cogforge-engine 2.0.1__tar.gz → 2.1.0__tar.gz

cogforge_engine-2.1.0/PKG-INFO

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+Metadata-Version: 2.4
+Name: cogforge-engine
+Version: 2.1.0
+Summary: A custom autograd engine and Transformer block built from scratch.
+Project-URL: Homepage, https://github.com/avikmjd2/cogforge
+Author-email: Avik Majumder <avikmjd2@gmail.com>
+License-File: LICENSE
+Requires-Python: >=3.8
+Requires-Dist: graphviz>=0.14.0
+Requires-Dist: numexpr>=2.8.0
+Requires-Dist: numpy>=1.20.0
+Provides-Extra: cuda
+Requires-Dist: cupy>=12.0.0; extra == 'cuda'
+Description-Content-Type: text/markdown
+
+# cogforge
+
+> A from-scratch deep learning library built on NumPy — a reverse-mode autograd engine extended all the way to working GPTs and encoder–decoder transformers, with optional GPU acceleration.
+
+`cogforge` is a small, readable, educational deep learning framework. At its core is a `Tensor` that records every operation into a computation graph and backpropagates through it (micrograd-style), but unlike a toy autograd it scales up to real architectures: MLPs, RNNs, batch/layer normalization, multi-head self- and cross-attention, rotary position embeddings (RoPE), decoder-only GPTs, and a full encoder–decoder Seq2Seq transformer you can actually train and sample from.
+
+There is no C++, no PyTorch — just NumPy and explicit, hand-derived gradients. Optionally, the entire backend can be swapped to **CuPy** for GPU execution, or accelerated with **numexpr** on CPU, without changing any model code. The goal is still to *understand* every gradient that flows — speed is a bonus, not the point.
+
+---
+
+## Table of contents
+
+- [Installation](#installation)
+- [Quick start](#quick-start)
+- [Backend: CPU, GPU, numexpr, and no-grad mode](#backend-cpu-gpu-numexpr-and-no-grad-mode)
+- [Core concept: the `Tensor`](#core-concept-the-tensor)
+- [API reference](#api-reference)
+  - [Tensor — autograd engine](#tensor--autograd-engine)
+  - [Losses](#losses)
+  - [Layers](#layers)
+  - [Attention](#attention)
+  - [Positional encodings](#positional-encodings)
+  - [Transformer blocks](#transformer-blocks)
+  - [Containers](#containers)
+  - [Recurrent](#recurrent)
+  - [Optimizers](#optimizers)
+  - [Models](#models)
+- [Worked example: train a char-level GPT](#worked-example-train-a-char-level-gpt)
+- [Worked example: encoder–decoder Seq2Seq](#worked-example-encoderdecoder-seq2seq)
+- [Gotchas](#gotchas)
+- [Roadmap](#roadmap)
+- [License](#license)
+
+---
+
+## Installation
+
+```bash
+pip install cogforge-engine
+```
+
+Requires Python 3.8+ and NumPy — that's the only hard dependency. Two optional extras unlock acceleration:
+
+```bash
+pip install cupy-cuda12x   # GPU backend (pick the build matching your CUDA version)
+pip install numexpr        # multi-threaded CPU element-wise ops
+```
+
+The package is organized into three modules:
+
+| Module | Contains |
+| --- | --- |
+| `cogforge.backend` | The swappable array backend: NumPy ↔ CuPy switching, numexpr flag, global no-grad flag. |
+| `cogforge.app` | The autograd engine (`Tensor`) and every building block — layers, optimizers, losses, normalization, attention, positional encodings. |
+| `cogforge.models` | Ready-to-use models: `GPTV1`, `GPT2`, `Seq2Seq`. |
+
+```python
+from cogforge.app import Tensor, Linear, Adam, MultiHeadAttention   # building blocks
+from cogforge.models import GPTV1, GPT2, Seq2Seq                    # models
+from cogforge import backend                                        # device control
+```
+
+---
+
+## Quick start
+
+```python
+import numpy as np
+from cogforge.app import Tensor
+
+# Build a graph
+a = Tensor(np.array([2.0, 3.0]))
+b = Tensor(np.array([4.0, 5.0]))
+c = (a * b).sigmoid().softmax()
+
+# Backpropagate (note the spelling: backwards, with an 's')
+c.backwards()
+
+print(a.grad)   # gradient of the output w.r.t. a
+```
+
+Every `Tensor` carries a `.data` (the backend array), a `.grad` (same shape, accumulates gradients), and a hidden `_backwards` closure that knows how to push gradient to its parents. Calling `.backwards()` on any node runs a topological sort and walks the graph in reverse.
