glove 0.1.1

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data/.gitignore

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+/.bundle/
+/.yardoc
+/Gemfile.lock
+/_yardoc/
+/coverage/
+/doc/
+/pkg/
+/spec/reports/
+/tmp/
+*.bundle
+*.so
+*.o
+*.a
+mkmf.log
+.ruby-version
+.ruby-gemset
+.DS_Store
+/benchmark/results/*
+!/benchmark/results/.keep

data/.rspec

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+--color

data/.travis.yml

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+language:
+  ruby
+rvm:
+  - 2.2.0
+  - 2.1.0
+  - 2.0.0
+script:
+  rake test
+before_install:
+  - sudo apt-get update -qq
+  - sudo apt-get install -y libgsl0-dev
+  - gem install bundler

data/Gemfile

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+source 'https://rubygems.org'
+
+gem 'codeclimate-test-reporter', group: :test, require: nil
+gem 'ruby-prof', group: :profile, require: nil
+
+# Specify your gem's dependencies in rb-glove.gemspec
+gemspec

data/LICENSE.txt

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+Copyright (c) 2014 Veselin Vasilev
+
+MIT License
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
+a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
+"Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
+without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
+distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
+permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
+the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
+included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
+EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
+NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
+LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
+OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
+WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.

data/README.md

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+# Ruby GloVe
+
+[![Build Status](https://travis-ci.org/vesselinv/glove.svg)](https://travis-ci.org/vesselinv/glove)
+[![Code Climate](https://codeclimate.com/github/vesselinv/glove/badges/gpa.svg)](https://codeclimate.com/github/vesselinv/glove)
+[![Test Coverage](https://codeclimate.com/github/vesselinv/glove/badges/coverage.svg)](https://codeclimate.com/github/vesselinv/glove)
+[![Inline docs](http://inch-ci.org/github/vesselinv/glove.svg?branch=master)](http://inch-ci.org/github/vesselinv/glove)
+
+Ruby implementation of Global Vectors for Word Representations.
+
+## Overview
+
+GloVe is an unsupervised learning algorithm for obtaining vector representations for words. Training is performed on aggregated global word-word co-occurrence statistics from a corpus, and the resulting representations showcase interesting linear substructures of the word vector space.
+
+**NOTE** This is an early prototype.
+
+## Resources
+
+- [Documentation](http://www.rubydoc.info/github/vesselinv/glove)
+- [Academic Paper on Global Vectors](http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/glove/glove.pdf)
+- [Original C Implementation](http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/glove/)
+- [glove-python](https://github.com/maciejkula/glove-python)
+- [spark-glove](https://github.com/petro-rudenko/spark-glove)
+
+## Dependencies
+
+This library relies on the [rb-gsl](http://blackwinter.github.io/rb-gsl) gem for Matrix and Vector operations, therefore you need GNU Scientific Library installed.
+
+Linux:
+
+    $ sudo apt-get install libgsl0-dev
+
+OS X:
+
+    $ brew install gsl
+
+Only compatible with MRI: tested in versions 2.0.x and 2.1.x
+
+## Installation
+
+```
+$ gem install glove
+```
+
+or add to your Gemfile
+
+```ruby
+gem 'glove'
+```
+
+## Usage
+
+```ruby
+require 'glove'
+
+# See documentation for all available options
+model = Glove::Model.new
+
+# Next feed it some text.
+text = File.read('quantum-physics.txt')
+model.fit(text)
+
+# Or you can pass it a Glove::Corpus object as the text argument instead
+corpus = Glove::Corpus.build(text)
+model.fit(corpus)
+
+# Finally, to query the model, we need to train it
+model.train
+
+# So far, word similarity and analogy task methods have been included:
+# Most similar words to quantum
+model.most_similar('quantum')
+# => [["physic", 0.9974459436353388], ["mechan", 0.9971606266531394], ["theori", 0.9965966776283189]]
+
+# What words relate to atom like quantum relates to physics?
+model.analogy_words('quantum', 'physics', 'atom')
+# => [["electron", 0.9858380292886947], ["energi", 0.9815122410243475], ["photon", 0.9665073849076669]]
+
+# Save the trained matrices and vectors for later usage in binary formats
+model.save('corpus.bin', 'cooc-matrix.bin', 'word-vec.bin', 'word-biases.bin')
+
+# Later on create a new instance and call #load
+model = Glove::Model.new
+model.load('corpus.bin', 'cooc-matrix.bin', 'word-vec.bin', 'word-biases.bin')
+# Now you can query the model again and get the same results as above
+```
+
+# Performance
+
+Thanks to the [rb-gsl](https://github.com/blackwinter/rb-gsl) bindings for
+[GSL](https://www.gnu.org/software/gsl/), matrix/vector operations are fast. The
+glove algorythm itself, however, requires quite a bit of computational power, even
+the original C library. If you need speed, use smaller texts with vocabulaty size
+no more than 100K words. Processing text with 160K words (compilation of several
+books on quantum mechanics) on a late 2012 MBP (8GB RAM) with ruby-2.1.5 takes
+about 7 minutes:
+
+     $ ruby -Ilib benchmark/benchmark.rb
+                     user     system      total        real
+    Fit Text    11.320000   0.070000  11.390000 ( 11.387612)
+    Vocabulary size: 158323
+    Unique tokens: 2903
+    Co-occur     1.330000   0.250000 1107.720000 (300.738453)
+    Train      121.120000  12.960000  134.080000 (128.409034)
+    Similarity   0.010000   0.000000    0.010000 (  0.057423)
+    Give me the 3 most similar words to quantum
+    [["problem", 0.9977609386134489], ["mechan", 0.9977529272587808], ["classic", 0.9974759411408415]]
+    Analogy      0.010000   0.000000   0.010000 (  0.010674)
+    What 3 words relate to atom like quantum relates to mechanics?
+    [["particl", 0.9982711579369483], ["find", 0.9982303885530384], ["expect", 0.9982017117355527]]
+
+
+## TODO
+
+- Word Vector graphs
+
+## Contributing
+
+1. Fork it ( https://github.com/vesselinv/glove/fork )
+2. Create your feature branch (`git checkout -b my-new-feature`)
+3. Commit your changes (`git commit -am 'Add some feature'`)
+4. Push to the branch (`git push origin my-new-feature`)
+5. Create a new Pull Request

