logic_tools 0.2.4 → 0.3.0

checksums.yaml

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
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data/.gitignore

@@ -7,3 +7,6 @@
 /pkg/
 /spec/reports/
 /tmp/
+/lib/test.rb
+/lib/examples.txt
+/lib/result.txt

data/exe/is_tautology

@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env ruby
+######################################################################
+##          Script for launching the is_tautology.rb program        ##
+######################################################################
+
+begin
+    require 'rubygems'
+    gem 'logic_tools'
+rescue LoadError
+end
+
+load "logic_tools/is_tautology.rb"

data/exe/simplify_es

@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env ruby
+######################################################################
+##           Script for launching the simplify_qm.rb program        ##
+######################################################################
+
+begin
+    require 'rubygems'
+    gem 'logic_tools'
+rescue LoadError
+end
+
+load "logic_tools/simplify_es.rb"

data/lib/logic_tools/is_tautology.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env ruby
+#########################################################################
+#              Checks if a logic expression is a tautology              #
+#########################################################################
+
+
+# For building logic trees
+require "logic_tools/logictree.rb"
+
+# For parsing the inputs
+require "logic_tools/logicparse.rb"
+
+# For converting the inputs to covers.
+require "logic_tools/logicconvert.rb"
+
+# For processing the cover (and therfore check tautology)
+require "logic_tools/logiccover.rb"
+
+# For the command line interface
+require "logic_tools/logicinput.rb"
+
+include LogicTools
+
+
+
+
+
+############################
+# The main program
+
+# Iterrate on each expression
+each_input do |expr|
+    # Parse the expression.
+    parsed = string2logic(expr)
+    # print "parsed=#{parsed}\n"
+
+    # Convert it to a cover.
+    cover = parsed.to_cover
+    # print "cover=#{cover}\n"
+
+    # Checks if it is a tautology.
+    check = cover.is_tautology?
+ 
+    # Display the result
+    print check.to_s, "\n"
+end

data/lib/logic_tools/logicconvert.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,142 @@
+######################################################################
+#  Sets of tools for converting logic representations to one another #
+######################################################################
+
+# AND-OR-NOT tree representation.
+require "logic_tools/logictree.rb"
+
+# Cover representation.
+require "logic_tools/logiccover.rb"
+
+# TODO: bdd representation.
+
+module LogicTools
+
+    class Node
+        ## Converts to a cover.
+        def to_cover()
+            # Check the cases of trivial trees.
+            if self.is_a?(NodeTrue) then
+                cover = Cover.new("all")
+                cover << Cube.new("-")
+                return cover
+            elsif self.is_a?(NodeFalse) then
+                return Cover.new()
+            end
+
+            # Get the variables for converting them to indexes in the cubes
+            vars = self.get_variables
+            # Converts the tree rooted by self to a sum of products
+            # (reduced to limit the number of cubes and their sizes).
+            tree = self.to_sum_product.reduce
+            # print "tree=#{tree}\n"
+            
+            # Create an empty cover.
+            cover = Cover.new(*vars)
+
+            # Treat the trival cases.
+            case tree.op 
+            when :true then
+                # Logic true
+                cover << Cube.new("-" * cover.width)
+                return cover
+            when :false then
+                # Logic false
+                return cover
+            when :variable then
+                # Single variable
+                cover << Cube.new("1")
+                return cover
+            when :not then
+                # Single complement of a variable
+                cover << Cube.new("0")
+                return cover
+            end
+
+            # Treat the other cases.
+
+            # Fill it with the cubes corresponding to each product
+            tree.each do |product|
+                product = [ product ] unless product.is_a?(NodeNary)
+                # print "product=#{product}\n"
+                # Generate the bit string of the cube
+                str = "-"*vars.size
+                product.each do |lit|
+                    if lit.is_a?(NodeNot) then
+                        index = vars.index(lit.child.variable)
+                        # The litteral is a not
+                        if str[index] == "1" then
+                            # But it was "1" previously, contradictory cube:
+                            # mark it for removal
+                            str = nil
+                            break
+                        else
+                            # No contradiction, put a "0"
+                            str[index] = "0"
+                        end
+                    else
+                        index = vars.index(lit.variable)
+                        # The litteral is a variable
+                        if str[index] == "0" then
+                            # But it was "0" previously, contradictory cube:
+                            # mark it for removal.
