activerecord 4.1.8 → 4.2.11.3

data/lib/active_record/associations.rb

@@ -46,6 +46,12 @@ module ActiveRecord
     end
   end
 
+  class HasOneAssociationPolymorphicThroughError < ActiveRecordError #:nodoc:
+    def initialize(owner_class_name, reflection)
+      super("Cannot have a has_one :through association '#{owner_class_name}##{reflection.name}' which goes through the polymorphic association '#{owner_class_name}##{reflection.through_reflection.name}'.")
+    end
+  end
+
   class HasManyThroughSourceAssociationNotFoundError < ActiveRecordError #:nodoc:
     def initialize(reflection)
       through_reflection      = reflection.through_reflection
@@ -110,6 +116,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
     autoload :Association,           'active_record/associations/association'
     autoload :SingularAssociation,   'active_record/associations/singular_association'
     autoload :CollectionAssociation, 'active_record/associations/collection_association'
+    autoload :ForeignAssociation,    'active_record/associations/foreign_association'
     autoload :CollectionProxy,       'active_record/associations/collection_proxy'
 
     autoload :BelongsToAssociation,            'active_record/associations/belongs_to_association'
@@ -202,12 +209,13 @@ module ActiveRecord
     # For instance, +attributes+ and +connection+ would be bad choices for association names.
     #
     # == Auto-generated methods
+    # See also Instance Public methods below for more details.
     #
     # === Singular associations (one-to-one)
     #                                     |            |  belongs_to  |
     #   generated methods                 | belongs_to | :polymorphic | has_one
     #   ----------------------------------+------------+--------------+---------
-    #   other                             |     X      |      X       |    X
+    #   other(force_reload=false)         |     X      |      X       |    X
     #   other=(other)                     |     X      |      X       |    X
     #   build_other(attributes={})        |     X      |              |    X
     #   create_other(attributes={})       |     X      |              |    X
@@ -217,7 +225,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
     #                                     |       |          | has_many
     #   generated methods                 | habtm | has_many | :through
     #   ----------------------------------+-------+----------+----------
-    #   others                            |   X   |    X     |    X
+    #   others(force_reload=false)        |   X   |    X     |    X
     #   others=(other,other,...)          |   X   |    X     |    X
     #   other_ids                         |   X   |    X     |    X
     #   other_ids=(id,id,...)             |   X   |    X     |    X
@@ -419,6 +427,10 @@ module ActiveRecord
     #     has_many :birthday_events, ->(user) { where starts_on: user.birthday }, class_name: 'Event'
     #   end
     #
+    # Note: Joining, eager loading and preloading of these associations is not fully possible.
+    # These operations happen before instance creation and the scope will be called with a +nil+ argument.
+    # This can lead to unexpected behavior and is deprecated.
+    #
     # == Association callbacks
     #
     # Similar to the normal callbacks that hook into the life cycle of an Active Record object,
@@ -442,9 +454,11 @@ module ActiveRecord
     #
     # Possible callbacks are: +before_add+, +after_add+, +before_remove+ and +after_remove+.
     #
-    # Should any of the +before_add+ callbacks throw an exception, the object does not get
-    # added to the collection. Same with the +before_remove+ callbacks; if an exception is
-    # thrown the object doesn't get removed.
+    # If any of the +before_add+ callbacks throw an exception, the object will not be
+    # added to the collection.
+    #
+    # Similarly, if any of the +before_remove+ callbacks throw an exception, the object
+    # will not be removed from the collection.
