call(10, 5) } #=> returns 2
+value = step { divide_command.call(2, 0) }  #=> throws :cuprum_failed_result
 ```
 
-### Advanced Chaining
+Here, the `divide_command` can either return a passing result (if the divisor is not zero) or a failing result (if the divisor is zero). When wrapped in a `#step`, the failing result is then thrown, halting execution.
 
-The `#tap_result` and `#yield_result` methods provide advanced control over the flow of chained commands.
+This is important when using a sequence of steps. Let's consider a case study - reserving a book from the library. This entails several steps, each of which could potentially fail:
 
-#### Tap Result
+- Validating that the user can reserve books. Maybe the user has too many unpaid fines.
+- Finding the requested book in the library system. Maybe the requested title isn't in the system.
+- Placing a reservation on the book. Maybe there are no copies of the book available to reserve.
 
-The `#tap_result` method allows you to insert arbitrary code into a command chain without affecting later commands. The method takes a block and yields the previous result, which is then returned and passed to the next command, or returned by `#call` if `#tap_result` is the last item in the chain.
+Using `#step`, as soon as one of the subtasks fails then the command will immediately return the failed value. This prevents us from hitting later subtasks with invalid data, it returns the actual failing result for analytics and for displaying a useful error message to the user, and it avoids the overhead (and the boilerplate) of exception-based failure handling.
 
 ```ruby
-command =
-  Cuprum::Command.new do
-    Cuprum::Result.new(value: 'Example value', error: 'Example error')
+class CheckUserStatus < Cuprum::Command; end
+
+class CreateBookReservation < Cuprum::Command; end
+
+class FindBookByTitle < Cuprum::Command; end
+
+class ReserveBookByTitle < Cuprum::Command
+  private
+
+  def process(title:, user:)
+    # If CheckUserStatus fails, #process will immediately return that result.
+    # For this step, we already have the user, so we don't need to use the
+    # result value.
+    step { CheckUserStatus.new.call(user) }
+
+    # Here, we are looking up the requested title. In this case, we will need
+    # the book object, so we save it as a variable. Notice that we don't need
+    # an explicit #value call - #step handles that for us.
+    book = step { FindBookByTitle.new.call(title) }
+
+    # Finally, we want to reserve the book. Since this is the last subtask, we
+    # don't strictly need to use #step. However, it's good practice, especially
+    # if we might need to add more steps to the command in the future.
+    step { CreateBookReservation.new.call(book: book, user: user) }
   end
-chained_command =
-  command
-    .tap_result do |result|
-      puts "The result value was #{result.inspect}"
-    end
+end
+```
 
-# Prints 'The result value was "Example value"' to STDOUT.
-result = chained_command.call
+First, our user may not have borrowing privileges. In this case, `CheckUserStatus` will fail, and neither of the subsequent steps will be called. The `#call` method will return the failing result from `CheckUserStatus`.
+
+```ruby
+result = ReserveBookByTitle.new.call(
+  title: 'The C Programming Language',
+  user:  'Ed Dillinger'
+)
 result.class    #=> Cuprum::Result
-result.value    #=> 'Example value'
 result.success? #=> false
-result.error    #=> 'Example error'
+result.error    #=> 'not authorized to reserve book'
 ```
 
-Like `#chain`, `#tap_result` can be given an `on: value` keyword.
+Second, our user may be valid but our requested title may not exist in the system. In this case, `FindBookByTitle` will fail, and the final step will not be called. The `#call` method will return the failing result from `FindBookByTitle`.
 
 ```ruby
-find_book_command =
-  Cuprum::Command.new do |book_id|
-    book = Book.where(id: book_id).first
+result = ReserveBookByTitle.new.call(
+  title: 'Using GOTO For Fun And Profit',
+  user:  'Alan Bradley'
+)
+result.class    #=> Cuprum::Result
+result.success? #=> false
+result.error    #=> 'title not found'
+```
 
-    return book if book
+Third, our user and book may be valid, but all of the copies are checked out. In this case, each of the steps will be called, and the `#call` method will return the failing result from `CreateBookReservation`.
 
-    Cuprum::Result.new(error: "Unable to find book with id #{book_id}")
-  end
+```ruby
+result = ReserveBookByTitle.new.call(
+  title: 'Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software',
+  user:  'Alan Bradley'
+)
+result.class    #=> Cuprum::Result
+result.success? #=> false
+result.error    #=> 'no copies available'
+```
 
-chained_command =
-  find_book_command
-    .tap_result(on: :success) do |result|
-      render :show, locals: { book: result.value }
-    end
-    .tap_result(on: :failure) do
-      redirect_to books_path
-    end
+Finally, if each of the steps succeeds, the `#call` method will return the result of the final step.
 