+
+---
+
+## Backend: CPU, GPU, numexpr, and no-grad mode
+
+`cogforge.backend` exposes a module-level `np` that every layer and model routes through. By default it *is* NumPy; flipping one switch reroutes the whole library to CuPy.
+
+### GPU (CuPy)
+
+```python
+from cogforge import backend
+backend.use_gpu(True)     # everything created after this lives on the GPU
+# ... build model, train ...
+backend.use_gpu(False)    # back to NumPy
+```
+
+- Raises `RuntimeError` if CuPy is not installed.
+- Switch **before** constructing your model — parameters are allocated on whichever device is active at creation time.
+- `Embedding`'s scatter-add backward automatically uses `cupyx.scatter_add` on GPU and `np.add.at` on CPU.
+- Sampling in `generate()` always happens on CPU (logits are pulled back with `to_cpu`), so generation works identically on either device.
+
+### numexpr (CPU acceleration)
+
+```python
+from cogforge.app import set_numexpr
+set_numexpr(True, threads=8)   # multi-threaded softmax / fused elementwise ops
+set_numexpr(False)
+```
+
+Only takes effect on the CPU backend (ignored when the GPU is active). Raises if numexpr isn't installed.
+
+### No-grad mode
+
+```python
+from cogforge.app import needGradientHence
+needGradientHence(False)   # stop building graphs: no .grad buffers, no closures
+# ... fast inference ...
+needGradientHence(True)    # back to training mode
+```
+
+When gradients are off, every op returns a bare result tensor — no children, no backward closure, no gradient buffers — which slashes memory use and speeds up inference. All three models' `generate()` methods toggle this automatically and restore the previous state afterwards (in a `try/finally`, so it's restored even on error).
+
+### Helpers
+
+| Function | Purpose |
+| --- | --- |
+| `to_cpu(a)` | Return a NumPy array regardless of the active backend. Use it before plotting, sampling, or saving. |
+| `scatter_add(target, indices, values)` | Backend-aware `target[indices] += values` (handles repeated indices correctly on both devices). |
+
+---
+
+## Core concept: the `Tensor`
+
+```python
+Tensor(array, children=(), requires_grad=True, typed="compressed")
+```
+
+| Argument | Meaning |
+| --- | --- |
+| `array` | Any array-like; stored on the active backend in `.data`. |
+| `children` | Parent tensors in the graph (set internally by ops; you rarely pass this). |
+| `requires_grad` | Reserved flag (currently informational). |
+| `typed` | `"compressed"` → `float32` (default), anything else → `float64`. |
+
+Gradients **accumulate** into `.grad`. Always zero them between optimization steps (the optimizers do this for you via `zero_grad()`). When global no-grad mode is on, `.grad` is `None` and no graph is recorded.
