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+      string: '{"id":"https://doi.org/10.54900/6p6re-xyj61","uuid":"2b22bbba-bcba-4072-94cc-3f88442fff88","url":"https://upstream.force11.org/an-initial-scholarly-ai-taxonomy/","title":"An
+        Initial Scholarly AI Taxonomy","summary":"Although advances in artificial
+        intelligence (AI)1 have been unfolding for over decades, the progress in the
+        last six months has come faster than anyone expected. The public release of
+        ChatGPT in November 2022, in particular, has opened up new possibilities and
+        heightened awareness of AI''s potential role in various aspects of our work
+        and life.It follows that in the context of the publishing industry, AI also
+        holds the promise of transforming multiple facets of the publishing process2.
+        In this...","date_published":"2023-04-11T08:00:34Z","date_modified":"2023-04-11T15:29:38Z","date_indexed":"1970-01-01T00:00:00+00:00","authors":[{"url":null,"name":"Adam
+        Hyde"},{"url":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7378-2408","name":"John Chodacki"},{"url":null,"name":"Paul
+        Shannon"}],"image":"https://upstream.force11.org/content/images/2023/04/1-1.png","content_html":"
+        <!--kg-card-begin: html--><p class=''u-drop-cap-small''>Although advances
+        in artificial intelligence (AI)<sup>1</sup> have been unfolding for over decades,
+        the progress in the last six months has come faster than anyone expected.
+        The public release of ChatGPT in November 2022, in particular, has opened
+        up new possibilities and heightened awareness of AI''s potential role in various
+        aspects of our work and life.</p><!--kg-card-end: html--><!--kg-card-begin:
+        html--><p>It follows that in the context of the publishing industry, AI also
+        holds the promise of transforming multiple facets of the publishing process<sup>2</sup>.
+        In this blog post, we begin the development of a rough taxonomy for understanding
+        how and where AI can and/or should play a role in a publisher’s workflow.</p><!--kg-card-end:
+        html--><p>We intend to iterate on this taxonomy (for now, we will use the
+        working title ‘Scholarly AI Taxonomy’).</p><h2 id=\"scholarly-ai-taxonomy\">Scholarly
+        AI Taxonomy</h2><p>To kickstart discussions on AI''s potential impact on publishing
+        workflows, we present our initial categorization of the \"Scholarly AI Taxonomy.\"
+        This taxonomy outlines seven key roles that AI could potentially play in a
+        scholarly publishing workflow:</p><ol><li><strong>Extract</strong>: Identify
+        and isolate specific entities or data points within the content.</li><li><strong>Validate</strong>:
+        Verify the accuracy and reliability of the information.</li><li><strong>Generate</strong>:
+        Produce new content or ideas, such as text or images.</li><li><strong>Analyse</strong>:
+        Examine patterns, relationships, or trends within the information.</li><li><strong>Reformat</strong>:
+        Modify and adjust information to fit specific formats or presentation styles.</li><li><strong>Discover</strong>:
+        Search for and locate relevant information or connections.</li><li><strong>Translate</strong>:
+        Convert information from one language or form to another.</li></ol><p>The
+        above is the first pass at a taxonomy. To flesh out these further, we have
+        provided examples to illustrate each category further. </p><p>We thoroughly
+        recognise that some of the examples below, when further examined, may be miscategorized.
+        Further, we recognise that some examples could be illustrations of several
+        of these categories at play at once and don’t sit easily within just one of
+        the items listed. We also acknowledge that the categories themselves will
+        need thorough discussion and revision going forward. However, we hope that
+        this initial taxonomy can play a role in helping the community understand
+        what AI could mean for publishing processes.</p><p>Also note, in the examples
+        we are not making any assertions about the accuracy of AI when performing
+        these tasks. There are a lot of discussions already on whether the current
+        state of AI tools can do the following activities <em>well</em>. We are not
+        debating that aspect of the community discussion; that is for publishers and
+        technologists to explore further as the technology progresses and as we all
+        gain experience using these tools. </p><p>These categories are only proposed
+        as a way of understanding the <em>types of contributions</em> AI tools can
+        make. That being said, some of the below examples are more provocative than
+        others in an attempt to help the reader examine what they think <em>and feel</em>
+        about these possibilities.</p><h2 id=\"initial-categorization\">Initial categorization</h2><p>Our
+        initial seven categories are detailed further below.</p><h3 id=\"1-extractidentify-and-isolate-specific-entities-or-data-points-within-the-content\">1.