-# Calls find_book_command with the id, which queries for the book and returns a
-# result with a value of the book and no error. Then, the first tap_result
-# block is evaluated, calling the render method and passing it the book via the
-# result.value method. Because the result is passing, the next block is skipped.
-# Finally, the result of find_book_command is returned unchanged.
-result = chained_command.call(valid_id)
+```ruby
+result = ReserveBookByTitle.new.call(
+  title: 'The C Programming Language',
+  user:  'Alan Bradley'
+)
 result.class    #=> Cuprum::Result
-result.value    #=> an instance of Book
 result.success? #=> true
-result.error    #=> nil
-
-# Calls find_book_command with the id, which queries for the book and returns a
-# result with a value of nil and the error message. Because the result is
-# failing, the first block is skipped. The second block is then evaluated,
-# calling the redirect_to method. Finally, the result of find_book_command is
-# returned unchanged.
-result = chained_command.call(invalid_id)
-result.class    #=> Cuprum::Result
-result.value    #=> nil
-result.success? #=> false
-result.error    #=> ['Unable to find book with id invalid_id']
+result.value    #=> an instance of BookReservation
 ```
 
-#### Yield Result
+#### Using Methods As Steps
+
+Steps can also be defined as method calls. Instead of providing a block to `#step`, provide the name of the method as the first argument, either as a symbol or as a string. Any subsequent arguments, keywords, or a block is passed to the method when it is called.
 
-The `#yield_result` method offers advanced control over a chained command step. The method takes a block and yields the previous result. If the object returned by the block is not a result, a new result is created with a value equal to the returned object. In either case, the result is returned and passed to the next command, or returned by `#call` if `#tap_result` is the last item in the chain.
+A step defined with a method behaves the same as a step defined with a block. If the method returns a successful result, then `#step` will return the value of the result. If the method returns a failing result, then `#step` will throw `:cuprum_failed_result` and the result, to be caught by the `#process` method or the containing `#steps` block.
 
-Unlike `#chain`, the block in `#yield_result` yields the previous result, not the previous value.
+We can use this to rewrite our `ReserveBookByTitle` command to use methods:
 
 ```ruby
-chained_command =
-  Cuprum::Command.new do
-    'Example value'
+class ReserveBookByTitle < Cuprum::Result
+  private
+
+  def check_user_status(user)
+    CheckUserStatus.new(user)
   end
-  .yield_result do |result|
-    Cuprum::Result.new(error: 'Example error')
+
+  def create_book_reservation(book:, user:)
+    CreateBookReservation.new(book: book, user: user)
   end
-  .yield_result do |result|
-    "The last result was a #{result.success? ? 'success' : 'failure'}."
+
+  def find_book_by_title(title)
+    FindBookByTitle.new.call(title)
   end
 
-# The first command creates a passing result with a value of 'Example value'.
-#
-# This is passed to the first yield_result block, which creates a new result
-# with the same value and the string 'Example error' as the error object. It is
-# then passed to the next command in the chain.
-#
-# Finally, the second yield_result block is called, which checks the status of
-# the passed result. Since the final block does not return the previous result,
-# the previous result is discarded and a new result is created with the string
-# value starting with 'The last result was ...'.
-result = chained_command.call
-result.class    #=> Cuprum::Result
-result.value    #=> 'The last result was a failure.'
-result.success? #=> true
-result.error    #=> nil
+  def process(title:, user:)
+    step :check_user_status, user
+
+    book = step :find_book_by_title, title
+
+    create_book_reservation, book: book, user: user
+  end
+end
 ```
 
-Like `#chain`, `#yield_result` can be given an `on: value` keyword.
+In this case, our methods simply delegate to our previously defined commands. However, a more complex example could include other logic in each method, or even a sequence of steps defining subtasks for the method. The only requirement is that the method returns a result. You can use the `#success` helpers to wrap a non-result value, or the `#failure` helper to generate a failing result.
 
-Under the hood, both `#chain` and `#tap_result` are implemented on top of `#yield_result`.
+#### Using Steps Outside Of Commands
 
-#### Protected Chaining Methods
+Steps can also be used outside of a command. For example, a controller action might define a sequence of steps to run when the corresponding endpoint is called.
 
-Each Command also defines the `#chain!`, `#tap_result!`, and `#yield_result!` methods - note the imperative `!`. These methods behave identically to their non-imperative counterparts, but they modify the current command directly instead of creating a clone. They are also protected methods, so they cannot be called from outside the command itself. These methods are designed for use when defining commands.
+To use steps outside of a command, include the `Cuprum::Steps` module. Then, each sequence of steps should be wrapped in a `#steps` block as follows:
 