+
+---
+
+## API reference
+
+### Tensor — autograd engine
+
+**Differentiable operations** (each builds graph and defines its own backward):
+
+| Operation | Notes |
+| --- | --- |
+| `a + b`, `a - b`, `a * b` | Elementwise, with broadcasting support. |
+| `a @ b` | Batched matmul; gradients are correctly un-broadcast. |
+| `a[key]` | Indexing/slicing. |
+| `Tensor.cat(tensors, axis=-1)` | Classmethod. Concatenates a tuple of tensors along `axis`; backward splits the gradient back to each parent. (Used internally by RoPE.) |
+| `.relu()` | |
+| `.sigmoid()` | |
+| `.tanh()` | |
+| `.softmax(axis=-1)` | Numerically stable (max-subtraction); numexpr-accelerated when enabled. |
+| `.view(shape)` | Reshape (handles non-contiguous data). |
+| `.flatten()` | Flattens everything after the batch dim → `(B, -1)`. |
+| `.flatten_consective(num)` | Groups `num` consecutive timesteps. Expects a 3-D `(B, T, C)` tensor; `T` must be divisible by `num`. |
+| `.transpose(axes)` | Permute axes (pass the full permutation tuple). |
+| `.masked_fill(mask, value)` | Sets entries where `mask` is `True` to `value` (used for causal/padding attention masks). |
+| `.dropout(p=0.1, training=True)` | Inverted dropout: scales by `1/(1-p)` at train time, identity when `training=False`. |
+| `.dropTheWholeNeuron(p=0.1, training=True, axis=-1, batch_ind=0)` | Structured dropout — zeroes entire feature channels rather than individual elements. |
+
+**Backward pass**
+
+| Method | Notes |
+| --- | --- |
+| `.backwards()` | **Primary.** Iterative topological sort — safe for deep/long graphs. |
+| `.backwards_recursive()` | Legacy recursive version; can hit Python's recursion limit on long sequences. Prefer `.backwards()`. |
+
+**Static helper**
+
+- `Tensor.unbroadcast(grad, shape)` — reduces a broadcasted gradient back to the original parameter shape. Used internally.
+
+---
+
+### Losses
+
+All losses are **classmethods** on `Tensor` and return a scalar loss tensor you call `.backwards()` on. Mind the distinction between losses that take **probabilities** and losses that take **raw logits** — this is the most common mistake.
+
+| Loss | Input expectation | Use when |
+| --- | --- | --- |
+| `Tensor.softmax_cross_entropy(scores, targets)` | `scores` are **raw logits**, `targets` one-hot. Softmax fused inside (stable). Works for 2-D `(B,V)` and 3-D `(B,T,V)`. | Standard classification / LM. **Recommended.** |
+| `Tensor.sparse_softmax_cross_entropy(scores, target_ids)` | `scores` raw logits `(B,T,V)`, `target_ids` integers `(B,T)`. | Language modeling — skips building one-hot targets. |
+| `Tensor.sparse_softmax_cross_entropy_index(scores, labels, mask)` | Raw logits + integer labels + per-token mask (1 = real, 0 = pad). | Padded LM / seq2seq batches. **Recommended for Seq2Seq training.** |
+| `Tensor.softmax_cross_entropy_masked(scores, targets, mask)` | Logits + one-hot targets + per-row mask. | Padded batches, fused softmax. |
+| `Tensor.cross_entropy_loss(predictions, targets)` | `predictions` are **probabilities** (call `.softmax()` first), `targets` one-hot. | You already have a softmax in your graph. |
+| `Tensor.cross_entropy_loss_masked(predictions, targets, mask)` | Probabilities + per-row mask. | Padded batches without fused softmax. |
+
+> ℹ️ The `softmax_*` and `sparse_softmax_*` variants apply softmax internally — feed them **raw logits**. `cross_entropy_loss*` is the opposite — it expects probabilities.
+>
+> `sparse_softmax_cross_entropy_legacy` and `softmax_cross_entropy_old` are kept for reference; prefer the current versions.
+
+---
+
+### Layers
+
+#### `Linear(nin, nout)`
+Affine transform `x @ W + b`. He-initialized weights. `.parameters()` → `[W, b]`.
+
+#### `Embedding(vocab_size, embedding_dim)`
+Lookup table. Call with an integer index array; backward scatters gradients correctly (repeated indices accumulate, on CPU and GPU). `.parameters()` → `[weights]`.
+
+#### `LayerNorm(dim, eps=1e-5)`
+Normalizes over the last dimension. Learnable `gamma`/`beta`, full hand-derived backward. `.parameters()` → `[gamma, beta]`.
+
+#### `BatchNorm1D(dim, eps=1e-5, momentum=0.1)`
+Normalizes over the batch (and time, for 3-D input). Tracks `running_mean`/`running_var` for inference. Toggle `.training = True/False`. Learnable `gamma`/`beta`.
+
+#### `FeedForward(dmodel, dff=None)`
+Position-wise MLP: `Linear → ReLU → Dropout(0.15) → Linear`. `dff` defaults to `4 * dmodel`. Dropout is active only when called with `is_training=True` (transformer blocks handle this for you via their train/infer state).