+                            str = nil
+                            break
+                        else
+                            # No contradiction, put a "1"
+                            str[index] = "1"
+                        end
+                    end
+                end
+                # Create and add the corresponding cube if any.
+                cover.add(Cube.new(str)) if str
+            end
+            # print "cover=#{cover}\n"
+            # Remove the duplicate cubes if any.
+            cover.uniq!
+            # Return the resulting cover.
+            return cover
+        end
+    end
+
+    class Cover
+        ## Coverts to an AND-OR-NOT tree.
+        def to_tree()
+            # Generate the variable index.
+            vars = self.each_variable.to_a
+
+            # Treat the trivial cases.
+            if vars.empty? then
+                return self.empty? ? NodeFalse.new : NodeTrue.new
+            end
+            return NodeFalse.new if self.empty?
+
+            # Treat the other cases.
+
+            # Generate the products.
+            prods = self.each_cube.map do |cube|
+                # Generate the litterals of the and
+                litterals = []
+                cube.each.with_index do |val,i|
+                    if val == "0" then
+                        # "0" bits are converted to not litteral.
+                        litterals << NodeNot.new(NodeVar.new(vars[i]))
+                    elsif val == "1" then
+                        # "1" bits are converted to variable litteral
+                        litterals << NodeVar.new(vars[i])
+                    end
+                end
+                # Create and and with the generated litterals.
+                NodeAnd.new(*litterals)
+            end
+            # Is there an empty and?
+            if prods.find { |node| node.empty? } then
+                # Yes, this is a tautology.
+                return NodeTrue.new
+            else
+                # No, generate the sum and return it.
+                return NodeOr.new(*prods)
+            end
+        end
+    end
+end

data/lib/logic_tools/logiccover.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,828 @@
+########################################################################
+# Logic cover classes: used for describing covers of boolean functions #
+########################################################################
+
+
+require "logic_tools/minimal_column_covers.rb"
+
+module LogicTools
+
+    ## 
+    #  Represents a boolean cube.
+    #  
+    #  NOTE: cubes are crutial for the performance of the implementation
+    #  of the simplifying algorithm.
+    #  Hence they are internally represented as strings, since they are
+    #  much more energy efficient and usually faster than arrays.
+    #
+    #  Then there are two interfaces:
+    #  * The standard interface is based on strings and substrings only and
+    #    is safe but slow.
+    #
+    #    It includes the '[]' and '[]=' operators for accessing one bit,
+    #    and each_char (or simply each) for iterating over the bits.
+    #
+    #    With this interface, "0" stands for false, "1" for true and "-" for
+    #    don't care.
+    #
+    #  * The fast interface is based on bytes of a string, is fast but unsafe
+    #    (it does not check the bits).
+    #
+    #    It includes getbyte and setbyte for accessing one bit,
+    #    and each_byte for iterating over the bits.
+    #
+    #    With this interface, 48 stands for false, 49 for true and 45 for
+    #    don't care.
+    #
+    class Cube
+        
+        ## Creates a new cube from a bit string +bits+.
+        #
+        #  NOTE: If +safe+ is set to false, +bits+ is not checked nor cloned.
+        def initialize(bits, safe = true)
+            if safe then
+                bits = bits.to_s
+                unless bits.match(/^[01-]*$/)
+                    raise "Invalid bit string for describing a cube: "+ bits
+                end
+                @bits = bits.clone
+            else
+                @bits = bits.to_s
+            end
+        end
+
+        ## Gets the width (number of variables of the boolean space).
+        def width
+            return @bits.length
+        end
+
+        ## Evaluates the corresponding function's value for a binary +input+.
+        #
+        #  +input+ is assumed to be an integer.
+        #  Returns the evaluation result as a boolean.
+        def eval(input)
+            result = true
+            @bits.each_byte.with_index do |bit,i|
+                if bit == 49 then
+                    result &= ((input & (2**i)) != 0)
+                elsif bit == 48 then
+                    result &= ((input & (2**i)) == 0)
+                end
+            end
+            return result
+        end
+
+        ## Computes the distance with another +cube+.