data/Rakefile

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+require "bundler/gem_tasks"
+require "rspec/core/rake_task"
+
+RSpec::Core::RakeTask.new
+
+task :default => :spec
+task :test    => :spec

data/benchmark/benchmark.rb

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+require 'glove'
+require 'benchmark'
+
+bm_dir = File.expand_path File.dirname(__FILE__)
+data_path = File.join(bm_dir, 'data')
+
+Benchmark.bm(10) do |bm|
+  opt = {stem: false, stop_words: false, normalize: false, alphabetic: false}
+  model = Glove::Model.new
+
+  filepath = File.join(data_path, 'quantum-physics.txt')
+  text = File.read(filepath)
+
+  bm.report("Fit Text") do
+    model.send :fit_corpus, text
+  end
+
+  puts "Vocabulary size: #{model.token_pairs.size}"
+  puts "Unique tokens: #{model.token_index.size}"
+
+  bm.report("Co-occur") do
+    model.send :build_cooc_matrix
+    model.send :build_word_vectors
+  end
+
+  bm.report("Train") do
+    model.train
+  end
+
+  bm.report("Similarity") do
+    puts "Give me the 3 most similar words to quantum\n"
+    puts model.most_similar('quantum').inspect
+  end
+
+  bm.report("Analogy") do
+    puts "What 3 words relate to atom like quantum relates to mechanics?\n"
+    puts model.analogy_words('quantum', 'mechanics', 'atom').inspect
+  end
+end

data/benchmark/co-occurrence.rb

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+require 'benchmark'
+require 'glove'
+
+class CoOccurrence
+  def initialize(corpus)
+    @token_count = corpus.count
+    @token_index = corpus.index
+    @token_pairs = corpus.pairs
+    @matrix = nil
+  end
+
+  def without_threads
+    vectors = @token_index.map do |token, index|
+      build_cooc_matrix_col([token, index])
+    end
+
+    @matrix = GSL::Matrix.alloc(*vectors)
+  end
+
+  def with_threads
+    @matrix = GSL::Matrix.alloc(@token_index.size, @token_index.size)
+    mutex = Mutex.new
+
+    workers = @token_index.each_slice(4).map do |slices|
+      Thread.new{ work(slices, mutex) }
+    end
+    workers.each(&:join)
+  end
+
+  def with_processes
+    vectors = Parallel.map(@token_index, in_processes: 4) do |slice|
+      build_cooc_matrix_col(slice)
+    end
+
+    @matrix = GSL::Matrix.alloc(*vectors)
+  end
+
+  def build_cooc_matrix_col(slice)
+    token = slice[0]
+    vector = GSL::Vector.alloc(@token_index.size)
+
+    @token_pairs.each do |pair|
+      key = @token_index[pair.token]
+      sum = pair.neighbors.select{ |word| word == token }.size
+      vector[key] += sum
+    end
+
+    vector.to_a
+  end
+
+  def work(slices, mutex)
+    slices.each do |slice|
+      vector = build_cooc_matrix_col(slice)
+
+      mutex.synchronize do
+        @matrix.set_col(slice[1], vector)
+      end
+    end
+  end
+end
+
+bm_dir    = File.expand_path File.dirname(__FILE__)
+data_path = File.join(bm_dir, 'data')
+text_path = File.join(data_path, 'quantum-physics.txt')
+text      = File.read(text_path).split.take(10_000).join(' ')
+corpus    = Glove::Corpus.build(text, min_count: 2)
+coocc     = CoOccurrence.new(corpus)
+
+puts "\nVocabulary size: #{corpus.pairs.size}"
+puts "Unique tokens: #{corpus.index.size}\n\n"
+
+Benchmark.bm(10) do |b|
+
+  b.report('No threads') do
+    coocc.without_threads
+  end
+
+  b.report('With threads') do
+    coocc.with_threads
+  end
+
+  b.report('With processes') do
+    coocc.with_processes
+  end
+end

