activerecord 7.0.0 → 7.2.1

data/lib/active_record/attribute_methods/serialization.rb

@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@
 
 module ActiveRecord
   module AttributeMethods
+    # = Active Record Attribute Methods \Serialization
     module Serialization
       extend ActiveSupport::Concern
 
@@ -15,6 +16,10 @@ module ActiveRecord
         end
       end
 
+      included do
+        class_attribute :default_column_serializer, instance_accessor: false, default: Coders::YAMLColumn
+      end
+
       module ClassMethods
         # If you have an attribute that needs to be saved to the database as a
         # serialized object, and retrieved by deserializing into the same object,
@@ -24,38 +29,6 @@ module ActiveRecord
         # The serialization format may be YAML, JSON, or any custom format using a
         # custom coder class.
         #
-        # === Serialization formats
-        #
-        #   serialize attr_name [, class_name_or_coder]
-        #
-        #                        |                           |  database storage   |
-        #   class_name_or_coder  | attribute read/write type | serialized | NULL   |
-        #   ---------------------+---------------------------+------------+--------+
-        #     <not given>        | any value that supports   |    YAML    |        |
-        #                        |   .to_yaml                |            |        |
-        #                        |                           |            |        |
-        #   Array                | Array **                  |    YAML    |  []    |
-        #                        |                           |            |        |
-        #   Hash                 | Hash **                   |    YAML    |  {}    |
-        #                        |                           |            |        |
-        #   JSON                 | any value that supports   |    JSON    |        |
-        #                        |   .to_json                |            |        |
-        #                        |                           |            |        |
-        #   <custom coder class> | any value supported by    |   custom   | custom |
-        #                        | the custom coder class    |            |        |
-        #
-        # ** If +class_name_or_coder+ is +Array+ or +Hash+, values retrieved will
-        # always be of that type, and any value assigned must be of that type or
-        # +SerializationTypeMismatch+ will be raised.
-        #
-        # ==== Custom coders
-        # A custom coder class or module may be given. This must have +self.load+
-        # and +self.dump+ class/module methods. <tt>self.dump(object)</tt> will be called
-        # to serialize an object and should return the serialized value to be
-        # stored in the database (+nil+ to store as +NULL+). <tt>self.load(string)</tt>
-        # will be called to reverse the process and load (unserialize) from the
-        # database.
-        #
         # Keep in mind that database adapters handle certain serialization tasks
         # for you. For instance: +json+ and +jsonb+ types in PostgreSQL will be
         # converted between JSON object/array syntax and Ruby +Hash+ or +Array+
@@ -67,81 +40,191 @@ module ActiveRecord
         #
         # ==== Parameters
         #
-        # * +attr_name+ - The field name that should be serialized.
-        # * +class_name_or_coder+ - Optional, may be be +Array+ or +Hash+ or
-        #   +JSON+ or a custom coder class or module which responds to +.load+
-        #   and +.dump+. See table above.
+        # * +attr_name+ - The name of the attribute to serialize.
+        # * +coder+ The serializer implementation to use, e.g. +JSON+.
+        #   * The attribute value will be serialized
+        #     using the coder's <tt>dump(value)</tt> method, and will be
+        #     deserialized using the coder's <tt>load(string)</tt> method. The
+        #     +dump+ method may return +nil+ to serialize the value as +NULL+.
+        # * +type+ - Optional. What the type of the serialized object should be.
+        #   * Attempting to serialize another type will raise an
+        #     ActiveRecord::SerializationTypeMismatch error.
+        #   * If the column is +NULL+ or starting from a new record, the default value
+        #     will set to +type.new+
+        # * +yaml+ - Optional. Yaml specific options. The allowed config is:
+        #   * +:permitted_classes+ - +Array+ with the permitted classes.
+        #   * +:unsafe_load+ - Unsafely load YAML blobs, allow YAML to load any class.
         #
         # ==== Options
         #
-        # +default+ The default value to use when no value is provided. If this option
-        # is not passed, the previous default value (if any) will be used.
-        # Otherwise, the default will be +nil+.
+        # * +:default+ - The default value to use when no value is provided. If
+        #   this option is not passed, the previous default value (if any) will
+        #   be used. Otherwise, the default will be +nil+.
+        #
+        # ==== Choosing a serializer
+        #
+        # While any serialization format can be used, it is recommended to carefully
+        # evaluate the properties of a serializer before using it, as migrating to
+        # another format later on can be difficult.
+        #
+        # ===== Avoid accepting arbitrary types
+        #
+        # When serializing data in a column, it is heavily recommended to make sure
+        # only expected types will be serialized. For instance some serializer like
+        # +Marshal+ or +YAML+ are capable of serializing almost any Ruby object.
+        #
+        # This can lead to unexpected types being serialized, and it is important