+        def distance(cube)
+            return @bits.each_byte.with_index.count do |b,i|
+                # b != "-" and cube[i] != "-" and b != cube[i]
+                b != 45 and cube.getbyte(i) != 45 and b != cube.getbyte(i)
+            end
+        end
+
+        ## Converts to a string.
+        def to_s # :nodoc:
+            @bits.clone
+        end
+
+        ## Iterates over the bits of the cube as bytes.
+        # 
+        #  Returns an enumerator if no block given.
+        def each_byte(&blk)
+            # No block given? Return an enumerator.
+            return to_enum(:each_byte) unless block_given?
+            
+            # Block given? Apply it on each bit.
+            @bits.each_byte(&blk)
+        end
+
+        ## Iterates over the bits of the cube as chars.
+        def each_char(&blk)
+            # No block given? Return an enumerator.
+            return to_enum(:each_char) unless block_given?
+            
+            # Block given? Apply it on each bit.
+            @bits.each_char(&blk)
+        end
+        alias each each_char
+
+        ## The bit string defining the cube.
+        #
+        #  Should not be modified directly, hence set as protected.
+        attr_reader :bits
+        protected :bits
+
+        ## Compares with another +cube+.
+        def ==(cube) # :nodoc:
+            @bits == cube.bits
+        end
+        alias eql? ==
+        def <=>(cube) #:nodoc:
+            @bits <=> cube.bits
+        end
+
+        ## Gets the hash of a cube
+        def hash
+            @bits.hash
+        end
+
+        ## duplicates the cube.
+        def clone # :nodoc:
+            Cube.new(@bits)
+        end
+        alias dup clone
+
+        ## Gets the char value of bit +i+.
+        def [](i)
+            @bits[i]
+        end
+
+        ## Gets the byte value of bit +i+.
+        def getbyte(i)
+            @bits.getbyte(i)
+        end
+
+        ## Sets the char value of bit +i+ to +b+.
+        def []=(i,b)
+            raise "Invalid bit value: #{b}" unless ["0","1","-"].include?(b)
+            # Update the bit string
+            @bits[i] = b 
+        end
+
+        ## Sets the byte value of bit +i+ to +b+.
+        #
+        #  NOTE: does not check b, so please use with caution.
+        def setbyte(i,b)
+            @bits.setbyte(i,b)
+        end
+
+        ## Computes the consensus with another +cube+.
+        #
+        #  Returns the concensus cube if any.
+        def consensus(cube)
+            # Step 1: compute the distance between the cubes.
+            dist = self.distance(cube)
+            # Step 2: depending on the distance.
+            return nil if (dist != 1) # Distance is not 1: no consensus
+            # Distance is 1, the consensus is a single cube
+            # built by setting to "-" the opposite variable, and
+            # keeping all the other.
+            cbits = "-" * cube.width
+            @bits.each_byte.with_index do |bit,i|
+                # if bit != "-" then
+                if bit != 45 then
+                    # cbits[i] = bit if (cube[i] == "-" or cube[i] == bit)
+                    cbits.setbyte(i,bit) if (cube.getbyte(i) == 45 or
+                                             cube.getbyte(i) == bit)
+                else
+                    # cbits[i] = cube[i]
+                    cbits.setbyte(i,cube.getbyte(i))
+                end
+            end
+            return Cube.new(cbits,false) # No need to clone cbits.
+        end
+
+        ## Computes the sharp operation with another +cube+.
+        #
+        #  Returns the resulting list of cubes as an array.
+        #  
+        #  (NOTE: not as a cover).
+        def sharp(cube)
+            result = []
+            # There is one such cube per litteral which is in
+            # self but not in cube.
+            @bits.each_byte.with_index do |bit,i|
+                # next if (cube[i] == "-" or cube[i] == bit)
+                next if (cube.getbyte(i) == 45 or cube.getbyte(i) == bit)
+                cbits = @bits.clone
+                # cbits[i] = (cube[i] == "0") ? "1" : "0"
+                cbits.setbyte(i, (cube.getbyte(i) == 48) ? 49 : 48)
+                result << Cube.new(cbits,false) # No need to clone cbits
+            end
+            # Remove duplicate cubes before ending.
+            result.uniq!