data/benchmark/data/quantum-physics.txt

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+quantum mechanics wikipedia free encyclopedia wikipedia readers advertising doesn survive time reading fundraiser hour price small profit top website staff wikipedia special library public learn wikipedia tax donation online free year time paypal amazon paypal usd problems donating ways asked questions donating agreeing donor privacy policy wikimedia foundation nonprofit tax exempt organization donating agreeing donor privacy policy sharing wikimedia foundation service providers wikimedia foundation nonprofit tax exempt organization donating agreeing donor privacy policy sharing wikimedia foundation service providers wikimedia foundation send email include link easy fundraiser hour donate quantum mechanics wikipedia free encyclopedia latest accepted accepted november jump navigation search technical introduction topic introduction quantum mechanics quantum mechanics uncertainty principle introduction history background classical mechanics quantum theory bra ket notation hamiltonian interference fundamentals complementarity decoherence entanglement energy level measurement nonlocality quantum number state superposition symmetry tunnelling uncertainty wave function collapse experiments bell davisson double slit hertz quantum delayed choice schrödinger cat wheeler delayed choice formulations overview heisenberg interaction matrix phase space schrödinger sum histories path integral equations dirac pauli rydberg schrödinger interpretations overview consistent histories copenhagen broglie bohm hidden worlds collapse quantum logic transactional advanced topics quantum chaos quantum computing density matrix quantum field theory quantum mechanics quantum science relativistic quantum mechanics scattering theory quantum statistical mechanics scientists bell bohm bohr born bose broglie compton dirac davisson einstein everett fermi feynman heisenberg hilbert jordan pauli planck rydberg schrödinger sommerfeld von neumann weyl wien quantum mechanics quantum physics quantum theory fundamental branch physics deals physical phenomena scales action order planck constant classical mechanics quantum realm atomic subatomic length scales quantum mechanics mathematical description particle wave behavior interactions energy matter quantum mechanics features modern periodic elements including behavior atoms chemical role development modern technologies advanced topics quantum mechanics behaviors macroscopic macroscopic quantum phenomena low high energies temperatures quantum mechanics wave particle duality energy matter uncertainty principle provide unified view behavior photons electrons atomic scale objects mathematical formulations quantum mechanics abstract mathematical function wavefunction probability amplitude position momentum physical properties particle mathematical wavefunction bra ket notation understanding complex numbers linear wavefunction formulation particle quantum harmonic oscillator mathematics describing resonance quantum mechanics easily terms classical mechanics instance quantum mechanical model lowest energy state system ground state traditional ground state kinetic energy particles rest traditional energy state quantum mechanics possibilities john wheeler earliest quantum mechanics formulated decade century time atomic theory theory light updated einstein widely accepted scientific fact theories quantum theories matter electromagnetic radiation early quantum theory werner heisenberg max born jordan matrix mechanics louis broglie erwin schrödinger wave mechanics pauli bose statistics subatomic particles copenhagen interpretation niels bohr widely accepted quantum mechanics unified work david hilbert paul dirac john von neumann greater measurement quantum mechanics statistical nature knowledge reality philosophical role quantum mechanics aspects century physics including quantum chemistry quantum electronics quantum optics quantum science century physics classical limit quantum mechanics advanced terms quantum field theory string theory quantum gravity theories quantum mechanics observation physical change discrete latin quanta continuous contents hide history mathematical formulations mathematically formulations quantum mechanics interactions scientific theories quantum mechanics classical physics relativity quantum mechanics unified field theory philosophical implications applications examples free particle step potential rectangular potential barrier particle box finite potential harmonic oscillator notes references reading external links history edit modern physics schrödinger equation history modern physics max planck albert einstein concepts space time energy work mind philosophy science philosophy physics mathematical logic mathematical physics grand unified theory standard model quantum mechanics quantum field theory quantum electrodynamics quantum particle physics nuclear physics atomic molecular optical physics matter physics quantum statistical mechanics quantum quantum computation linear dynamics quantum mind physics astronomy special relativity general relativity astrophysics cosmology string theory quantum gravity multiverse quantum chaos complex systems scientists planck wien sommerfeld einstein born weyl bohr schrödinger broglie bose compton pauli fermi waals heisenberg hilbert jordan dirac hawking wheeler von neumann higgs feynman bell main article history quantum mechanics scientific wave nature light scientists robert proposed wave theory light based experimental observations thomas young english performed famous double slit experiment paper nature light colours experiment major role general wave theory light discovery michael studies statement black body radiation problem energy states physical system discrete quantum hypothesis max planck planck hypothesis energy discrete quanta energy elements precisely observed black body radiation wien determined distribution law black body radiation wien law result maxwell equations high frequencies low frequencies max planck model statistical interpretation thermodynamics proposed called planck law led development quantum mechanics study quantum phenomena nature compton quantum robert studied photoelectric experimentally albert einstein developed theory time niels bohr developed theory atomic structure confirmed experiments henry extended niels bohr theory atomic structure introducing orbits concept sommerfeld phase quantum theory planck energy element frequency max planck considered father quantum theory planck constant planck simply