+
+---
+
+### Attention
+
+#### `Attention(dk)`
+Scaled dot-product attention. Call `attention(Q, K, V, mask=None)`. `dk` sets the `1/√dk` scale. Masked positions are filled with `-1e9` before the softmax.
+
+#### `MultiHeadAttention(dinp, dmodel, dout, n, rope=None)`
+`n` heads, `dmodel` split into `n` chunks of size `dmodel // n` (must divide evenly). Projects input `dinp → dmodel`, attends, projects `dmodel → dout`. If a `rope` (see [RotatoryPositionalEncoding](#positional-encodings)) is passed, it is applied to Q and K after the head split — this is how `GPT2` gets rotary positions. Call `mha(query, key, value, mask=None)`. `.parameters()` returns all four projection layers' params.
+
+#### `CrossAttention(dim_dec, dim_enc, d_out, dec_rope=None, enc_rope=None, d_k=None, h=None, d_model=None)`
+Attention where **queries come from the decoder stream and keys/values from the encoder stream** — the bridge of an encoder–decoder transformer. Specify head geometry as either (`d_k` and `h`) or (`d_model` and `h`). Optional separate RoPE for the query (decoder) side and key (encoder) side. Call `cross(x_decod, x_encod, mask=None)`; pass the encoder padding mask as `mask` so the decoder never attends to pad tokens.
+
+---
+
+### Positional encodings
+
+#### `PositionalEncoding(max_len, dmodel)`
+Fixed sinusoidal positions, **added** to the input embeddings. Call `pe(x)`. No parameters. Used by `GPTV1`.
+
+#### `RotatoryPositionalEncoding(max_len, dim, base=10000.0)`
+Rotary position embeddings (RoPE). Instead of adding position vectors to embeddings, it **rotates Q and K inside attention**, encoding *relative* position directly in the dot product. `dim` is the per-head dimension `d_k` (must be even), not `d_model`. Construct once and hand the same instance to every block:
+
+```python
+rope = RotatoryPositionalEncoding(max_len, d_model // n_heads)
+block = Transformer(dmodel=d_model, n=n_heads, rope=rope)
+```
+
+No parameters. Used by `GPT2` and (optionally) `Seq2Seq`.
+
+---
+
+### Transformer blocks
+
+#### `Transformer(dmodel, n, dff=None, rope=None, is_training=False)`
+A **pre-norm** self-attention block: `x + Attn(LN(x))` then `x + FF(LN(x))`. `n` = number of heads. Optional RoPE. Call `block(x, mask=None)` — pass a causal mask for LM use or a padding mask for encoder use.
+
+State control: `.train(enabled=True)` / `.infer(enabled=True)` toggle `is_training`, which switches the feed-forward dropout on/off.
+
+#### `Decoder(d_model, n_heads, d_ff=None, is_training=False, dec_in_rope=None, enc_rope=None, dec_rope=None)`
+A full **pre-norm encoder–decoder block** with three sublayers:
+
+1. masked self-attention over the decoder stream (`dec_in_rope` optional),
+2. cross-attention into the encoder output (`dec_rope` on queries, `enc_rope` on keys, both optional),
+3. feed-forward with dropout.
+
+Call `block(x_dec, x_enc, mask=None, cross_mask=None)` — `mask` is the causal mask for self-attention, `cross_mask` the encoder padding mask. Same `.train()` / `.infer()` interface as `Transformer`.
+
+---
+
+### Containers
+
+#### `Sequential(layers)`
+Runs layers in order. `.train()` / `.test()` flip the `training` flag on any layer that has one (e.g. `BatchNorm1D`).
+
+> ⚠️ `Sequential.parameters()` only collects layers exposing `W`, `b`, `gamma`, or `beta` attributes (i.e. `Linear`, `LayerNorm`, `BatchNorm1D`). Composite layers like `MultiHeadAttention`, `FeedForward`, and `Transformer` hold sub-modules, so their parameters are **not** picked up here — gather those via each module's own `.parameters()`.
+
+#### `MLP(layer_sizes)`
+Convenience feed-forward net: `Linear → ReLU` between layers, plain `Linear` output. Built from a list of sizes, e.g. `MLP([784, 128, 64, 10])`.