+        Extract - <em>Identify and isolate specific entities or data points within
+        the content</em></h3><p>In the extraction stage, AI-powered tools can significantly
+        streamline the process of identifying and extracting relevant information
+        from content and datasets. However, an over-reliance on AI for this task can
+        lead to errors if the models are not well-tuned or lack the necessary context
+        to identify entities accurately. Some speculative examples:</p><ol><li>Identifying
+        author names and affiliations from a submitted manuscript to pre-fill forms
+        and save time during submission while increasing the accuracy of the input.</li><li>Extracting
+        key terms and phrases for indexing purposes.</li><li>Isolating figures and
+        tables from a research article for separate processing.</li><li>Extracting
+        metadata, such as title, abstract, and keywords, from a document.</li><li>Identifying
+        citations within a text for reference management.</li></ol><h3 id=\"2-validateverify-the-accuracy-and-reliability-of-the-information\">2.
+        Validate - <em>Verify the accuracy and reliability of the information</em></h3><p>AI-based
+        systems can validate information by cross-referencing data against reliable
+        sources or expected structures, ensuring content conformity, accuracy and/or
+        credibility. While this can reduce human error, it is essential to maintain
+        a level of human oversight, as AI models may not always detect nuances in
+        language or identify reliable sources. Some examples:</p><ol><li>Cross-referencing
+        citations to ensure accuracy and proper formatting.</li><li>Verifying author
+        affiliations against an established database.</li><li>Ensuring proper image
+        attribution and permissions.</li><li>Checking factual information in an article
+        against trusted sources.</li><li>Validating claims made in a scientific paper
+        against previous studies.</li></ol><h3 id=\"3-generateproduce-new-content-or-ideas-such-as-text-or-images\">3.
+        Generate - <em>Produce new content or ideas, such as text or images</em></h3><p>AI
+        can create high-quality text and images, saving time and effort for authors
+        and editors. However, the content generated by AI may contain factual inaccuracies,
+        lack creativity, or inadvertently reproduce biases present in the training
+        data, necessitating human intervention to ensure accuracy, quality, originality,
+        and adherence to ethical guidelines. Some examples:</p><ol><li>Generating
+        social media content (e.g., summarising longer text to a tweetable length)
+        or promotional content for a new publication.</li><li>Creating keyword lists
+        for search engine optimization (SEO).</li><li>Automatically generating an
+        abstract or summary of a manuscript, particularly a plain language summary
+        pitched at a certain audience.</li><li>Creating a list of suggested article
+        titles based on the content and target audience.</li><li>Producing visually
+        engaging charts or graphs from raw data.</li></ol><h3 id=\"4-analyseexamine-patterns-relationships-or-trends-within-the-information\">4.
+        Analyse - <em>Examine patterns, relationships, or trends within the information</em></h3><p>AI-driven
+        data analytics tools can help publishers extract valuable insights from their
+        content, identifying patterns and trends to optimize content strategy. While
+        AI can provide essential information, over-reliance on AI analytics may lead
+        to overlooking important context or misinterpreting data, requiring human
+        analysts to interpret findings accurately. Some examples:</p><ol><li>Analyse
+        an image to create accessible text descriptions.</li><li>Determining the sentiment
+        of reviews.</li><li>Identifying trending topics in a specific field to guide
+        editorial direction.</li><li>Analyzing the readability level of a manuscript.</li><li>Discovering
+        patterns in citation networks to identify influential articles and authors.</li></ol><h3
+        id=\"5-reformatmodify-and-adjust-information-to-fit-specific-formats-or-presentation-styles\">5.