 ```ruby
-# We subclass the build command, which will be executed first.
-class CreateCommentCommand < BuildCommentCommand
-  include Cuprum::Chaining
-  include Cuprum::Processing
-  #
-  def initialize
-    # After the build step is run, we validate the comment.
-    chain!(ValidateCommentCommand.new)
-  #
-    # If the validation passes, we then save the comment.
-    chain!(SaveCommentCommand.new, on: :success)
-  end
+steps do
+  step { check_something }
+
+  obj = step { find_something }
+
+  step :do_something, with: obj
 end
+```
 
-Comment.count #=> 0
+Each step will be executed in sequence until a failing result is returned by the block or method. The `#steps` block will return that failing result. If no step returns a failing result, then the return value of the block will be wrapped in a result and returned by `#steps`.
 
-body   = 'Why do hot dogs come in packages of ten, and hot dog buns come in ' \
-         'packages of eight?'
-result = CreateCommentCommand.new.call({ user_id: '12345', body: body })
+Let's consider the example of a controller action for creating a new resource. This would have several steps, each of which can fail:
 
-result.value    #=> an instance of Comment with the given user_id and body.
-result.success? #=> true
-Comment.count   #=> 1 - the comment was added to the database
+- First, we build a new instance of the resource with the provided attributes. This can fail if the attributes are incompatible with the resource, e.g. with extra attributes not included in the resource's table columns.
+- Second, we run validations on the resource itself. This can fail if the attributes do not match the expected format.
+- Finally, we persist the resource to the database. This can fail if the record violates any database constraints, or if the database itself is unavailable.
+
+```ruby
+class BooksController
+  include Cuprum::Steps
 
-result = CreateCommentCommand.new.call({ user_id: nil, body: body })
+  def create
+    attributes = params[:books]
+    result     = steps do
+      @book = step :build_book, attributes
 