     #
     # == Association extensions
     #
@@ -536,8 +550,8 @@ module ActiveRecord
     #   end
     #
     #   @firm = Firm.first
-    #   @firm.clients.collect { |c| c.invoices }.flatten # select all invoices for all clients of the firm
-    #   @firm.invoices                                   # selects all invoices by going through the Client join model
+    #   @firm.clients.flat_map { |c| c.invoices } # select all invoices for all clients of the firm
+    #   @firm.invoices                            # selects all invoices by going through the Client join model
     #
     # Similarly you can go through a +has_one+ association on the join model:
     #
@@ -642,7 +656,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
     #     belongs_to :commenter
     #   end
     #
-    # When using nested association, you will not be able to modify the association because there
+    # When using a nested association, you will not be able to modify the association because there
     # is not enough information to know what modification to make. For example, if you tried to
     # add a <tt>Commenter</tt> in the example above, there would be no way to tell how to set up the
     # intermediate <tt>Post</tt> and <tt>Comment</tt> objects.
@@ -712,9 +726,9 @@ module ActiveRecord
     # == Eager loading of associations
     #
     # Eager loading is a way to find objects of a certain class and a number of named associations.
-    # This is one of the easiest ways of to prevent the dreaded 1+N problem in which fetching 100
+    # It is one of the easiest ways to prevent the dreaded N+1 problem in which fetching 100
     # posts that each need to display their author triggers 101 database queries. Through the
-    # use of eager loading, the 101 queries can be reduced to 2.
+    # use of eager loading, the number of queries will be reduced from 101 to 2.
     #
     #   class Post < ActiveRecord::Base
     #     belongs_to :author
@@ -744,16 +758,16 @@ module ActiveRecord
     #   Post.includes(:author, :comments).each do |post|
     #
     # This will load all comments with a single query. This reduces the total number of queries
-    # to 3. More generally the number of queries will be 1 plus the number of associations
+    # to 3. In general, the number of queries will be 1 plus the number of associations
     # named (except if some of the associations are polymorphic +belongs_to+ - see below).
     #
     # To include a deep hierarchy of associations, use a hash:
     #
-    #   Post.includes(:author, {comments: {author: :gravatar}}).each do |post|
+    #   Post.includes(:author, { comments: { author: :gravatar } }).each do |post|
     #
-    # That'll grab not only all the comments but all their authors and gravatar pictures.
-    # You can mix and match symbols, arrays and hashes in any combination to describe the
-    # associations you want to load.
+    # The above code will load all the comments and all of their associated
+    # authors and gravatars. You can mix and match any combination of symbols,
+    # arrays, and hashes to retrieve the associations you want to load.
     #
     # All of this power shouldn't fool you into thinking that you can pull out huge amounts
     # of data with no performance penalty just because you've reduced the number of queries.
@@ -762,8 +776,8 @@ module ActiveRecord
     # cut down on the number of queries in a situation as the one described above.
     #
     # Since only one table is loaded at a time, conditions or orders cannot reference tables
-    # other than the main one. If this is the case Active Record falls back to the previously
-    # used LEFT OUTER JOIN based strategy. For example
+    # other than the main one. If this is the case, Active Record falls back to the previously
+    # used LEFT OUTER JOIN based strategy. For example:
     #
     #   Post.includes([:author, :comments]).where(['comments.approved = ?', true])
     #
@@ -774,16 +788,15 @@ module ActiveRecord
     # In the above example posts with no approved comments are not returned at all, because
     # the conditions apply to the SQL statement as a whole and not just to the association.
     #
+    # You must disambiguate column references for this fallback to happen, for example
+    # <tt>order: "author.name DESC"</tt> will work but <tt>order: "name DESC"</tt> will not.
+    #
     # If you want to load all posts (including posts with no approved comments) then write
     # your own LEFT OUTER JOIN query using ON
     #
-    #   Post.joins('LEFT OUTER JOIN comments ON comments.post_id = posts.id AND comments.approved = true')
-    #
-    # You must disambiguate column references for this fallback to happen, for example
-    # <tt>order: "author.name DESC"</tt> will work but <tt>order: "name DESC"</tt> will not.