processes emission radiation physical reality radiation fact considered quantum hypothesis mathematical discovery albert einstein interpreted planck quantum hypothesis explain photoelectric light materials electrons material solvay conference foundations quantum mechanics half century max planck niels bohr werner heisenberg louis broglie compton albert einstein erwin schrödinger max born john von neumann paul dirac fermi pauli max von david hilbert wien bose sommerfeld quantum mechanics led standard formulation atomic physics bohr heisenberg published quantum theory particle behavior processes measurements light quanta called photons einstein simple born testing entire field quantum physics leading solvay conference led quantum mechanics study electromagnetic waves visible ultraviolet light max planck energy waves small quanta albert einstein developed idea electromagnetic wave light particle called photon discrete quantum energy dependent frequency einstein photon theory light explain photoelectric won nobel prize physics led theory subatomic particles electromagnetic waves particles waves simply particle wave properties concept wave particle duality quantum mechanics world small explain macroscopic systems large organic molecules word quantum latin meaning great quantum mechanics refers discrete unit quantum theory physical energy atom rest figure discovery particles discrete energy wave properties led branch physics dealing atomic atomic systems today called quantum mechanics mathematical fields physics chemistry including matter physics solid state physics atomic physics molecular physics computational physics computational chemistry quantum chemistry particle physics nuclear chemistry nuclear physics fundamental aspects theory studied quantum mechanics essential understanding behavior systems atomic length scales smaller physical nature atom classical mechanics electrons orbit nucleus electrons emit radiation circular motion eventually nucleus loss energy explain atoms electrons uncertain deterministic probabilistic wave particle orbital nucleus traditional classical mechanics electromagnetism quantum mechanics initially developed provide explanation description atom light emitted element subatomic particles short quantum mechanical atomic model realm classical mechanics electromagnetism quantum mechanics phenomena classical physics account quantization physical properties wave particle duality principle uncertainty quantum entanglement mathematical formulations edit main article mathematical formulations quantum mechanics quantum logic mathematically formulation quantum mechanics developed paul dirac david hilbert john von neumann weyl states quantum mechanical system represented unit called state complex hilbert space called state space hilbert space system defined complex number phase factor words states space hilbert space called complex space exact nature hilbert space dependent system state space position momentum states space square functions state space spin single proton product complex observable represented precisely linear operator acting state space eigenstate observable operator observable eigenstate operator spectrum discrete observable discrete eigenvalues formalism quantum mechanics state system time complex wave function referred state complex space abstract mathematical object probabilities concrete experiments probability finding electron region nucleus time classical mechanics predictions conjugate variables position momentum accuracy instance electrons considered probability located region space exact unknown constant probability referred nucleus atom electron located probability heisenberg uncertainty principle precisely particle conjugate momentum interpretation result measurement wave function probability system collapses initial state eigenstate measurement eigenvalues operator observable explains choice eigenvalues real probability distribution observable state computing spectral operator heisenberg uncertainty principle represented statement observables probabilistic nature quantum mechanics measurement difficult aspects quantum systems understand central topic famous bohr einstein scientists fundamental principles thought experiments decades formulation quantum mechanics question measurement studied interpretations quantum mechanics formulated concept wavefunction collapse relative state interpretation basic idea quantum system measuring apparatus entangled original quantum system exist independent details article measurement quantum mechanics quantum mechanics definite values prediction probability distribution describes probability measuring observable probability probability bohr model electron location probability function wave function probability complex amplitude quantum state nuclear probabilities quantum state instant measurement uncertainty involved states definite observable eigenstates observable translated german meaning characteristic everyday world natural observable eigenstate appears definite position definite momentum definite energy definite time quantum mechanics exact values particle position momentum conjugate energy time conjugate range probabilities particle momentum momentum probability words describe states uncertain values states definite values eigenstates system eigenstate observable particle measures observable wavefunction eigenstate eigenstate observable process wavefunction collapse controversial process involves system study include measurement device wave function instant measurement probability wavefunction eigenstates free particle previous wavefunction wave packet position eigenstate position momentum measures position particle impossible predict result amplitude wave function large measurement performed result wave function collapses position eigenstate time evolution quantum state schrödinger equation hamiltonian operator energy system time evolution time evolution wave functions deterministic sense wavefunction initial time definite prediction wavefunction time measurement hand change initial wavefunction wavefunction deterministic random time evolution wave functions change time schrödinger equation describes change time role law classical mechanics schrödinger equation free particle predicts center wave packet move space constant velocity classical particle forces acting wave packet time position uncertain time position eigenstate thought wave packet wave packet longer represents definite position eigenstate probability electron hydrogen atom definite energy levels top angular left areas higher probability density