-result.value    #=> an instance of Comment with the given user_id and body.
-result.success? #=> false
-result.error    #=> ["User id can't be blank"]
-Comment.count   #=> 1 - the comment was not added to the database
+      step :run_validations, @book
+
+      step :persist_book, book
+    end
+
+    result.success ? redirect_to(@book) : render(:edit)
+  end
+
+  private
+
+  def build_book(attributes)
+    success(Book.new(attributes))
+  rescue InvalidAttributes
+    failure('attributes are invalid')
+  end
+
+  def persist_book(book)
+    book.save ? success(book) : failure('unable to persist book')
+  end
+
+  def run_validations(book)
+    book.valid? ? success : failure('book is invalid')
+  end
+end
 ```
 
+A few things to note about this example. First, we have a couple of examples of wrapping existing code in a result, both by rescuing exceptions (in `#build_book`) or by checking a returned status (in `#persist_book`). Second, note that each of our helper methods can be reused in other controller actions. For even more encapsulation and reusability, the next step might be to convert those methods to commands of their own.
+
+You can define even more complex logic by defining multiple `#steps` blocks. Each block represents a series of tasks that will terminate on the first failure. Steps blocks can even be nested in one another, or inside a `#process` method.
+
 ### Results
 
     require 'cuprum'
@@ -1073,276 +1145,4 @@ operation.success? #=> true
 
 ## Reference
 
-### Cuprum::BuiltIn::IdentityCommand
-
-    require 'cuprum/built_in/identity_command'
-
-[Class Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum%2FBuiltIn%2FIdentityCommand)
-
-Cuprum::BuiltIn::IdentityCommand defines the following methods:
-
-#### `#call`
-
-    call(value) #=> Cuprum::Result
-
-Returns a result, whose `#value` is equal to the given value.
-
-### Cuprum::BuiltIn::IdentityOperation
-
-    require 'cuprum/built_in/identity_operation'
-
-[Class Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum%2FBuiltIn%2FIdentityOperation)
-
-Cuprum::BuiltIn::IdentityOperation defines the following methods:
-
-#### `#call`
-
-    call(value) #=> Cuprum::BuiltIn::IdentityOperation
-
-Sets the last result to a new result, whose `#value` is equal to the given value.
-
-### Cuprum::BuiltIn::NullCommand
-
-    require 'cuprum/built_in/null_command'
-
-[Class Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum%2FBuiltIn%2FNullCommand)
-
-Cuprum::BuiltIn::NullCommand defines the following methods:
-
-#### `#call`
-
-    call(*args, **keywords) { ... } #=> Cuprum::Result
-
-Returns a result with nil value. Any arguments or keywords are ignored.
-
-### Cuprum::BuiltIn::NullOperation
-
-    require 'cuprum/built_in/null_operation'
-
-[Class Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum%2FBuiltIn%2FNullOperation)
-
-Cuprum::BuiltIn::NullOperation defines the following methods:
-
-#### `#call`
-
-    call(*args, **keywords) { ... } #=> Cuprum::BuiltIn::NullOperation
-
-Sets the last result to a result with nil value. Any arguments or keywords are ignored.
-
-### Cuprum::Command
-
-    require 'cuprum'
-
-[Class Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum%2FCommand)
-
-A Cuprum::Command defines the following methods:
-
-#### `#initialize`
-
-    initialize { |*arguments, **keywords, &block| ... } #=> Cuprum::Command
-
-Returns a new instance of Cuprum::Command. If a block is given, the `#call` method will wrap the block and set the result `#value` to the return value of the block. This overrides the implementation in `#process`, if any.
-
-[Method Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum/Command#initialize-instance_method)
-
-#### `#call`
-
-    call(*arguments, **keywords) { ... } #=> Cuprum::Result
-
-Executes the logic encoded in the constructor block, or the #process method if no block was passed to the constructor.
-
-[Method Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum/Command#call-instance_method)
-
-#### `#chain`
-
-    chain(on: nil) { |result| ... } #=> Cuprum::Command
-
-Registers a command or block to run after the current command, or after the last chained command if the current command already has one or more chained command(s). This creates and modifies a copy of the current command. See Chaining Commands, below.
-
-    chain(command, on: nil) #=> Cuprum::Command
-
-The command will be passed the `#value` of the previous command result as its parameter, and the result of the chained command will be returned (or passed to the next chained command, if any).
-
-The block will be passed the #result of the previous command as its parameter.
-
-If the block returns a Cuprum::Result (or an object responding to `#to_cuprum_result`), the block result will be returned (or passed to the next chained command, if any). If the block returns any other value (including `nil`), the `#result` of the previous command will be returned or passed to the next command.
-
-[Method Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum/Command#chain-instance_method)
-
-#### `#chain!`
-
-*(Protected Method)*
-
-    chain!(on: nil) { |result| ... } #=> Cuprum::Command
-
-    chain!(command, on: nil) #=> Cuprum::Command
-
-As `#chain`, but modifies the current command instead of creating a clone.
-
-[Method Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum/Command#chain!-instance_method)
-
-#### `#tap_result`
-
-    tap_result(on: nil) { |previous_result| } #=> Cuprum::Result
-
-Creates a copy of the command, and then chains the block to execute after the command implementation. When #call is executed, each chained block will be yielded the previous result, and the previous result returned or yielded to the next block. The return value of the block is discarded.
-
-If the `on` parameter is set to `:success`, the block will be called if the last result is successful. If the `on` parameter is set to `:failure`, the block will be called if the last result is failing. Finally, if the `on` parameter is set to `:always` or to `nil`, the block will always be called.
-
-[Method Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum/Command#tap_result-instance_method)
-
-#### `#tap_result!`
-
-*(Protected Method)*
-