+        Reformat - <em>Modify and adjust information to fit specific formats or presentation
+        styles</em></h3><p>AI can reformat content for specific media channels or
+        alternative structures, enhancing user experience and accessibility. However,
+        AI-generated formatting may not always be ideal or adhere to specific style
+        guidelines, requiring human editors to fine-tune the formatting. Some examples:</p><ol><li>Formatting
+        content to comply with a specific style guide.</li><li>Adapting a long-form
+        article for a shorter, mobile-friendly version.</li><li>Converting a manuscript
+        into XML or converting datasets to open formats.</li><li>Rearranging content
+        to fit different print and digital formats.</li><li>Adjusting images and graphics
+        for optimal display across various devices.</li></ol><h3 id=\"6-discoversearch-for-and-locate-relevant-information-or-connections\">6.
+        Discover - <em>Search for and locate relevant information or connections</em></h3><p>AI
+        can efficiently find and link information about a subject, streamlining the
+        research process. However, AI-driven information discovery may yield irrelevant,
+        incorrect, or outdated results, necessitating human verification and filtering
+        to ensure accuracy and usefulness. Some examples:</p><ol><li>Finding relevant
+        articles within a publisher’s corpus to recommend for further reading.</li><li>Identifying
+        potential reviewers for a submitted manuscript based on their expertise.</li><li>Discovering
+        trending topics for a call for papers.</li><li>Locating similar works to provide
+        context for a piece of content.</li><li>Searching for related images or multimedia
+        to accompany a text.</li></ol><h3 id=\"7-translateconvert-information-from-one-language-or-form-to-another\">7.
+        Translate - <em>Convert information from one language or form to another</em></h3><p>AI
+        can quickly translate languages and sentiments, making content more accessible
+        and understandable to diverse audiences. However, AI translations can sometimes
+        be inaccurate or lose nuances in meaning, especially when dealing with idiomatic
+        expressions or cultural context, necessitating the involvement of human translators
+        for sensitive or complex content. Some examples:</p><ol><li>Translating a
+        research article or book into another language.</li><li>Converting scientific
+        jargon into more accessible language for a popular science article.</li><li>Adapting
+        a text''s cultural references to be more understandable for a global readership.</li><li>Translating
+        the sentiment of a text.</li><li>Converting spoken language into written transcripts
+        (or vice versa) for interviews or podcasts.</li></ol><h2 id=\"balancing-ai-and-human-intervention-in-publishing-workflows\">Balancing
+        AI and Human Intervention in Publishing Workflows</h2><p>There is potential
+        for AI to benefit publishing workflows. Still, it''s crucial to identify where
+        AI should play a role and when human intervention is required to check and
+        validate outcomes of assisted technology. In many ways, this is no different
+        to how publishing works today. If there is one thing publishers do well, and
+        sometimes to exaggerated fidelity, it is quality assurance.</p><p>However,
+        AI tools offer several new dimensions which can bring machine assistance into
+        many more parts of the process at a much larger scale. This, together with
+        the feeling we have that AI is, in fact, in some ways ‘doing work previously
+        considered to be the sole realm of the sentient’ and the need for people and
+        AI machines to ‘learn together’ so those outcomes can improve, means there
+        is both factual and emotional requirements to scope, monitor, and check these
+        outcomes.</p><p>Consequently, workflow platforms must be designed with interfaces
+        allowing seamless ‘Human QA’ at appropriate points in the process. These interfaces
+        should enable publishers to review, edit, and approve AI-generated content
+        or insights, ensuring that the final product meets the required standards
+        and ethical guidelines. Where possible, the ‘Human QA’ should feed back into
+        the AI processes to improve future outcomes; this also needs to be considered
+        by tool builders.</p><p>To accommodate this ''Human QA'', new types of interfaces
+        will need to be developed in publishing tools. These interfaces should facilitate
+        easy interaction between human users and AI-generated content, allowing for
+        necessary reviews and modifications. For instance, a journal workflow platform
+        might offer a feature where users are asked to ''greenlight'' a pre-selected
+        option from a drop-down menu (e.g., institutional affiliation), generated