+
+- `.save(filename="best_model.npz")` / `.load(filename="best_model.npz")` — persist/restore weights.
+- *Note:* `MLP` does not expose a `parameters()` method; collect them via `[p for layer in mlp.layers for p in layer.parameters()]` if you want to optimize it.
+
+---
+
+### Recurrent
+
+#### `RNNCell(input_dim, hidden_dim)`
+One tanh recurrence step: `h_next = tanh(i2h(x) + h2h(h_prev))`. `.parameters()` included.
+
+#### `RNN(input_dim, hidden_dim)`
+Unrolls a cell over a **list** of timestep tensors (each `(B, input_dim)`) and returns the list of hidden states (each `(B, hidden_dim)`). Optional `prev_hidden`.
+
+#### `StackedRNN(input_dim, hidden_dim, num_layers)`
+Multiple `RNN` layers stacked. Returns `(top_layer_states, per_layer_final_states)` — the second value is convenient for seq2seq.
+
+#### `Bridge(enc_hidden, dec_hidden, enc_layers, dec_layers, mode="project")`
+Maps RNN encoder final hidden states to decoder initial hidden states, handling mismatched layer counts and hidden sizes.
+
+| `mode` | Behavior |
+| --- | --- |
+| `"project"` | One learned `Linear(enc_hidden → dec_hidden)` per decoder layer. General, recommended. |
+| `"tie"` | No parameters; requires `enc_hidden == dec_hidden`. Selects/repeats raw states. |
+
+---
+
+### Optimizers
+
+Both take an iterable of parameter tensors and share the same interface: `step()`, `zero_grad()`, `clip_grads(max_norm=5.0)`.
+
+#### `SGD(parameters, learning_rate=0.01)`
+Plain stochastic gradient descent.
+
+#### `Adam(parameters, lr=1e-3, beta1=0.9, beta2=0.999, eps=1e-8)`
+Adam with bias correction. Recommended for transformers.
+
+```python
+opt = Adam(model.parameters(), lr=3e-4)
+opt.zero_grad()
+loss.backwards()
+opt.clip_grads(1.0)   # optional gradient clipping
+opt.step()
+```
+
+---
+
+### Models
+
+All three models share conventions:
+
+- `model.parameters()` returns every trainable tensor (deduplicated where weights are shared).
+- `model.generate(...)` automatically switches to inference mode and disables gradient tracking for the duration, restoring the previous state afterwards — you never need to toggle anything manually to sample.
+- Sampling supports `temperature` and `top_k`, is numerically stabilized, and always runs on CPU regardless of backend.
+
+#### `GPTV1(vocab, d_model, n_heads, n_layers, max_len, d_ff=None)`
+A decoder-only transformer with **sinusoidal (additive) positional encoding**: token embedding + positions + stacked pre-norm `Transformer` blocks + final `LayerNorm` + output head. Causal masking is applied internally.
+
+| Method | Description |
+| --- | --- |
+| `model(idx)` | `idx`: integer array `(B, T)`. Returns logits `(B, T, vocab)`. |
+| `model.generate(idx, n_new, temperature=1.0, top_k=None)` | Autoregressive sampling. Crops the context to the last `max_len` tokens. Returns `(B, T + n_new)`. |
+
+#### `GPT2(vocab, d_model, n_heads, n_layers, max_len, d_ff=None, base=10000.0, training=False)`
+The modern decoder-only variant: **RoPE instead of additive positions** (one shared `RotatoryPositionalEncoding` of dim `d_model // n_heads` applied to Q/K in every block), no positional add at the input, dropout in the feed-forward layers when training. `base` is the RoPE frequency base.
+
+| Method | Description |
+| --- | --- |
+| `model(idx)` | Logits `(B, T, vocab)` with causal masking applied internally. |
+| `model.train()` / `model.infer()` | Toggle training mode (dropout on/off) across all blocks. |
+| `model.generate(idx, n_new, temperature=1.0, top_k=None)` | As `GPTV1`; also handles the train/infer switch for you. |
+
+#### `Seq2Seq(enc_vocab, dec_vocab, d_model, n_heads, num_enc_layers, num_dec_layers, max_len, d_ff=None, training=False, shared_tok=False, pad_id=0, encoder_rope=None, dec_in_rope=None, dec_rope=None, enc_rope=None)`
+A full **encoder–decoder transformer** (the original *Attention Is All You Need* topology, pre-norm):
+
+- **Encoder:** `num_enc_layers` self-attention `Transformer` blocks over the source, with a padding mask built from `pad_id`, followed by a final encoder `LayerNorm`.