-    tap_result!(on: nil) { |previous_result| } #=> Cuprum::Result
-
-As `#tap_result`, but modifies the current command instead of creating a clone.
-
-[Method Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum/Command#tap_result!-instance_method)
-
-#### `#yield_result`
-
-    yield_result(on: nil) { |previous_result| } #=> Cuprum::Result
-
-Creates a copy of the command, and then chains the block to execute after the command implementation. When #call is executed, each chained block will be yielded the previous result, and the return value wrapped in a result and returned or yielded to the next block.
-
-If the `on` parameter is set to `:success`, the block will be called if the last result is successful. If the `on` parameter is set to `:failure`, the block will be called if the last result is failing. Finally, if the `on` parameter is set to `:always` or to `nil`, the block will always be called.
-
-[Method Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum/Command#yield_result-instance_method)
-
-#### `#yield_result!`
-
-*(Protected Method)*
-
-    yield_result!(on: nil) { |previous_result| } #=> Cuprum::Result
-
-As `#yield_result`, but modifies the current command instead of creating a clone.
-
-[Method Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum/Command#yield_result!-instance_method)
-
-### Cuprum::Operation
-
-    require 'cuprum'
-
-[Class Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum%2FOperation)
-
-A Cuprum::Operation inherits the methods from Cuprum::Command (see above), and defines the following additional methods:
-
-#### `#called?`
-
-    called?() #=> true, false
-
-True if the operation has been called and there is a result available by calling `#result` or one of the delegated methods, otherwise false.
-
-[Method Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum/Operation#called%3F-instance_method)
-
-#### `#reset!`
-
-    reset!()
-
-Clears the most recent result and resets `#called?` to false. This frees the result and any linked data for garbage collection. It also clears any internal state from the operation.
-
-[Method Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum/Operation#reset!-instance_method)
-
-#### `#result`
-
-    result() #=> Cuprum::Result
-
-The most recent result, from the previous time `#call` was executed for the operation.
-
-[Method Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum/Operation#result-instance_method)
-
-### Cuprum::Result
-
-[Class Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum%2FResult)
-
-A Cuprum::Result defines the following methods:
-
-#### `#==`
-
-    ==(other) #=> true, false
-
-Performs a fuzzy comparison with the other object. At a minimum, the other object must respond to `#value`, `#success?`, `#error` and the values of `other.value`, `other.success?`, and `other.error` must be equal to the corresponding value on the result. Returns true if all values match, otherwise returns false.
-
-#### `#error`
-
-    error() #=> nil
-
-The error generated by the command, or `nil` if no error was generated.
-
-[Method Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum/Result#error-instance_method)
-
-#### `#failure?`
-
-    failure?() #=> true, false
-
-True if the command generated an error or was marked as failing. Otherwise false.
-
-[Method Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum/Result#failure%3F-instance_method)
-
-#### `#success?`
-
-    success?() #=> true, false
-
-True if the command did not generate an error, or the result has an error but was marked as passing. Otherwise false.
-
-[Method Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum/Result#success%3F-instance_method)
-
-#### `#value`
-
-    value() #=> Object
-
-The value returned by the command. For example, for an increment command that added 1 to a given integer, the `#value` of the result object would be the incremented integer.
-
-[Method Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum/Result#value-instance_method)
-
-### Cuprum::Utilities::InstanceSpy
-
-    require 'cuprum/utils/instance_spy'
-
-[Class Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum%2FUtils%2FInstanceSpy)
-
-Utility module for instrumenting calls to the #call method of any instance of a command class. This can be used to unobtrusively test the functionality of code that calls a command without providing a reference to the command instance, such as chained commands or methods that create and call a command instance.
-
-#### `::clear_spies`
-
-    clear_spies() #=> nil
-
-Retires all spies. Subsequent calls to the #call method on command instances will not be mirrored to existing spy objects. Calling this method after each test or example that uses an instance spy is recommended.
-
-    after(:example) { Cuprum::Utils::InstanceSpy.clear_spies }
-
-[Method Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum/Utils/InstanceSpy#clear_spies%3F-instance_method)
-
-#### `::spy_on`
-
-    spy_on(command_class) #=> InstanceSpy
-    spy_on(command_class) { |spy| ... } #=> nil
-
-Finds or creates a spy object for the given module or class. Each time that the #call method is called for an object of the given type, the spy's #call method will be invoked with the same arguments and block. If `#spy_on` is called with a block, the instance spy will be yielded to the block; otherwise, the spy will be returned.
-
-    # Observing calls to instances of a command.
-    spy = Cuprum::Utils::InstanceSpy.spy_on(CustomCommand)
-
-    expect(spy).to receive(:call).with(1, 2, 3, four: '4')
-
-    CustomCommand.new.call(1, 2, 3, four: '4')
-
-    # Observing calls to a chained command.
-    spy = Cuprum::Utils::InstanceSpy.spy_on(ChainedCommand)
-
-    expect(spy).to receive(:call)
-
-    Cuprum::Command.new {}.
-      chain { |result| ChainedCommand.new.call(result) }.
-      call
-
-    # Block syntax
-    Cuprum::Utils::InstanceSpy.spy_on(CustomCommand) do |spy|
-      expect(spy).to receive(:call)
-
-      CustomCommand.new.call
-    end
-
-[Method Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master/Cuprum/Utils/InstanceSpy#spy_on%3F-instance_method)
+Method and class documentation is available courtesy of [RubyDoc](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/sleepingkingstudios/cuprum/master).