+    #   Post.joins("LEFT OUTER JOIN comments ON comments.post_id = posts.id AND comments.approved = '1'")
     #
-    # If you do want eager load only some members of an association it is usually more natural
-    # to include an association which has conditions defined on it:
+    # In this case it is usually more natural to include an association which has conditions defined on it:
     #
     #   class Post < ActiveRecord::Base
     #     has_many :approved_comments, -> { where approved: true }, class_name: 'Comment'
@@ -999,7 +1012,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
     # record(s) being removed so that callbacks are run. However <tt>delete</tt> and <tt>delete_all</tt> will either
     # do the deletion according to the strategy specified by the <tt>:dependent</tt> option, or
     # if no <tt>:dependent</tt> option is given, then it will follow the default strategy.
-    # The default strategy is <tt>:nullify</tt> (set the foreign keys to <tt>nil</tt>), except for
+    # The default strategy is to do nothing (leave the foreign keys with the parent ids set), except for
     # +has_many+ <tt>:through</tt>, where the default strategy is <tt>delete_all</tt> (delete
     # the join records, without running their callbacks).
     #
@@ -1048,6 +1061,9 @@ module ActiveRecord
       # Specifies a one-to-many association. The following methods for retrieval and query of
       # collections of associated objects will be added:
       #
+      # +collection+ is a placeholder for the symbol passed as the +name+ argument, so
+      # <tt>has_many :clients</tt> would add among others <tt>clients.empty?</tt>.
+      #
       # [collection(force_reload = false)]
       #   Returns an array of all the associated objects.
       #   An empty array is returned if none are found.
@@ -1106,9 +1122,6 @@ module ActiveRecord
       #   Does the same as <tt>collection.create</tt>, but raises <tt>ActiveRecord::RecordInvalid</tt>
       #   if the record is invalid.
       #
-      # (*Note*: +collection+ is replaced with the symbol passed as the first argument, so
-      # <tt>has_many :clients</tt> would add among others <tt>clients.empty?</tt>.)
-      #
       # === Example
       #
       # A <tt>Firm</tt> class declares <tt>has_many :clients</tt>, which will add:
@@ -1127,7 +1140,32 @@ module ActiveRecord
       # * <tt>Firm#clients.build</tt> (similar to <tt>Client.new("firm_id" => id)</tt>)
       # * <tt>Firm#clients.create</tt> (similar to <tt>c = Client.new("firm_id" => id); c.save; c</tt>)
       # * <tt>Firm#clients.create!</tt> (similar to <tt>c = Client.new("firm_id" => id); c.save!</tt>)
-      # The declaration can also include an options hash to specialize the behavior of the association.
+      # The declaration can also include an +options+ hash to specialize the behavior of the association.
+      #
+      # === Scopes
+      #
+      # You can pass a second argument +scope+ as a callable (i.e. proc or
+      # lambda) to retrieve a specific set of records or customize the generated
+      # query when you access the associated collection.
+      #
+      # Scope examples:
+      #   has_many :comments, -> { where(author_id: 1) }
+      #   has_many :employees, -> { joins(:address) }
+      #   has_many :posts, ->(post) { where("max_post_length > ?", post.length) }
+      #
+      # === Extensions
+      #
+      # The +extension+ argument allows you to pass a block into a has_many
+      # association. This is useful for adding new finders, creators and other
+      # factory-type methods to be used as part of the association.
+      #
+      # Extension examples:
+      #   has_many :employees do
+      #     def find_or_create_by_name(name)
+      #       first_name, last_name = name.split(" ", 2)
+      #       find_or_create_by(first_name: first_name, last_name: last_name)
+      #     end
+      #   end
       #
       # === Options
       # [:class_name]
@@ -1139,8 +1177,14 @@ module ActiveRecord
       #   Specify the foreign key used for the association. By default this is guessed to be the name
       #   of this class in lower-case and "_id" suffixed. So a Person class that makes a +has_many+
       #   association will use "person_id" as the default <tt>:foreign_key</tt>.
+      # [:foreign_type]
+      #   Specify the column used to store the associated object's type, if this is a polymorphic
+      #   association. By default this is guessed to be the name of the polymorphic association
+      #   specified on "as" option with a "_type" suffix. So a class that defines a
+      #   <tt>has_many :tags, as: :taggable</tt> association will use "taggable_type" as the
+      #   default <tt>:foreign_type</tt>.
       # [:primary_key]
-      #   Specify the method that returns the primary key used for the association. By default this is +id+.
+      #   Specify the name of the column to use as the primary key for the association. By default this is +id+.