+        by AI. This way, researchers and editors can quickly validate AI-generated
+        suggestions while providing feedback to improve the AI''s performance over
+        time. Integrating such interfaces not only ensures that the content adheres
+        to the desired quality standards and ethical principles but also expedites
+        the publishing process, making it more efficient.</p><h2 id=\"the-speed-of-trust\">The
+        Speed of Trust</h2><p>Trust plays a large role in this process. As we learn
+        more about the fidelity and accuracy of these systems and confront what AI
+        processes can and can’t do well to date, we will need to move forward with
+        building AI into workflows ''at the speed of trust.''</p><p>Adopting a \"speed
+        of trust\" approach means being cautious yet open to AI''s potential in transforming
+        publishing workflows. It involves engaging in honest conversations about AI''s
+        capabilities and addressing concerns, all while striking a balance between
+        innovation and desirable community standards. As we navigate this delicate
+        balance, we create an environment where AI technology can grow and adapt to
+        better serve the publishing community.</p><p>For example, as a start, when
+        integrating AI into publishing workflows, we believe it is essential to provide
+        an ‘opt-in’ and transparent approach to AI contributions. Publishers and authors
+        should be informed about the extent of AI involvement and its limitations,
+        and presented with interfaces allowing them to make informed decisions about
+        when and how AI will be used. This transparent ‘opt-in’ approach helps build
+        trust, allows us to iterate forward as we gain more experience, and sets the
+        stage for discussions and practices regarding ethical AI integration in publishing
+        workflows.</p><h2 id=\"conclusion\">Conclusion</h2><p>The potential of AI
+        in publishing workflows is immense, and we find ourselves at a time when the
+        technology has taken a significant step forward. But it''s essential to approach
+        its integration with a balanced perspective. We can harness the power of AI
+        while adhering to ethical standards and delivering high-quality content by
+        considering both the benefits and drawbacks of AI, identifying areas for human
+        intervention, maintaining transparency, and evolving our understanding of
+        AI contributions.</p><p>This initial taxonomy outlined in this article can
+        serve as a starting point for understanding how AI can contribute to publishing
+        workflows. By quantifying AI contributions in this way, we can also discuss
+        the ethical boundaries of AI-assisted workflows more clearly and help publishers
+        make informed decisions about AI integration.</p><p>By adopting a thoughtful
+        strategy, the combined strengths of AI and human expertise can drive significant
+        advancements and innovation within the publishing industry.</p><hr><!--kg-card-begin:
+        html--><p class=''u-drop-cap-small''><sup>1</sup> It''s worth noting that
+        we use the term AI here, but we are actually referring to large language models
+        (LLMs); AI serves as useful shorthand since it''s the common term used in
+        our community. As we all gain more experience, being more accurate about how
+        we use terms like AI and LLM will become increasingly important. A Large Language
+        Model (LLM) can be described as a sophisticated text processor. It''s an advanced
+        machine learning model designed to process, generate, and understand natural
+        language text.</p><!--kg-card-end: html--><!--kg-card-begin: html--><p class=''u-drop-cap-small''><sup>2</sup>
+        By publishing, we are referring to both traditional journal-focused publishing
+        models as well as emergent publishing models such as preprints, protocols/methods,
+        micropubs, data, etc.</p>\n<!--kg-card-end: html--><p><em>Many thanks to Ben
+        Whitmore, Ryan Dix-Peek, and Nokome Bentley for the discussions that lead
+        to this taxonomy at our recent Coko Summit. This article was written with
+        the assistance of GPT4.</em></p> ","tags":["Thought Pieces"],"language":"en","references":[],"blog_id":"pm0p222","blog":{"id":"pm0p222","title":"Upstream","description":"The
+        community blog for all things Open Research.","language":"en","favicon":"https://upstream.force11.org/favicon.png","feed_url":"https://upstream.force11.org/atom/","home_page_url":"https://upstream.force11.org","user_id":"8498eaf6-8c58-4b58-bc15-27eda292b1aa","created_at":"2023-05-31T07:23:49+00:00","indexed_at":"2023-01-13","feed_format":"application/atom+xml","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode","generator":"Ghost
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