+        # that type serialization remains backward and forward compatible as long
+        # as some database records still contain these serialized types.
+        #
+        #   class Address
+        #     def initialize(line, city, country)
+        #       @line, @city, @country = line, city, country
+        #     end
+        #   end
+        #
+        # In the above example, if any of the +Address+ attributes is renamed,
+        # instances that were persisted before the change will be loaded with the
+        # old attributes. This problem is even worse when the serialized type comes
+        # from a dependency which doesn't expect to be serialized this way and may
+        # change its internal representation without notice.
         #
-        # ==== Example
+        # As such, it is heavily recommended to instead convert these objects into
+        # primitives of the serialization format, for example:
+        #
+        #   class Address
+        #     attr_reader :line, :city, :country
+        #
+        #     def self.load(payload)
+        #       data = YAML.safe_load(payload)
+        #       new(data["line"], data["city"], data["country"])
+        #     end
+        #
+        #     def self.dump(address)
+        #       YAML.safe_dump(
+        #         "line" => address.line,
+        #         "city" => address.city,
+        #         "country" => address.country,
+        #       )
+        #     end
+        #
+        #     def initialize(line, city, country)
+        #       @line, @city, @country = line, city, country
+        #     end
+        #   end
         #
-        #   # Serialize a preferences attribute using YAML coder.
         #   class User < ActiveRecord::Base
-        #     serialize :preferences
+        #     serialize :address, coder: Address
         #   end
         #
-        #   # Serialize preferences using JSON as coder.
+        # This pattern allows to be more deliberate about what is serialized, and
+        # to evolve the format in a backward compatible way.
+        #
+        # ===== Ensure serialization stability
+        #
+        # Some serialization methods may accept some types they don't support by
+        # silently casting them to other types. This can cause bugs when the
+        # data is deserialized.
+        #
+        # For instance the +JSON+ serializer provided in the standard library will
+        # silently cast unsupported types to +String+:
+        #
+        #   >> JSON.parse(JSON.dump(Struct.new(:foo)))
+        #   => "#<Class:0x000000013090b4c0>"
+        #
+        # ==== Examples
+        #
+        # ===== Serialize the +preferences+ attribute using YAML
+        #
+        #   class User < ActiveRecord::Base
+        #     serialize :preferences, coder: YAML
+        #   end
+        #
+        # ===== Serialize the +preferences+ attribute using JSON
+        #
+        #   class User < ActiveRecord::Base
+        #     serialize :preferences, coder: JSON
+        #   end
+        #
+        # ===== Serialize the +preferences+ +Hash+ using YAML
+        #
         #   class User < ActiveRecord::Base
-        #     serialize :preferences, JSON
+        #     serialize :preferences, type: Hash, coder: YAML
         #   end
         #
-        #   # Serialize preferences as Hash using YAML coder.
+        # ===== Serializes +preferences+ to YAML, permitting select classes
+        #
         #   class User < ActiveRecord::Base
-        #     serialize :preferences, Hash
+        #     serialize :preferences, coder: YAML, yaml: { permitted_classes: [Symbol, Time] }
         #   end
         #
-        #   # Serialize preferences using a custom coder.
+        # ===== Serialize the +preferences+ attribute using a custom coder
+        #
         #   class Rot13JSON
         #     def self.rot13(string)
         #       string.tr("a-zA-Z", "n-za-mN-ZA-M")
         #     end
         #
-        #     # returns serialized string that will be stored in the database
-        #     def self.dump(object)
-        #       ActiveSupport::JSON.encode(object).rot13
+        #     # Serializes an attribute value to a string that will be stored in the database.
+        #     def self.dump(value)
+        #       rot13(ActiveSupport::JSON.dump(value))
         #     end
         #
-        #     # reverses the above, turning the serialized string from the database
-        #     # back into its original value
+        #     # Deserializes a string from the database to an attribute value.
         #     def self.load(string)
-        #       ActiveSupport::JSON.decode(string.rot13)
+        #       ActiveSupport::JSON.load(rot13(string))
         #     end
         #   end
         #
         #   class User < ActiveRecord::Base
-        #     serialize :preferences, Rot13JSON
+        #     serialize :preferences, coder: Rot13JSON
         #   end
-        def serialize(attr_name, class_name_or_coder = Object, **options)
-          # When ::JSON is used, force it to go through the Active Support JSON encoder
-          # to ensure special objects (e.g. Active Record models) are dumped correctly
-          # using the #as_json hook.
-          coder = if class_name_or_coder == ::JSON
-            Coders::JSON
-          elsif [:load, :dump].all? { |x| class_name_or_coder.respond_to?(x) }
-            class_name_or_coder
-          else
-            Coders::YAMLColumn.new(attr_name, class_name_or_coder)
+        #
+        def serialize(attr_name, coder: nil, type: Object, yaml: {}, **options)
+          coder ||= default_column_serializer
+          unless coder
+            raise ArgumentError, <<~MSG.squish
+              missing keyword: :coder
+
+              If no default coder is configured, a coder must be provided to `serialize`.
+            MSG
           end
 