       # [:dependent]
       #   Controls what happens to the associated objects when
       #   their owner is destroyed. Note that these are implemented as
@@ -1205,7 +1249,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
       # Option examples:
       #   has_many :comments, -> { order "posted_on" }
       #   has_many :comments, -> { includes :author }
-      #   has_many :people, -> { where("deleted = 0").order("name") }, class_name: "Person"
+      #   has_many :people, -> { where(deleted: false).order("name") }, class_name: "Person"
       #   has_many :tracks, -> { order "position" }, dependent: :destroy
       #   has_many :comments, dependent: :nullify
       #   has_many :tags, as: :taggable
@@ -1223,6 +1267,9 @@ module ActiveRecord
       #
       # The following methods for retrieval and query of a single associated object will be added:
       #
+      # +association+ is a placeholder for the symbol passed as the +name+ argument, so
+      # <tt>has_one :manager</tt> would add among others <tt>manager.nil?</tt>.
+      #
       # [association(force_reload = false)]
       #   Returns the associated object. +nil+ is returned if none is found.
       # [association=(associate)]
@@ -1241,9 +1288,6 @@ module ActiveRecord
       #   Does the same as <tt>create_association</tt>, but raises <tt>ActiveRecord::RecordInvalid</tt>
       #   if the record is invalid.
       #
-      # (+association+ is replaced with the symbol passed as the first argument, so
-      # <tt>has_one :manager</tt> would add among others <tt>manager.nil?</tt>.)
-      #
       # === Example
       #
       # An Account class declares <tt>has_one :beneficiary</tt>, which will add:
@@ -1253,9 +1297,20 @@ module ActiveRecord
       # * <tt>Account#create_beneficiary</tt> (similar to <tt>b = Beneficiary.new("account_id" => id); b.save; b</tt>)
       # * <tt>Account#create_beneficiary!</tt> (similar to <tt>b = Beneficiary.new("account_id" => id); b.save!; b</tt>)
       #
+      # === Scopes
+      #
+      # You can pass a second argument +scope+ as a callable (i.e. proc or
+      # lambda) to retrieve a specific record or customize the generated query
+      # when you access the associated object.
+      #
+      # Scope examples:
+      #   has_one :author, -> { where(comment_id: 1) }
+      #   has_one :employer, -> { joins(:company) }
+      #   has_one :dob, ->(dob) { where("Date.new(2000, 01, 01) > ?", dob) }
+      #
       # === Options
       #
-      # The declaration can also include an options hash to specialize the behavior of the association.
+      # The declaration can also include an +options+ hash to specialize the behavior of the association.
       #
       # Options are:
       # [:class_name]
@@ -1275,6 +1330,12 @@ module ActiveRecord
       #   Specify the foreign key used for the association. By default this is guessed to be the name
       #   of this class in lower-case and "_id" suffixed. So a Person class that makes a +has_one+ association
       #   will use "person_id" as the default <tt>:foreign_key</tt>.
+      # [:foreign_type]
+      #   Specify the column used to store the associated object's type, if this is a polymorphic
+      #   association. By default this is guessed to be the name of the polymorphic association
+      #   specified on "as" option with a "_type" suffix. So a class that defines a
+      #   <tt>has_one :tag, as: :taggable</tt> association will use "taggable_type" as the
+      #   default <tt>:foreign_type</tt>.
       # [:primary_key]
       #   Specify the method that returns the primary key used for the association. By default this is +id+.
       # [:as]
@@ -1305,6 +1366,10 @@ module ActiveRecord
       #   that is the inverse of this <tt>has_one</tt> association. Does not work in combination
       #   with <tt>:through</tt> or <tt>:as</tt> options.
       #   See ActiveRecord::Associations::ClassMethods's overview on Bi-directional associations for more detail.
+      # [:required]
+      #   When set to +true+, the association will also have its presence validated.
+      #   This will validate the association itself, not the id. You can use
+      #   +:inverse_of+ to avoid an extra query during validation.