position measurement directly classical physics energy definite frequency angular momentum energy quantized discrete values case frequencies acoustics wave functions produce probability constant independent time state constant energy time absolute square wave function systems classical mechanics wave functions single electron atom particle moving circular trajectory atomic nucleus quantum mechanics wavefunction nucleus note lowest angular momentum states schrödinger equation acts entire probability amplitude absolute absolute probability amplitude probabilities phase interference quantum states rise wave behavior quantum states solutions schrödinger equation small number simple model quantum harmonic oscillator particle box hydrogen molecular hydrogen atom helium atom electron hydrogen atom fully treatment exist solutions method theory result simple quantum mechanical model result complicated model simpler model weak potential energy method classical equation motion approach systems quantum mechanics weak small classical behavior based classical motion approach field quantum chaos mathematically formulations quantum mechanics edit mathematically formulations quantum mechanics formulations theory proposed paul dirac earliest formulations quantum mechanics matrix mechanics invented werner heisenberg wave mechanics invented erwin schrödinger werner heisenberg nobel prize physics quantum mechanics role max born development nobel role born role matrix formulation quantum mechanics probability amplitudes heisenberg born published max planck matrix formulation state quantum system probabilities properties observables examples observables include energy position momentum angular momentum observables continuous position particle discrete energy electron bound hydrogen atom alternative formulation quantum mechanics feynman path integral formulation quantum mechanical amplitude considered sum classical classical initial final states quantum mechanical action principle classical mechanics interactions scientific theories edit rules quantum mechanics fundamental state space system hilbert space observables system acting space hilbert space order description quantum system guide making correspondence principle states predictions quantum mechanics classical mechanics system higher energies larger quantum numbers single particle exhibits degree systems particles takes high energy limit statistical probability random behaviour words classical mechanics simply quantum mechanics large systems high energy limit classical correspondence limit start classical model system attempt underlying quantum model rise classical model correspondence limit list problems physics correspondence limit quantum mechanics interpretation quantum mechanics quantum description reality includes elements superposition states wavefunction collapse rise reality quantum mechanics originally formulated models correspondence limit relativistic classical mechanics instance model quantum harmonic oscillator relativistic kinetic energy oscillator quantum version classical harmonic oscillator early quantum mechanics special relativity involved schrödinger equation equation equation dirac equation theories successful explaining experimental relativistic particles fully relativistic quantum theory development quantum field theory quantization field fixed set particles complete quantum field theory quantum electrodynamics fully quantum description electromagnetic interaction full apparatus quantum field theory describing systems simpler approach quantum mechanics charged particles quantum mechanical objects classical electromagnetic field elementary quantum model hydrogen atom describes electric field hydrogen atom classical potential classical approach quantum electromagnetic field play role emission photons charged particles quantum field theories strong nuclear force weak nuclear force developed quantum field theory strong nuclear force called quantum describes interactions particles weak nuclear force electromagnetic force unified quantized forms single quantum field theory theory physicists men shared nobel prize physics work difficult quantum models gravity fundamental force classical led predictions hawking radiation formulation complete theory quantum gravity apparent general relativity accurate theory gravity fundamental quantum theory active theories string theory future theory quantum gravity classical mechanics extended complex domain complex classical mechanics behaviors quantum mechanics quantum mechanics classical physics edit predictions quantum mechanics verified experimentally extremely high degree accuracy correspondence principle classical quantum mechanics objects laws quantum mechanics classical mechanics large systems objects statistical quantum mechanics large collection particles laws classical mechanics follow laws quantum mechanics statistical limit large systems large quantum numbers systems good quantum numbers quantum chaos studies relationship classical quantum systems quantum essential difference classical quantum theories einstein podolsky rosen epr paradox attempt quantum mechanics local quantum interference involves probability amplitudes classical waves intensities microscopic system smaller length rise long range entanglement phenomena characteristic quantum systems quantum macroscopic scales occur extremely low temperatures absolute quantum behavior observations macroscopic properties classical system direct consequence quantum behavior matter atoms molecules collapse electric forces mechanical thermal chemical optical magnetic properties matter interaction electric charges rules quantum mechanics exotic behavior matter quantum mechanics relativity theory apparent dealing particles extremely small size speed light laws classical considered physics accurate behavior vast large objects order size large molecules bigger smaller velocity light relativity quantum mechanics edit main article relativistic quantum mechanics einstein theory general relativity quantum theory evidence directly claims extremely difficult consistent model einstein claims quantum mechanics field philosophical consequences interpretations quantum mechanics lack deterministic causality famously quoted god play dice single subatomic particle areas space time exotic consequences entanglement einstein podolsky rosen paradox hope showing quantum mechanics implications complete description physical reality john bell bell einstein correct implications quantum mechanical nonlocality implications experimentally initial experiments experiments verified