-          attribute(attr_name, **options) do |cast_type|
-            if type_incompatible_with_serialize?(cast_type, class_name_or_coder)
+          column_serializer = build_column_serializer(attr_name, coder, type, yaml)
+
+          attribute(attr_name, **options)
+
+          decorate_attributes([attr_name]) do |attr_name, cast_type|
+            if type_incompatible_with_serialize?(cast_type, coder, type)
               raise ColumnNotSerializableError.new(attr_name, cast_type)
             end
 
             cast_type = cast_type.subtype if Type::Serialized === cast_type
-            Type::Serialized.new(cast_type, coder)
+            Type::Serialized.new(cast_type, column_serializer)
           end
         end
 
         private
-          def type_incompatible_with_serialize?(type, class_name)
-            type.is_a?(ActiveRecord::Type::Json) && class_name == ::JSON ||
-              type.respond_to?(:type_cast_array, true) && class_name == ::Array
+          def build_column_serializer(attr_name, coder, type, yaml = nil)
+            # When ::JSON is used, force it to go through the Active Support JSON encoder
+            # to ensure special objects (e.g. Active Record models) are dumped correctly
+            # using the #as_json hook.
+            coder = Coders::JSON if coder == ::JSON
+
+            if coder == ::YAML || coder == Coders::YAMLColumn
+              Coders::YAMLColumn.new(attr_name, type, **(yaml || {}))
+            elsif coder.respond_to?(:new) && !coder.respond_to?(:load)
+              coder.new(attr_name, type)
+            elsif type && type != Object
+              Coders::ColumnSerializer.new(attr_name, coder, type)
+            else
+              coder
+            end
+          end
+
+          def type_incompatible_with_serialize?(cast_type, coder, type)
+            cast_type.is_a?(ActiveRecord::Type::Json) && coder == ::JSON ||
+              cast_type.respond_to?(:type_cast_array, true) && type == ::Array
           end
       end
     end

data/lib/active_record/attribute_methods/time_zone_conversion.rb

@@ -69,14 +69,15 @@ module ActiveRecord
       end
 
       module ClassMethods # :nodoc:
-        def define_attribute(name, cast_type, **)
-          if create_time_zone_conversion_attribute?(name, cast_type)
-            cast_type = TimeZoneConverter.new(cast_type)
+        private
+          def hook_attribute_type(name, cast_type)
+            if create_time_zone_conversion_attribute?(name, cast_type)
+              cast_type = TimeZoneConverter.new(cast_type)
+            end
+
+            super
           end
-          super
-        end
 
-        private
           def create_time_zone_conversion_attribute?(name, cast_type)
             enabled_for_column = time_zone_aware_attributes &&
               !skip_time_zone_conversion_for_attributes.include?(name.to_sym)

data/lib/active_record/attribute_methods/write.rb

@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@
 
 module ActiveRecord
   module AttributeMethods
+    # = Active Record Attribute Methods \Write
     module Write
       extend ActiveSupport::Concern
 