       #
       # Option examples:
       #   has_one :credit_card, dependent: :destroy  # destroys the associated credit card
@@ -1313,9 +1378,10 @@ module ActiveRecord
       #   has_one :last_comment, -> { order 'posted_on' }, class_name: "Comment"
       #   has_one :project_manager, -> { where role: 'project_manager' }, class_name: "Person"
       #   has_one :attachment, as: :attachable
-      #   has_one :boss, readonly: :true
+      #   has_one :boss, -> { readonly }
       #   has_one :club, through: :membership
       #   has_one :primary_address, -> { where primary: true }, through: :addressables, source: :addressable
+      #   has_one :credit_card, required: true
       def has_one(name, scope = nil, options = {})
         reflection = Builder::HasOne.build(self, name, scope, options)
         Reflection.add_reflection self, name, reflection
@@ -1329,6 +1395,9 @@ module ActiveRecord
       # Methods will be added for retrieval and query for a single associated object, for which
       # this object holds an id:
       #
+      # +association+ is a placeholder for the symbol passed as the +name+ argument, so
+      # <tt>belongs_to :author</tt> would add among others <tt>author.nil?</tt>.
+      #
       # [association(force_reload = false)]
       #   Returns the associated object. +nil+ is returned if none is found.
       # [association=(associate)]
@@ -1344,9 +1413,6 @@ module ActiveRecord
       #   Does the same as <tt>create_association</tt>, but raises <tt>ActiveRecord::RecordInvalid</tt>
       #   if the record is invalid.
       #
-      # (+association+ is replaced with the symbol passed as the first argument, so
-      # <tt>belongs_to :author</tt> would add among others <tt>author.nil?</tt>.)
-      #
       # === Example
       #
       # A Post class declares <tt>belongs_to :author</tt>, which will add:
@@ -1355,7 +1421,18 @@ module ActiveRecord
       # * <tt>Post#build_author</tt> (similar to <tt>post.author = Author.new</tt>)
       # * <tt>Post#create_author</tt> (similar to <tt>post.author = Author.new; post.author.save; post.author</tt>)
       # * <tt>Post#create_author!</tt> (similar to <tt>post.author = Author.new; post.author.save!; post.author</tt>)
-      # The declaration can also include an options hash to specialize the behavior of the association.
+      # The declaration can also include an +options+ hash to specialize the behavior of the association.
+      #
+      # === Scopes
+      #
+      # You can pass a second argument +scope+ as a callable (i.e. proc or
+      # lambda) to retrieve a specific record or customize the generated query
+      # when you access the associated object.
+      #
+      # Scope examples:
+      #   belongs_to :user, -> { where(id: 2) }
+      #   belongs_to :user, -> { joins(:friends) }
+      #   belongs_to :level, ->(level) { where("game_level > ?", level.current) }
       #
       # === Options
       #
@@ -1409,7 +1486,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
       #
       #   Note that <tt>accepts_nested_attributes_for</tt> sets <tt>:autosave</tt> to <tt>true</tt>.
       # [:touch]
-      #   If true, the associated object will be touched (the updated_at/on attributes set to now)
+      #   If true, the associated object will be touched (the updated_at/on attributes set to current time)
       #   when this record is either saved or destroyed. If you specify a symbol, that attribute
       #   will be updated with the current time in addition to the updated_at/on attribute.
       # [:inverse_of]
@@ -1417,6 +1494,10 @@ module ActiveRecord
       #   object that is the inverse of this <tt>belongs_to</tt> association. Does not work in
       #   combination with the <tt>:polymorphic</tt> options.
       #   See ActiveRecord::Associations::ClassMethods's overview on Bi-directional associations for more detail.
+      # [:required]
+      #   When set to +true+, the association will also have its presence validated.
+      #   This will validate the association itself, not the id. You can use
+      #   +:inverse_of+ to avoid an extra query during validation.