+            return result
+        end
+
+        ## Checks if +self+ can be merged with +cube+
+        def can_merge?(cube)
+            found = false # 0 to 1 or 1 to 0 pattern found
+            @bits.each_byte.with_index do |bit,i|
+                if (bit != cube.getbyte(i)) then
+                    # Found one different bit
+                    return false if found # But there were already one
+                    found = true
+                end
+            end
+            # Can be merged
+            return true
+        end
+
+        ## Merges +self+ with +cube+ if possible.
+        #
+        #  Returns the merge result as a new cube, or nil in case of failure.
+        def merge(cube)
+            # Create the bit string of the result.
+            cbits = "-" * self.width
+            found = false # 0 to 1 or 1 to 0 pattern found
+            @bits.each_byte.with_index do |bit,i|
+                if (bit != cube.getbyte(i)) then
+                    # Found one different bit
+                    return nil if found # But there were already one
+                    found = true
+                else
+                    # cbits[i] = bit
+                    cbits.setbyte(i,bit)
+                end
+            end
+            # Can be merged
+            return Cube.new(cbits,false) # No need to clone cbits.
+        end
+
+        ## Checks if +self+ intersects with another +cube+.
+        def intersects?(cube)
+            return nil unless cube # No cube: intersection is empty.
+            # Cubes intersects if they do not include any 0,1 or 1,0 pattern.
+            return (not @bits.each_byte.with_index.find do |bit,i|
+                # bit != "-" and cube[i] != "-" and bit != cube[i]
+                bit != 45 and cube.getbyte(i) != 45 and bit != cube.getbyte(i)
+            end)
+        end
+
+        ## Creates the intersection between +self+ and another +cube+.
+        #
+        #  Return a new cube giving the intersection, or nil if there is none.
+        def intersect(cube)
+            return nil unless cube # No cube: intersection is empty.
+            cbits = "-" * self.width
+            # Cubes intersects if they do not include any 0,1 or 1,0 pattern.
+            @bits.each_byte.with_index do |bit,i|
+                # if bit == "-" then
+                if bit == 45 then
+                    # cbits[i] = cube[i]
+                    cbits.setbyte(i,cube.getbyte(i))
+                # elsif cube[i] == "-" then
+                elsif cube.getbyte(i) == 45 then
+                    # cbits[i] = bit
+                    cbits.setbyte(i,bit)
+                elsif bit != cube.getbyte(i) then
+                    # No intersection.
+                    return nil
+                else
+                    # cbits[i] = bit
+                    cbits.setbyte(i,bit)
+                end
+            end
+            return Cube.new(cbits,false) # No need to duplicate cbits.
+        end
+
+        ## Tells if +cube+ is included.
+        def include?(cube)
+            # Look for a proof of non inclusion.
+            ! @bits.each_byte.with_index.find do |bit,i|
+                # bit != "-" and cube[i] != bit
+                bit != 45 and cube.getbyte(i) != bit
+            end
+        end
+
+        ## Iterates over the minterms included by the cube.
+        #
+        #  The minterm are represented by bit strings.
+        #
+        #  Returns an iterator if no block is given.
+        def each_minterm
+            # No block given? Return an enumerator.
+            return to_enum(:each_minterm) unless block_given?
+
+            # Block given? Apply it.
+            # Locate the "-" in the bit: they are the source of alternatives
+            # free_cols = @bits.size.times.find_all {|i| @bits[i] == "-" }
+            free_cols = @bits.size.times.find_all {|i| @bits.getbyte(i) == 45 }
+            # Generate each possible min term
+            if (free_cols.empty?) then
+                # Only one minterm
+                yield(@bits.clone)
+            else
+                # There are several minterms
+                (2 ** (free_cols.size)).times do |sel|
+                    # Generate the minterm corresponding combination +sel+.
+                    minterm = @bits.clone
+                    free_cols.each.with_index do |col,i|
+                        if  (sel & (2 ** i) == 0) then
+                            # The column is to 0
+                            # minterm[col] = "0"
+                            minterm.setbyte(col,48)
+                        else
+                            # The column is to 1
+                            # minterm[col] = "1"
+                            minterm.setbyte(col,49)
+                        end
+                    end
+                    # The minterm is ready, use it.