@@ -11,11 +12,11 @@ module ActiveRecord
 
       module ClassMethods # :nodoc:
         private
-          def define_method_attribute=(name, owner:)
+          def define_method_attribute=(canonical_name, owner:, as: canonical_name)
             ActiveModel::AttributeMethods::AttrNames.define_attribute_accessor_method(
-              owner, name, writer: true,
+              owner, canonical_name, writer: true,
             ) do |temp_method_name, attr_name_expr|
-              owner.define_cached_method("#{name}=", as: temp_method_name, namespace: :active_record) do |batch|
+              owner.define_cached_method(temp_method_name, as: "#{as}=", namespace: :active_record) do |batch|
                 batch <<
                   "def #{temp_method_name}(value)" <<
                   "  _write_attribute(#{attr_name_expr}, value)" <<
@@ -25,9 +26,8 @@ module ActiveRecord
           end
       end
 
-      # Updates the attribute identified by <tt>attr_name</tt> with the
-      # specified +value+. Empty strings for Integer and Float columns are
-      # turned into +nil+.
+      # Updates the attribute identified by +attr_name+ using the specified
+      # +value+. The attribute value will be type cast upon being read.
       def write_attribute(attr_name, value)
         name = attr_name.to_s
         name = self.class.attribute_aliases[name] || name

data/lib/active_record/attribute_methods.rb

@@ -1,6 +1,5 @@
 # frozen_string_literal: true
 
-require "mutex_m"
 require "active_support/core_ext/enumerable"
 
 module ActiveRecord
@@ -21,10 +20,10 @@ module ActiveRecord
       include Serialization
     end
 
-    RESTRICTED_CLASS_METHODS = %w(private public protected allocate new name parent superclass)
+    RESTRICTED_CLASS_METHODS = %w(private public protected allocate new name superclass)
 
     class GeneratedAttributeMethods < Module # :nodoc:
-      include Mutex_m
+      LOCK = Monitor.new
     end
 
     class << self
@@ -33,44 +32,118 @@ module ActiveRecord
           Base.instance_methods +
           Base.private_instance_methods -
           Base.superclass.instance_methods -
-          Base.superclass.private_instance_methods
+          Base.superclass.private_instance_methods +
+          %i[__id__ dup freeze frozen? hash class clone]
         ).map { |m| -m.to_s }.to_set.freeze
       end
     end
 
     module ClassMethods
-      def inherited(child_class) # :nodoc:
-        child_class.initialize_generated_modules
-        super
-      end
-
       def initialize_generated_modules # :nodoc:
         @generated_attribute_methods = const_set(:GeneratedAttributeMethods, GeneratedAttributeMethods.new)
         private_constant :GeneratedAttributeMethods
         @attribute_methods_generated = false
+        @alias_attributes_mass_generated = false
         include @generated_attribute_methods
 