       #
       # Option examples:
       #   belongs_to :firm, foreign_key: "client_of"
@@ -1425,10 +1506,11 @@ module ActiveRecord
       #   belongs_to :valid_coupon, ->(o) { where "discounts > ?", o.payments_count },
       #                             class_name: "Coupon", foreign_key: "coupon_id"
       #   belongs_to :attachable, polymorphic: true
-      #   belongs_to :project, readonly: true
+      #   belongs_to :project, -> { readonly }
       #   belongs_to :post, counter_cache: true
       #   belongs_to :company, touch: true
       #   belongs_to :company, touch: :employees_last_updated_at
+      #   belongs_to :company, required: true
       def belongs_to(name, scope = nil, options = {})
         reflection = Builder::BelongsTo.build(self, name, scope, options)
         Reflection.add_reflection self, name, reflection
@@ -1466,6 +1548,9 @@ module ActiveRecord
       #
       # Adds the following methods for retrieval and query:
       #
+      # +collection+ is a placeholder for the symbol passed as the +name+ argument, so
+      # <tt>has_and_belongs_to_many :categories</tt> would add among others <tt>categories.empty?</tt>.
+      #
       # [collection(force_reload = false)]
       #   Returns an array of all the associated objects.
       #   An empty array is returned if none are found.
@@ -1507,9 +1592,6 @@ module ActiveRecord
       #   with +attributes+, linked to this object through the join table, and that has already been
       #   saved (if it passed the validation).
       #
-      # (+collection+ is replaced with the symbol passed as the first argument, so
-      # <tt>has_and_belongs_to_many :categories</tt> would add among others <tt>categories.empty?</tt>.)
-      #
       # === Example
       #
       # A Developer class declares <tt>has_and_belongs_to_many :projects</tt>, which will add:
@@ -1527,7 +1609,34 @@ module ActiveRecord
       # * <tt>Developer#projects.exists?(...)</tt>
       # * <tt>Developer#projects.build</tt> (similar to <tt>Project.new("developer_id" => id)</tt>)
       # * <tt>Developer#projects.create</tt> (similar to <tt>c = Project.new("developer_id" => id); c.save; c</tt>)
-      # The declaration may include an options hash to specialize the behavior of the association.
+      # The declaration may include an +options+ hash to specialize the behavior of the association.
+      #
+      # === Scopes
+      #
+      # You can pass a second argument +scope+ as a callable (i.e. proc or
+      # lambda) to retrieve a specific set of records or customize the generated
+      # query when you access the associated collection.
+      #
+      # Scope examples:
+      #   has_and_belongs_to_many :projects, -> { includes :milestones, :manager }
+      #   has_and_belongs_to_many :categories, ->(category) {
+      #     where("default_category = ?", category.name)
+      #   }
+      #
+      # === Extensions
+      #
+      # The +extension+ argument allows you to pass a block into a
+      # has_and_belongs_to_many association. This is useful for adding new
+      # finders, creators and other factory-type methods to be used as part of
+      # the association.
+      #
+      # Extension examples:
+      #   has_and_belongs_to_many :contractors do
+      #     def find_or_create_by_name(name)
+      #       first_name, last_name = name.split(" ", 2)
+      #       find_or_create_by(first_name: first_name, last_name: last_name)
+      #     end
+      #   end
       #
       # === Options
       #
@@ -1573,7 +1682,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
           scope   = nil
         end
 
-        habtm_reflection = ActiveRecord::Reflection::AssociationReflection.new(:has_and_belongs_to_many, name, scope, options, self)
+        habtm_reflection = ActiveRecord::Reflection::HasAndBelongsToManyReflection.new(name, scope, options, self)
 
         builder = Builder::HasAndBelongsToMany.new name, self, options
 
@@ -1588,7 +1697,7 @@ module ActiveRecord
 
         Builder::HasMany.define_callbacks self, middle_reflection
         Reflection.add_reflection self, middle_reflection.name, middle_reflection
-        middle_reflection.parent_reflection = [name.to_sym, habtm_reflection]
+        middle_reflection.parent_reflection = [name.to_s, habtm_reflection]
 
         include Module.new {
           class_eval <<-RUBY, __FILE__, __LINE__ + 1
@@ -1604,12 +1713,12 @@ module ActiveRecord
         hm_options[:through] = middle_reflection.name
         hm_options[:source] = join_model.right_reflection.name
 
-        [:before_add, :after_add, :before_remove, :after_remove, :autosave, :validate, :join_table].each do |k|
+        [:before_add, :after_add, :before_remove, :after_remove, :autosave, :validate, :join_table, :class_name, :extend].each do |k|
           hm_options[k] = options[k] if options.key? k
         end
 
         has_many name, scope, hm_options, &extension
-        self._reflections[name.to_sym].parent_reflection = [name.to_sym, habtm_reflection]
+        self._reflections[name.to_s].parent_reflection = [name.to_s, habtm_reflection]
       end
     end
   end

data/lib/active_record/attribute.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,163 @@
+module ActiveRecord
+  class Attribute # :nodoc:
+    class << self
+      def from_database(name, value, type)
+        FromDatabase.new(name, value, type)
+      end
+
+      def from_user(name, value, type)
+        FromUser.new(name, value, type)
+      end
+
+      def with_cast_value(name, value, type)
+        WithCastValue.new(name, value, type)
+      end
+
+      def null(name)
+        Null.new(name)
+      end
+
+      def uninitialized(name, type)
+        Uninitialized.new(name, type)
+      end
+    end
+
+    attr_reader :name, :value_before_type_cast, :type
+
+    # This method should not be called directly.