quantum entanglement paper bell copenhagen interpretation common interpretation quantum mechanics physicists einstein ideas quantum mechanics time theory local theory einstein podolsky rosen paradox case exist experiments measure state particle change state entangled particles arbitrary distance causality quantum entanglement forms quantum cryptography high security applications gravity areas particle physics general relativity quantum mechanics issue applications lack correct theory quantum gravity issue cosmology search physicists theory theories major century physics physicists including stephen hawking years attempt discover theory underlying models subatomic physics fundamental forces nature strong force electromagnetism weak force gravity single force phenomenon stephen hawking initially theory theorem lecture physics unified field theory edit main article grand unified theory fundamental forces quantum mechanics quantum electrodynamics quantum electromagnetism accurately physical theory general relativity source blog weak nuclear force force work strong force force current predictions state forces single unified field grand gravity expected occur special relativity quantum electrodynamics general relativity theory describing force fully quantum theory theoretical physicist formulated theory attempt describing based string theory theory apparent dimensional reality dimensional time lower energies completely measurement popular theory quantum gravity theory describes quantum properties gravity theory quantum space quantum time general relativity gravity attempt standard quantum mechanics standard general relativity main theory physical picture space space direct consequence quantization nature photons quantum theory electromagnetism discrete levels energy atoms space discrete precisely space extremely network finite networks called spin networks evolution spin network time called spin predicted size structure planck length theory meaning length planck scale energy predicts matter space atomic structure quantum gravity proposed philosophical implications edit main article interpretations quantum mechanics aspects quantum mechanics strong philosophical interpretations fundamental issues max born basic rules probability amplitudes probability decades society leading scientists richard feynman safely understands quantum mechanics opinion interpretation quantum mechanics copenhagen interpretation theoretical physicist niels bohr quantum mechanical formalism widely accepted physicists years interpretation probabilistic nature quantum mechanics feature eventually deterministic theory considered final classical idea causality defined application quantum mechanical formalism experimental conjugate nature evidence experimental situations albert einstein quantum theory loss measurement einstein local hidden theory underlying quantum mechanics theory produced series quantum theory famous einstein podolsky rosen paradox john bell epr paradox led experimentally quantum mechanics local theories experiments performed accuracy quantum mechanics physical world local theory bohr einstein provide copenhagen interpretation point view everett worlds interpretation formulated holds possibilities quantum theory simultaneously occur multiverse independent parallel universes introducing quantum mechanics collapse wave packet consistent states measured system measuring apparatus including real physical mathematical interpretations quantum superposition superposition consistent state systems called entangled state multiverse deterministic deterministic behavior probabilities universe consistent state superposition everett interpretation consistent john bell experiments theory quantum decoherence parallel universes understood measurement measured system entangled physicist measured huge number particles photons speed light universe order prove wave function collapse particles measure system originally measured completely evidence original measurement place including physicist memory light bell tests formulated transactional interpretation quantum mechanics late modern copenhagen interpretation applications edit quantum mechanics success explaining features universe quantum mechanics tool reveal individual behaviors subatomic particles forms matter electrons photons quantum mechanics string theories theory quantum mechanics understanding individual atoms form molecules application quantum mechanics chemistry quantum chemistry relativistic quantum mechanics principle mathematically describe chemistry quantum mechanics provide processes showing molecules energies involved calculations performed modern computational chemistry quantum mechanics working tunneling device based phenomenon quantum tunneling potential great deal modern scale quantum effects examples include laser transistor electron magnetic resonance study led transistor modern electronics systems devices researchers methods directly quantum states fully quantum cryptography development quantum computers expected computational faster classical computers classical bits quantum computers qubits states active topic quantum teleportation deals quantum arbitrary distances quantum tunneling devices simple light electrons electric current potential barrier quantum tunneling memory quantum tunneling memory cells quantum mechanics smaller atomic matter energy systems exhibit quantum mechanical effects large scale liquid temperatures absolute phenomenon electron gas material electric current low temperatures quantum theory accurate phenomena black body radiation orbitals electrons atoms biological systems including work provided evidence quantum play essential role fundamental process plants classical physics provide good quantum physics large numbers particles large quantum numbers classical simpler quantum classical system large effects quantum mechanics examples edit free particle edit free particle quantum mechanics wave particle duality properties particle properties wave quantum state represented wave arbitrary shape space wave function position momentum particle observables uncertainty principle states position momentum simultaneously measured complete precision measure position moving free particle eigenstate position wavefunction large dirac position position measurement wavefunction probability full complete precision called eigenstate position mathematical terms position eigenstate particle eigenstate position momentum completely unknown hand particle eigenstate momentum position completely unknown eigenstate momentum wave form wavelength equal planck