         super
       end
 
+      # Allows you to make aliases for attributes.
+      #
+      #   class Person < ActiveRecord::Base
+      #     alias_attribute :nickname, :name
+      #   end
+      #
+      #   person = Person.create(name: 'Bob')
+      #   person.name     # => "Bob"
+      #   person.nickname # => "Bob"
+      #
+      # The alias can also be used for querying:
+      #
+      #   Person.where(nickname: "Bob")
+      #   # SELECT "people".* FROM "people" WHERE "people"."name" = "Bob"
+      def alias_attribute(new_name, old_name)
+        super
+
+        if @alias_attributes_mass_generated
+          ActiveSupport::CodeGenerator.batch(generated_attribute_methods, __FILE__, __LINE__) do |code_generator|
+            generate_alias_attribute_methods(code_generator, new_name, old_name)
+          end
+        end
+      end
+
+      def eagerly_generate_alias_attribute_methods(_new_name, _old_name) # :nodoc:
+        # alias attributes in Active Record are lazily generated
+      end
+
+      def generate_alias_attribute_methods(code_generator, new_name, old_name) # :nodoc:
+        attribute_method_patterns.each do |pattern|
+          alias_attribute_method_definition(code_generator, pattern, new_name, old_name)
+        end
+        attribute_method_patterns_cache.clear
+      end
+
+      def alias_attribute_method_definition(code_generator, pattern, new_name, old_name)
+        old_name = old_name.to_s
+
+        if !abstract_class? && !has_attribute?(old_name)
+          raise ArgumentError, "#{self.name} model aliases `#{old_name}`, but `#{old_name}` is not an attribute. " \
+            "Use `alias_method :#{new_name}, :#{old_name}` or define the method manually."
+        else
+          define_attribute_method_pattern(pattern, old_name, owner: code_generator, as: new_name, override: true)
+        end
+      end
+
+      def attribute_methods_generated? # :nodoc:
+        @attribute_methods_generated
+      end
+
       # Generates all the attribute related methods for columns in the database
       # accessors, mutators and query methods.
       def define_attribute_methods # :nodoc:
         return false if @attribute_methods_generated
         # Use a mutex; we don't want two threads simultaneously trying to define
         # attribute methods.
-        generated_attribute_methods.synchronize do
+        GeneratedAttributeMethods::LOCK.synchronize do
           return false if @attribute_methods_generated
+
           superclass.define_attribute_methods unless base_class?
-          super(attribute_names)
+
+          unless abstract_class?
+            load_schema
+            super(attribute_names)
+            alias_attribute :id_value, :id if _has_attribute?("id")
+          end
+
           @attribute_methods_generated = true
+
+          generate_alias_attributes
         end
+        true
+      end
+
+      def generate_alias_attributes # :nodoc:
+        superclass.generate_alias_attributes unless superclass == Base
+
+        return if @alias_attributes_mass_generated
+
+        ActiveSupport::CodeGenerator.batch(generated_attribute_methods, __FILE__, __LINE__) do |code_generator|
+          aliases_by_attribute_name.each do |old_name, new_names|
+            new_names.each do |new_name|
+              generate_alias_attribute_methods(code_generator, new_name, old_name)
+            end
+          end
+        end
+
+        @alias_attributes_mass_generated = true
       end
 
       def undefine_attribute_methods # :nodoc:
-        generated_attribute_methods.synchronize do
-          super if defined?(@attribute_methods_generated) && @attribute_methods_generated
+        GeneratedAttributeMethods::LOCK.synchronize do
+          super if @attribute_methods_generated
           @attribute_methods_generated = false
+          @alias_attributes_mass_generated = false
         end
       end
 
@@ -97,7 +170,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
           super
         else
           # If ThisClass < ... < SomeSuperClass < ... < Base and SomeSuperClass
-          # defines its own attribute method, then we don't want to overwrite that.
+          # defines its own attribute method, then we don't want to override that.
           defined = method_defined_within?(method_name, superclass, Base) &&
             ! superclass.instance_method(method_name).owner.is_a?(GeneratedAttributeMethods)
           defined || super
@@ -186,6 +259,16 @@ module ActiveRecord
       def _has_attribute?(attr_name) # :nodoc:
         attribute_types.key?(attr_name)
       end
+
+      private
+        def inherited(child_class)
+          super
+          child_class.initialize_generated_modules
+          child_class.class_eval do
+            @alias_attributes_mass_generated = false
+            @attribute_names = nil
+          end
+        end
     end
 
     # A Person object with a name attribute can ask <tt>person.respond_to?(:name)</tt>,
@@ -209,9 +292,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
 
       # If the result is true then check for the select case.
       # For queries selecting a subset of columns, return false for unselected columns.
-      # We check defined?(@attributes) not to issue warnings if called on objects that
-      # have been allocated but not yet initialized.
-      if defined?(@attributes)
+      if @attributes
         if name = self.class.symbol_column_to_string(name.to_sym)
           return _has_attribute?(name)
         end
@@ -309,37 +390,40 @@ module ActiveRecord
       !value.nil? && !(value.respond_to?(:empty?) && value.empty?)
     end
 