+- **Decoder:** `num_dec_layers` `Decoder` blocks — causal self-attention, cross-attention into the encoder output (respecting the encoder padding mask), feed-forward.
+- **Weight tying:** with `shared_tok=True` and `enc_vocab == dec_vocab`, the encoder embedding, decoder embedding, and output projection all share one matrix (embeddings scaled by `√d_model`, plus a learned output bias). Cuts parameter count substantially.
+- **RoPE, opt-in per site:** pass any non-`None` value to `encoder_rope` (encoder self-attention), `dec_in_rope` (decoder self-attention), `dec_rope` (cross-attention queries), and/or `enc_rope` (cross-attention keys) to enable a shared rotary encoding at that site.
+
+| Method | Description |
+| --- | --- |
+| `model(enc_idx, dec_idx)` | Teacher-forced forward. `enc_idx`: source `(B, T_enc)`; `dec_idx`: shifted target starting with `<SOS>`, `(B, T_dec)`. Returns logits `(B, T_dec, dec_vocab)`. |
+| `model.encode(enc_idx)` | Run the encoder once; returns `(x_enc, enc_pad_mask)` for reuse across decode steps. |
+| `model.decode_step(dec_idx, x_enc, enc_pad)` | Decoder forward against a fixed encoder output. |
+| `model.generate(enc_idx, sos_id, eos_id=None, max_new=50, temperature=1.0, top_k=None)` | Encodes once, then autoregressively decodes from `<SOS>`; stops early when every sequence in the batch emits `eos_id`. |
+| `model.train()` / `model.infer()` | Toggle dropout across all encoder and decoder blocks. |
+| `Seq2Seq.make_pad_mask(idx, pad_id)` | Static helper: `(B, T)` ints → `(B, 1, 1, T)` boolean mask, `True` at padding. |
+
+---
+
+## Worked example: train a char-level GPT
+
+Works identically with `GPTV1`; shown with the RoPE-based `GPT2`.
+
+```python
+import numpy as np
+from cogforge.app import Tensor, Adam
+from cogforge.models import GPT2
+
+# --- data -------------------------------------------------------------
+text  = open("input.txt").read()
+chars = sorted(set(text))
+stoi  = {c: i for i, c in enumerate(chars)}
+itos  = {i: c for i, c in enumerate(chars)}
+data  = np.array([stoi[c] for c in text])
+vocab = len(chars)
+
+# --- model ------------------------------------------------------------
+block = 64
+model = GPT2(vocab=vocab, d_model=128, n_heads=4,
+             n_layers=4, max_len=block, training=True)
+opt   = Adam(model.parameters(), lr=3e-4)
+
+def get_batch(bs=32):
+    ix = np.random.randint(0, len(data) - block - 1, size=bs)
+    x  = np.stack([data[i:i + block]     for i in ix])
+    y  = np.stack([data[i + 1:i + block + 1] for i in ix])
+    return x, y
+
+# --- train ------------------------------------------------------------
+for step in range(2000):
+    x, y   = get_batch()
+    logits = model(x)                                  # (B, T, vocab)
+    loss   = Tensor.sparse_softmax_cross_entropy(logits, y)
+
+    opt.zero_grad()
+    loss.backwards()
+    opt.clip_grads(1.0)
+    opt.step()
+
+    if step % 100 == 0:
+        print(f"step {step:4d} | loss {float(loss.data):.4f}")
+
+# --- sample -----------------------------------------------------------
+ctx = np.array([[stoi["\n"]]])
+out = model.generate(ctx, n_new=300, temperature=0.8, top_k=20)
+print("".join(itos[int(i)] for i in out[0]))
+```
+
+To run the same script on GPU, add two lines at the top — before building the model:
+
+```python
+from cogforge import backend
+backend.use_gpu(True)
+```
+
+---
+
+## Worked example: encoder–decoder Seq2Seq
+
+A toy translation/unscrambling setup with a shared vocabulary, tied weights, and RoPE everywhere:
+
+```python
+import numpy as np
+from cogforge.app import Tensor, Adam
+from cogforge.models import Seq2Seq
+
+PAD, SOS, EOS = 0, 1, 2
+vocab = 40
+
+model = Seq2Seq(
+    enc_vocab=vocab, dec_vocab=vocab,
+    d_model=128, n_heads=4,
+    num_enc_layers=3, num_dec_layers=3,
+    max_len=32, training=True,
+    shared_tok=True, pad_id=PAD,
+    encoder_rope=True, dec_in_rope=True,   # any non-None value enables RoPE at that site
+)
+opt = Adam(model.parameters(), lr=3e-4)
+
+for step in range(num_steps):
+    src, tgt = get_batch()                 # src: (B, T_enc) padded with PAD
+                                           # tgt: (B, T_dec+1) = [SOS, ..., EOS, PAD...]