constant momentum eigenstate electron wave functions eigenstate quantum rectangular quantum dots energy states rectangular dots type type wave functions symmetry step potential edit main article solution schrödinger equation step potential scattering finite potential step green amplitudes direction left moving waves wave blue waves red occur figure potential case solutions left moving waves wave energy determined conditions continuous solution term solution interpreted wave contrast classical mechanics particles energies greater potential step rectangular potential barrier edit main article rectangular potential barrier model quantum tunneling plays role modern technologies memory tunneling quantum tunneling central physical phenomena involved particle box edit dimensional potential energy box infinite potential main article particle box particle dimensional potential energy box mathematically simple lead quantization energy levels box defined potential energy region infinite potential energy region dimensional case direction time independent schrödinger equation written operator defined previous equation classic kinetic energy state case energy kinetic energy particle general solutions schrödinger equation particle box formula infinite potential box values conflict born interpretation integer multiple quantization energy levels finite potential edit main article finite potential finite potential infinite potential problem potential finite finite potential problem mathematically complicated infinite particle box problem wavefunction wavefunction complicated mathematical conditions harmonic oscillator edit main article quantum harmonic oscillator trajectories harmonic oscillator spring classical mechanics quantum mechanics quantum mechanics position represented wave called wavefunction real blue red trajectories standing waves states standing wave frequency energy level oscillator energy quantization occur classical physics oscillator energy classical case potential quantum harmonic oscillator problem directly schrödinger method proposed paul dirac eigenstates energy levels quantization energy bound states edit angular momentum quantum mechanics epr paradox quantum mechanics list quantum mechanical systems solutions macroscopic quantum phenomena phase space formulation physics portal notes edit jump encyclopedia natural mathematical sciences springer isbn jump van von neumann quantum mechanics pdf american mathematical society doi jump max born principles optics cambridge university press jump development quantum theory york springer isbn jump quantum history physics century princeton university press isbn jump resonance journal sciences jump black body theory quantum oxford press isbn jump max planck jump einstein die point view light der bibcode doi albert einstein john princeton university press vol german einstein early work quantum hypothesis jump quantum interference large organic molecules nature retrieved jump quantum free dictionary retrieved jump http org quantum quant jump list jump machine october dead link jump dirac principles quantum mechanics press oxford jump hilbert lectures quantum theory jump von neumann der springer english translation mathematical foundations quantum mechanics princeton university press jump weyl theory quantum mechanics original title jump quantum mechanics edition springer isbn chapter jump heisenberg quantum mechanics uncertainty org retrieved jump quantum challenge modern foundations quantum mechanics edition jones isbn chapter jump abstract uncertain particle retrieved jump dark side force foundations conflict theory university press isbn chapter jump jump topics wave function collapse retrieved jump collapse wave function retrieved jump philosophy reddit retrieved jump michael time evolution square project retrieved jump michael time evolution square retrieved jump quantum mechanics hill isbn chapter jump wave functions schrödinger equation pdf retrieved dead link jump dead link jump world life science max born basic books jump http ocw physics classical mechanics pdf lectures pdf jump nobel prize physics nobel foundation retrieved jump complex jump precision tests qed relativistic quantum mechanics quantum electrodynamics qed agree experiment atomic properties jump paul modern physics company isbn jump quantum mechanics retrieved jump einstein podolsky rosen quantum mechanical description physical reality considered complete phys jump classical quantum pdf retrieved jump macroscopic quantum phenomena bose einstein quantum machine jump atomic properties retrieved jump http cambridge org pdf jump consistent complete relativistic quantum field theory bell relativistic quantum theory theoretical physics isbn jump stephen hawking physics jump article jump life accurate theory retrieved jump problems jump physical law quoted quantum universe patrick jump collapse state phys jump action distance quantum mechanics stanford encyclopedia philosophy stanford retrieved jump everett relative state formulation quantum mechanics stanford encyclopedia philosophy stanford retrieved jump transactional interpretation quantum mechanics john reviews modern physics jump feynman lectures physics applications quantum mechanics vol iii circuits follow technology solid state physics vol vol iii jump introduction quantum mechanics applications chemistry wilson isbn retrieved jump quantum mechanics subatomic particles discover magazine retrieved jump quantum mechanics retrieved jump david quantum mechanics edition hall isbn chapter jump future understand order chaos isbn retrieved jump particle box chemistry references edit working physicists attempt communicate quantum theory people minimum technical apparatus quantum mechanics john wiley isbn quantum universe happen happen isbn richard feynman qed strange theory light matter princeton university press isbn elementary lectures quantum electrodynamics quantum field theory insights expert god princeton univ press technical works cited bra ket notation reading david spooky distance mysteries cambridge university press reality symmetry multiple universes books includes philosophical technical worlds interpretation quantum mechanics princeton series physics princeton university press isbn dirac principles quantum mechanics isbn introduction hugh everett relative state formulation quantum mechanics reviews modern physics feynman richard robert feynman lectures physics addison wesley isbn david introduction quantum mechanics hall isbn standard text max development quantum mechanics hill path quantum mechanics statistics physics