-    # Returns the value of the attribute identified by <tt>attr_name</tt> after it has been typecast (for example,
-    # "2004-12-12" in a date column is cast to a date object, like Date.new(2004, 12, 12)). It raises
-    # <tt>ActiveModel::MissingAttributeError</tt> if the identified attribute is missing.
-    #
-    # Note: +:id+ is always present.
+    # Returns the value of the attribute identified by +attr_name+ after it has
+    # been type cast. (For information about specific type casting behavior, see
+    # the types under ActiveModel::Type.)
     #
     #   class Person < ActiveRecord::Base
     #     belongs_to :organization
     #   end
     #
-    #   person = Person.new(name: 'Francesco', age: '22')
-    #   person[:name] # => "Francesco"
-    #   person[:age]  # => 22
+    #   person = Person.new(name: "Francesco", date_of_birth: "2004-12-12")
+    #   person[:name]            # => "Francesco"
+    #   person[:date_of_birth]   # => Date.new(2004, 12, 12)
+    #   person[:organization_id] # => nil
     #
-    #   person = Person.select('id').first
-    #   person[:name]            # => ActiveModel::MissingAttributeError: missing attribute: name
-    #   person[:organization_id] # => ActiveModel::MissingAttributeError: missing attribute: organization_id
+    # Raises ActiveModel::MissingAttributeError if the attribute is missing.
+    # Note, however, that the +id+ attribute will never be considered missing.
+    #
+    #   person = Person.select(:name).first
+    #   person[:name]            # => "Francesco"
+    #   person[:date_of_birth]   # => ActiveModel::MissingAttributeError: missing attribute 'date_of_birth' for Person
+    #   person[:organization_id] # => ActiveModel::MissingAttributeError: missing attribute 'organization_id' for Person
+    #   person[:id]              # => nil
     def [](attr_name)
       read_attribute(attr_name) { |n| missing_attribute(n, caller) }
     end
 
-    # Updates the attribute identified by <tt>attr_name</tt> with the specified +value+.
-    # (Alias for the protected #write_attribute method).
+    # Updates the attribute identified by +attr_name+ using the specified
+    # +value+. The attribute value will be type cast upon being read.
     #
     #   class Person < ActiveRecord::Base
     #   end
     #
     #   person = Person.new
-    #   person[:age] = '22'
-    #   person[:age] # => 22
-    #   person[:age].class # => Integer
+    #   person[:date_of_birth] = "2004-12-12"
+    #   person[:date_of_birth] # => Date.new(2004, 12, 12)
     def []=(attr_name, value)
       write_attribute(attr_name, value)
     end
@@ -360,10 +444,9 @@ module ActiveRecord
     #     end
     #
     #     private
-    #
-    #     def print_accessed_fields
-    #       p @posts.first.accessed_fields
-    #     end
+    #       def print_accessed_fields
+    #         p @posts.first.accessed_fields
+    #       end
     #   end
     #
     # Which allows you to quickly change your code to:
@@ -378,9 +461,38 @@ module ActiveRecord
     end
 
     private
+      def respond_to_missing?(name, include_private = false)
+        if self.class.define_attribute_methods
+          # Some methods weren't defined yet.
+          return true if self.class.method_defined?(name)
+          return true if include_private && self.class.private_method_defined?(name)
+        end
+
+        super
+      end
+
+      def method_missing(name, ...)
+        unless self.class.attribute_methods_generated?
+          if self.class.method_defined?(name)
+            # The method is explicitly defined in the model, but calls a generated
+            # method with super. So we must resume the call chain at the right step.
+            last_method = method(name)
+            last_method = last_method.super_method while last_method.super_method
+            self.class.define_attribute_methods
+            if last_method.super_method
+              return last_method.super_method.call(...)
+            end
+          elsif self.class.define_attribute_methods
+            # Some attribute methods weren't generated yet, we retry the call
+            return public_send(name, ...)
+          end
+        end
+
+        super
+      end
+
       def attribute_method?(attr_name)
-        # We check defined? because Syck calls respond_to? before actually calling initialize.
-        defined?(@attributes) && @attributes.key?(attr_name)
+        @attributes&.key?(attr_name)
       end
 
       def attributes_with_values(attribute_names)
@@ -392,6 +504,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
         attribute_names &= self.class.column_names
         attribute_names.delete_if do |name|
           self.class.readonly_attribute?(name) ||
+            self.class.counter_cache_column?(name) ||
             column_for_attribute(name).virtual?
         end
       end
@@ -413,7 +526,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
           inspected_value = if value.is_a?(String) && value.length > 50
             "#{value[0, 50]}...".inspect
           elsif value.is_a?(Date) || value.is_a?(Time)
-            %("#{value.to_formatted_s(:inspect)}")
+            %("#{value.to_fs(:inspect)}")
           else
             value.inspect
           end