+                    yield(minterm)
+                end
+            end
+        end
+    end
+
+
+    ##
+    # Represents a cover of a boolean function.
+    class Cover
+
+        ## Creates a new cover on a boolean space represented by a list of 
+        #  +variables+.
+        def initialize(*variables)
+            @variables = *variables
+            # Initialize the cover
+            @cubes = []
+            # @sorted = false # Initialy, the cover is not sorted
+        end
+
+        ## Gets the width (the number of variables of the boolean space).
+        def width
+            return @variables.length
+        end
+
+        ## Gets the size (the number of cubes).
+        def size
+            return @cubes.size
+        end
+
+        ## Tells if the cover is empty.
+        def empty?
+            return @cubes.empty?
+        end
+
+        ## Gets a variable by +index+.
+        def variable(index)
+            return @variables[index].clone
+        end
+
+        ## Gets the index of a +variable+.
+        def variable_index(variable)
+            return @variables.index(variable)
+        end
+
+        ## Adds a +cube+ to the cover.
+        #
+        #  Creates a new cube if +cube+ is not an instance of LogicTools::Cube.
+        def add(cube)
+            # Check the cube.
+            cube = Cube.new(cube) unless cube.is_a?(Cube)
+            if cube.width != self.width then
+                raise "Invalid cube width for #{cube}, expecting: #{self.width}"
+            end
+            # The cube is valid, add it.
+            @cubes.push(cube)
+            # # The cubes of the cover are therefore unsorted.
+            # @sorted = false
+        end
+        alias << add
+
+        ## Adds a +cube+ in front of the cover.
+        #
+        #  Creates a new cube if +cube+ is not an instance of LogicTools::Cube.
+        def unshift(cube)
+            # Check the cube.
+            cube = Cube.new(cube) unless cube.is_a?(Cube)
+            if cube.width != self.width then
+                raise "Invalid cube width for #{cube}, expecting: #{self.width}"
+            end
+            # The cube is valid, add it.
+            @cubes.unshift(cube)
+            # # The cubes of the cover are therefore unsorted.
+            # @sorted = false
+        end
+
+        ## Iterates over the cubes of the cover.
+        #
+        #  Returns an enumerator if no block is given.
+        def each_cube(&blk)
+            # No block given? Return an enumerator.
+            return to_enum(:each_cube) unless block_given?
+            # Block given? Apply it.
+            @cubes.each(&blk)
+        end
+        alias each each_cube
+
+        ## Gets a cube by +index+.
+        def [](index)
+            return @cubes[index]
+        end
+
+        ## Duplicates the cover.
+        def clone # :nodoc:
+            cover = Cover.new(*@variables)
+            @cubes.each { |cube| cover << cube }
+            return cover
+        end
+        alias dup clone
+
+        ## Duplicate the cover while improving a bit the result (for faster
+        #  processing later).
+        def simpler_clone
+            # Clone.
+            cover = self.clone
+            # But remove duplicate cubes.
+            cover.uniq!
+            # And sort the cubes to group together cubes with a shorter
+            # distance.
+            cover.sort! { |c0,c1| c0.distance(c1) - 1 }
+            return cover
+        end
+
+        ## Iterates over the variables of the cube
+        #
+        #  Returns an enumberator if no block is given
+        def each_variable(&blk)
+            # No block given? Return an enumerator
+            return to_enum(:each_variable) unless block_given?
+            # Block given? Apply it.
+            @variables.each(&blk)
+        end
+
+        ## Evaluates the corresponding function's value for a binary +input+.
+        #
+        #  +input+ is assumed to be an integer.
+        #  Returns the evaluation result as a boolean.
+        def eval(input)
+            # Evaluates each cube, if one results in true the result is true.
+            return !!@cubes.each.find {|cube| cube.eval(input) }
+        end
+
+        ## Converts to a string.
+        def to_s # :nodoc:
+            "[#{@variables.join(",")}],#{@cubes.join(",")}"
+        end
+
+        # ## Sorts the cubes.
+        # def sort!
+        #     @cubes.sort! unless @sorted
+        #     # Remember the cubes are sorted to avoid doing it again.
+        #     @sorted = true
+        #     return self
+        # end
+
+        ## Removes duplicate cubes.
+        def uniq!
+            @cubes.uniq!