+    # Use #from_database or #from_user
+    def initialize(name, value_before_type_cast, type)
+      @name = name
+      @value_before_type_cast = value_before_type_cast
+      @type = type
+    end
+
+    def value
+      # `defined?` is cheaper than `||=` when we get back falsy values
+      @value = original_value unless defined?(@value)
+      @value
+    end
+
+    def original_value
+      type_cast(value_before_type_cast)
+    end
+
+    def value_for_database
+      type.type_cast_for_database(value)
+    end
+
+    def changed_from?(old_value)
+      type.changed?(old_value, value, value_before_type_cast)
+    end
+
+    def changed_in_place_from?(old_value)
+      has_been_read? && type.changed_in_place?(old_value, value)
+    end
+
+    def with_value_from_user(value)
+      self.class.from_user(name, value, type)
+    end
+
+    def with_value_from_database(value)
+      self.class.from_database(name, value, type)
+    end
+
+    def with_cast_value(value)
+      self.class.with_cast_value(name, value, type)
+    end
+
+    def type_cast(*)
+      raise NotImplementedError
+    end
+
+    def initialized?
+      true
+    end
+
+    def came_from_user?
+      false
+    end
+
+    def ==(other)
+      self.class == other.class &&
+        name == other.name &&
+        value_before_type_cast == other.value_before_type_cast &&
+        type == other.type
+    end
+
+    protected
+
+    def initialize_dup(other)
+      if defined?(@value) && @value.duplicable?
+        @value = @value.dup
+      end
+    end
+
+    private
+
+    def has_been_read?
+      defined?(@value)
+    end
+
+    class FromDatabase < Attribute # :nodoc:
+      def type_cast(value)
+        type.type_cast_from_database(value)
+      end
+    end
+
+    class FromUser < Attribute # :nodoc:
+      def type_cast(value)
+        type.type_cast_from_user(value)
+      end
+
+      def came_from_user?
+        true
+      end
+    end
+
+    class WithCastValue < Attribute # :nodoc:
+      def type_cast(value)
+        value
+      end
+
+      def changed_in_place_from?(old_value)
+        false
+      end
+    end
+
+    class Null < Attribute # :nodoc:
+      def initialize(name)
+        super(name, nil, Type::Value.new)
+      end
+
+      def value
+        nil
+      end
+
+      def with_value_from_database(value)
+        raise ActiveModel::MissingAttributeError, "can't write unknown attribute `#{name}`"
+      end
+      alias_method :with_value_from_user, :with_value_from_database
+    end
+
+    class Uninitialized < Attribute # :nodoc:
+      def initialize(name, type)
+        super(name, nil, type)
+      end
+
+      def value
+        if block_given?
+          yield name
+        end
+      end
+
+      def value_for_database
+      end
+
+      def initialized?
+        false
+      end
+    end
+    private_constant :FromDatabase, :FromUser, :Null, :Uninitialized
+  end
+end