+    dec_in, labels = tgt[:, :-1], tgt[:, 1:]
+    logits = model(src, dec_in)            # (B, T_dec, vocab)
+
+    mask = (labels != PAD).astype(np.float32)
+    loss = Tensor.sparse_softmax_cross_entropy_index(logits, labels, mask)
+
+    opt.zero_grad()
+    loss.backwards()
+    opt.clip_grads(1.0)
+    opt.step()
+
+# inference: encode once, decode token by token, stop on EOS
+out = model.generate(src, sos_id=SOS, eos_id=EOS, max_new=32,
+                     temperature=1.0, top_k=5)
+```
+
+---
+
+## Gotchas
+
+- **It's `backwards()`, not `backward()`.** The backward pass method has a trailing `s`.
+- **Logits vs. probabilities.** `softmax_cross_entropy` / `sparse_softmax_cross_entropy*` fuse the softmax internally — feed them **raw logits**. `cross_entropy_loss*` expects **probabilities**. Mixing these up silently trains the wrong thing.
+- **Gradients accumulate.** Call `optimizer.zero_grad()` every step (or `p.grad[...] = 0`), or gradients pile up across iterations.
+- **Switch the backend before building the model.** `use_gpu(True)` after construction leaves your parameters stranded on the CPU while new activations land on the GPU.
+- **RoPE dim is per-head.** `RotatoryPositionalEncoding` takes `d_model // n_heads` (which must be even), not `d_model`. The models handle this internally — it only matters if you wire blocks up yourself.
+- **Training vs. inference mode matters now.** `GPT2` and `Seq2Seq` use dropout; call `.train()` before optimizing and `.infer()` before evaluating. `generate()` handles this (and no-grad mode) for you and restores the prior state afterwards.
+- **`Sequential.parameters()` is shallow** — see the note under [Containers](#containers). For attention/feed-forward/transformer stacks, gather parameters through each module's own `.parameters()` (as the models' `parameters()` methods do).
+- **RNNs operate on lists**, not a single `(B, T, C)` tensor — pass a list of per-timestep tensors.
+- **Don't dedupe tied parameters yourself.** `Seq2Seq.parameters()` already deduplicates shared tensors by identity, so the tied embedding is only updated once per step.
+
+---
+
+## Roadmap
+
+Shipped since the last release:
+
+- ✅ RoPE (rotary position embeddings), usable in GPT and at every attention site of the Seq2Seq model
+- ✅ Full encoder–decoder transformer (`Seq2Seq`) with cross-attention and padding masks
+- ✅ Weight tying between embeddings and the output head
+- ✅ GPU backend via CuPy; numexpr-accelerated CPU ops
+- ✅ Dropout (element-wise and structured) with train/infer modes
+- ✅ Global no-grad mode for fast, memory-light inference
+
+Planned / under consideration:
+
+- KV cache for faster generation
+- SwiGLU feed-forward and RMSNorm
+- RoPE length interpolation
+- Linear-attention block (as a study in the recall-vs-cost tradeoff)
+- Checkpoint save/load for the transformer models
+
+---
+
+## License
+
+MIT License. See [LICENSE](LICENSE) for details.