+            return self
+        end
+
+        ## Sorts the cubes of the cover.
+        def sort!(&blk)
+            @cubes.sort!(&blk)
+        end
+
+        ## Generates the cofactor obtained when +var+ is set to +val+.
+        def cofactor(var,val)
+            # if val != "0" and val != "1" then
+            if val != 48 and val != 49 then
+                raise "Invalid value for generating a cofactor: #{val}"
+            end
+            # Get the index of the variable.
+            i = @variables.index(var)
+            # Create the new cover.
+            cover = Cover.new(*@variables)
+            # Set its cubes.
+            @cubes.each do |cube| 
+                cube = cube.to_s
+                # cube[i] = "-" if cube[i] == val
+                cube.setbyte(i,45) if cube.getbyte(i) == val
+                # cover << Cube.new(cube) if cube[i] == "-"
+                cover << Cube.new(cube,false) if cube.getbyte(i) == 45
+            end
+            cover.uniq!
+            return cover
+        end
+
+        ## Generates the generalized cofactor from +cube+.
+        def cofactor_cube(cube)
+            # Create the new cover.
+            cover = Cover.new(*@variables)
+            # Set its cubes.
+            @cubes.each do |scube|
+                scube = scube.to_s
+                scube.size.times do |i|
+                    if scube.getbyte(i) == cube.getbyte(i) then
+                        # scube[i] = "-" 
+                        scube.setbyte(i,45)
+                    # elsif (scube[i] != "-" and cube[i] != "-") then
+                    elsif (scube.getbyte(i)!=45 and cube.getbyte(i)!=45) then
+                        # The cube is to remove from the cover.
+                        scube = nil
+                        break
+                    end
+                end
+                if scube then
+                    # The cube is to keep in the cofactor.
+                    cover << Cube.new(scube,false)
+                end
+            end
+            cover.uniq!
+            return cover
+        end
+
+        ## Looks for a binate variable.
+        #  
+        #  Returns the found binate variable or nil if not found.
+        #
+        #  NOTE: Can also be used for checking if the cover is unate.
+        def find_binate
+            # Merge the cube over one another until a 1 over 0 or 0 over 1
+            # is met.
+            # The merging rules are to followings:
+            # 1 over 1 => 1
+            # 1 over - => 1
+            # 1 over 0 => not unate
+            # 0 over 0 => 0
+            # 0 over - => 0
+            # 0 over 1 => not unate
+            merge = "-" * self.width
+            @cubes.each do |cube|
+                cube.each_byte.with_index do |bit,i|
+                    # if bit == "1" then
+                    if bit == 49 then
+                        # if merge[i] == "0" then
+                        if merge.getbyte(i) == 48 then
+                            # A 1 over 0 is found, a binate variable is found.
+                            return @variables[i]
+                        else
+                            # merge[i] = "1"
+                            merge.setbyte(i,49)
+                        end
+                    # elsif bit == "0" then
+                    elsif bit == 48 then
+                        # if merge[i] == "1" then
+                        if merge.getbyte(i) == 49 then
+                            # A 0 over 1 is found, a binate variable is found.
+                            return @variables[i]
+                        else
+                            # merge[i] = "0"
+                            merge.setbyte(i,48)
+                        end
+                    end
+                end
+            end
+            # The cover is unate: no binate variable.
+            return nil
+        end
+
+        
+        ## Creates the union of self and +cover+.
+        #
+        #  +cover+ is either an instance of LogicTools::Cover or
+        #  a single instance of LogicTools::Cube.
+        def unite(cover)
+            # Check if the covers are compatible.
+            if (cover.width != self.width) then
+                raise "Incompatible cover for union: #{cover}"
+            end
+            # Creates the union cover.
+            union = Cover.new(*@variables)
+            # Fill it with the cubes of self and +cover+.
+            @cubes.each { |cube| union.add(cube.clone) }
+            if cover.is_a?(Cover) then
+                cover.each_cube { |cube| union.add(cube.clone) }
+            elsif cover.is_a?(Cube) then
+                union.add(cover.clone)
+            else
+                raise "Invalid class for cover union: #{cover.class}"
+            end
+            # Return the result.
+            return union
+        end
+        alias + unite
+
+        ## Creates the subtraction from +self+ minus one +cover+.
+        #
+        #  +cover+ is either an instance of LogicTools::Cover or
+        #  a single instance of LogicTools::Cube.
+        def subtract(cover)
+            # Check if the covers are compatible.
+            if (cover.width != self.width) then
+                raise "Incompatible cover for union: #{cover}"
+            end
+            # Creates the substraction cover.
+            subtraction = Cover.new(*@variables)
+            if cover.is_a?(Cube) then
+                cover = [cover]
+            elsif !(cover.is_a?(Cover)) then
+                raise "Invalid class for cover union: #{cover.class}"
+            end
+            @cubes.each do |cube|
+                subtraction << cube unless cover.each.include?(cube)
+            end
+            # Return the result.
+            return subtraction
+        end
+        alias - subtract
+
+        ## Generates the complement cover.
+        def complement
+            # First treat the case when the cover is empty:
+            # the result is the tautology.
+            if @cubes.empty? then
+                result = Cover.new(*@variables)
+                result << Cube.new("-"*self.width,false)
+                return result
+            end
+            # Otherwise...
+            
+            # Look for a binate variable to split on.
+            binate = self.find_binate
+            unless binate then
+                # The cover is actually unate, complement it the fast way.
+                # Step 1: Generate the following boolean matrix:
+                # each "0" and "1" is transformed to "1"
+                # each "-" is transformed to "0"
+                matrix = []
+                @cubes.each do |cube|
+                    line = " " * self.width
+                    matrix << line
+                    cube.each_byte.with_index do |bit,i|
+                        # line[i] = (bit == "0" or bit == "1") ? "1" : "0"
+                        line.setbyte(i, (bit == 48 or bit == 49) ? 49 : 48 )
+                    end
+                end
+                # Step 2: finds all the minimal column covers of the matrix
+                mins = minimal_column_covers(matrix)
+                # Step 3: generates the complent cover from the minimal
+                # column covers.
+                # Each minimal column cover is converted to a cube using
+                # the following rules (only valid because the initial cover
+                # is unate):
+                # * a minimal column whose variable can be reduced to 1
+                #   is converted to the not of the variable
+                # * a minimal column whose variable can be reduced to 0 is
+                #   converted to the variable
+                #
+                # +result+ is the final complement cover.
+                result = Cover.new(*@variables)
+                # print "mins=#{mins}\n"
+                mins.each do |min|
+                    # +cbits+ is the bit string describing the cube built
+                    # from the column cover +min+.
+                    cbits = "-" * self.width
+                    min.each do |col|
+                        # if @cubes.find {|cube| cube[col] == "1" } then
+                        if @cubes.find {|cube| cube.getbyte(col) == 49 } then
+                            # cbits[col] = "0"
+                            cbits.setbyte(col,48)
+                        else
+                            # cbits[col] = "1"
+                            cbits.setbyte(col,49)
+                        end
+                    end
+                    result << Cube.new(cbits,false)
+                end
+                return result
+            else
+                # Compute the cofactors over the binate variables.
+                # cf0 = self.cofactor(binate,"0")
+                cf0 = self.cofactor(binate,48)
+                # cf1 = self.cofactor(binate,"1")
+                cf1 = self.cofactor(binate,49)
+                # Complement them.
+                cf0 = cf0.complement
+                cf1 = cf1.complement
+                # Build the resulting complement cover as:
+                # (cf0 and (not binate)) or (cf1 and binate)
+                result = Cover.new(*@variables)
+                # Get the index of the binate variable.
+                i = @variables.index(binate)
+                cf0.each_cube do |cube| # cf0 and (not binate)
+                    # if cube[i] != "1" then
+                    if cube.getbyte(i) != 49 then
+                        # Cube's binate is not "1" so the cube can be kept
+                        # cube[i] = "0"
+                        cube.setbyte(i,48)
+                        result << cube
+                    end
+                end
+                cf1.each_cube do |cube| # cf1 and binate
+                    # if cube[i] != "0" then
+                    if cube.getbyte(i) != 48 then
+                        # Cube's binate is not "0" so the cube can be kept
+                        # cube[i] = "1"
+                        cube.setbyte(i,49)
+                        result << cube
+                    end
+                end
+                return result
+            end
+        end
+
+
+        ## Checks if self is a tautology.
+        def is_tautology?
+            # Look for a binate variable to split on.
+            binate = self.find_binate
+            # Gets its index
+            i = @variables.index(binate)
+            unless binate then
+                # The cover is actually unate, check it the fast way.
+                # Does it contain a "-" only cube? If yes, this is a tautology.
+                @cubes.each do |cube|
+                    # return true unless cube.each_bit.find { |bit| bit != "-" }
+                    return true unless cube.each_byte.find { |bit| bit != 45 }
+                end
+                # No "-" only cube, this is not a tautology
+                return false
+                #
+                # Other techniques: actually general, not necessarily on
+                # unate cover! Therefore WRONG place!
+                # The cover is actually unate, check it the fast way.
+                # Does it contain a "-" only cube? If yes, this is a tautology.
+                # @cubes.each do |cube|
+                #     # return true unless cube.each_bit.find { |bit| bit != "-" }
+                #     return true unless cube.each_bit.find { |bit| bit != 45 }
+                # end
+                # # Is there a "1" only or "0" only column? If yes, this is not
+                # # a tautology.
+                # self.width.times do |col|
+                #     fbit = @cubes[0][col]
+                #     # next if fbit == "-"
+                #     next if fbit == 45
+                #     next if (1..(@cubes.size-1)).each.find do |bit|
+                #         bit != fbit
+                #     end
+                #     return false # Not a tautology.
+                # end
+                # # Check the upper bound of the number of minterms:
+                # # if < 2**width, not a tautology.
+                # num_minterms = 0
+                # @cubes.each do |cube|
+                #     # num_minterms += 2 ** cube.each_bit.count {|b| b == "-"}
+                #     num_minterms += 2 ** cube.each_bit.count {|b| b == 45}
+                # end
+                # return false if num_minterms < 2**self.width
+                # # Last check: the truth table.
+                # (2**self.width).times do |input|
+                #     return false if self.eval(input) == 0
+                # end
+            else
+                # Compute the cofactors over the binate variables.
+                # cf0 = self.cofactor(binate,"0")
+                cf0 = self.cofactor(binate,48)
+                # cf1 = self.cofactor(binate,"1")
+                cf1 = self.cofactor(binate,49)
+                # Check both: if there are tautologies, self is also a
+                # tautology
+                return ( cf0.is_tautology? and cf1.is_tautology? )
+            end
+        end
+
+
+        ## Creates the smallest cube containing +self+.
+        def smallest_containing_cube
+            return nil if @cubes.empty? # Empty cover case.
+            # Create a new cube including "-" unless the columns of
+            # all the cubes are identical.
+            cbits = "-" * self.width
+            self.width.times do |i|
+                # print "cbits=#{cbits}\n"
+                # cbits[i] = @cubes.reduce(nil) do |bit,cube|
+                cbits.setbyte(i, @cubes.reduce(nil) do |bit,cube|
+                    # print "bit=#{bit} i=#{i} cube=#{cube}\n"
+                    if bit == nil then
+                        # bit = cube[i]
+                        bit = cube.getbyte(i)
+                    # elsif bit != cube[i]
+                    elsif bit != cube.getbyte(i)
+                        # bit = "-"
+                        bit = 45
+                        break bit
+                    end
+                    bit
+                end)
+            end
+            return Cube.new(cbits,false) # No need to clone cbits
+        end
+
+
+        ## Checks if +self+ intersects with +cube_or_cover+.
+        #
+        #  +cube_or_cover+ is either a full LogicTools::Cover object or a single
+        #  cube object (LogicTools::Cube or bit string).
+        def intersects?(cube_or_cover)
+            if cube_or_cover.is_a?(Cover) then
+                # Cover case: check intersect with each cube of +cube_or_cover+.
+                #
+                # NOTE: !! is for converting the result to boolean.
+                return !!( cube_or_cover.each_cube.find do |cube|
+                    self.intersects?(cube)
+                end ) 
+            else
+                # Cube case.
+                #
+                # NOTE: !! is for converting the result to boolean.
+                return !!( @cubes.find do |cube|
+                    cube.intersects?(cube_or_cover)
+                end ) 
+            end
+        end
+    end
+
+end