world scientific edition wave mechanics london press isbn mathematical foundations quantum mechanics dover isbn albert quantum mechanics vol english translation john wiley iii understanding quantum mechanics princeton university press isbn periodic story oxford university press chemistry periodic system quantum mechanics isbn quantum mechanics physics adventure language foundation isbn von neumann john mathematical foundations quantum mechanics princeton university press isbn weyl theory quantum mechanics dover quantum physics concepts experiments history philosophy springer reading edit quantum cambridge press university press isbn bohm david quantum theory dover isbn robert robert quantum physics atoms molecules particles wiley isbn richard quantum mechanics addison wesley isbn quantum mechanics wiley john isbn modern quantum mechanics addison wesley isbn principles quantum mechanics springer isbn einstein quantum princeton university press isbn external links edit find quantum mechanics wikipedia media commons wikiquote source learning resources applications basic quantum effects commons wikimedia org quantum book open phys material modern revolution physics online history quantum mechanics introduction quantum theory quantum physics simple video lectures hans bethe quantum mechanics books collection collection free books material quantum physics fundamentals background quantum theory lecture notes quantum mechanics advanced topics mit opencourseware chemistry mit opencourseware physics stanford education quantum mechanics description examples quantum mechanics quantum mechanics notes quantum physics quantum physics online interactive introduction quantum mechanics experiments foundations quantum physics single photons quantum mechanics engineers online learning tools quantum mechanics quantum mechanics richard online quantum worlds relative state interpretation measurement quantum mechanics media phys 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mechanics quantum theory starting werner heisenberg erwin schrödinger quantum mechanics fully lives postulate quantum picture processes terms ordinary physical space time causality quantum mechanics defined mathematical formalism abstract concept wave function wave function domain abstract mathematical object called configuration space range called probability amplitude configuration space probability amplitude ordinary everyday language thinking ordinary ideas physical space time questions interpretation quantum mechanics fundamental category quantum mechanics quantum state represented wave function observed fact quantum mechanics system interest quantum state general quantum state fully located ordinary physical space time quantum field theory edit quantum field theory lives postulate quantum experimental observations directly quantum mechanics observed facts quantum detection functions ordinary physical space time abstract quantum states quantum mechanics scattering matrix abstract wave function quantum mechanics domain field quantum field theory ordinary physical space time contrast abstract configuration space quantum mechanics range field quantum field theory ordinary thinking nature quantum mechanics quantum field theory domain field ordinary physical space time difference quantum field theory quantum mechanics quantum field theory quantization ordinary physical space time fundamental category quantum field theory contrast quantum mechanics interpretation edit albert einstein famously quantum mechanics domain configuration space ordinary physical space time einstein quantum mechanics problem causality einstein niels bohr claims causality order problem quantum mechanics einstein field theory lines general relativity including atomic processes studied quantum physics quantum field theory general relativity quantum physics subject active current quantum field theory complete quantum mechanics mathematically quantum mechanics complete physical interpretation quantum field theory causality problem quantum mechanics retrieved http wikipedia org title quantum physics categories physics concepts physics navigation menu personal tools create account log article talk views read edit view history search navigation main contents featured content current events random article donate wikipedia wikimedia shop interaction wikipedia community portal contact tools links upload file special permanent link cite print create book version languages modified november text creative commons attribution license additional terms apply site agree terms privacy policy wikipedia trademark wikimedia foundation profit organization privacy policy wikipedia contact wikipedia developers mobile view introduction quantum mechanics wikipedia free encyclopedia wikipedia readers advertising doesn survive time reading fundraiser hour price small profit top website staff wikipedia special library public learn wikipedia tax donation online free year time paypal amazon paypal usd problems donating ways asked questions donating agreeing donor privacy policy wikimedia foundation nonprofit tax exempt organization donating agreeing donor privacy policy sharing wikimedia foundation service providers wikimedia foundation nonprofit tax exempt organization donating agreeing donor privacy policy sharing wikimedia foundation service providers wikimedia foundation send email include link easy fundraiser hour donate introduction quantum mechanics wikipedia free encyclopedia jump navigation search article technical introduction subject main encyclopedia article quantum mechanics quantum mechanics uncertainty principle introduction history background classical mechanics quantum theory bra ket notation hamiltonian interference fundamentals complementarity decoherence entanglement energy level measurement nonlocality quantum number state superposition symmetry tunnelling uncertainty wave function collapse experiments bell davisson double slit hertz quantum delayed choice schrödinger cat wheeler delayed choice formulations overview heisenberg interaction matrix phase space schrödinger sum histories path integral equations dirac pauli rydberg schrödinger interpretations overview consistent histories copenhagen broglie bohm hidden worlds collapse quantum logic transactional advanced topics quantum chaos quantum computing density matrix quantum field theory quantum mechanics quantum science relativistic quantum mechanics scattering theory quantum statistical mechanics scientists bell bohm bohr born bose broglie compton dirac davisson einstein everett fermi feynman heisenberg hilbert jordan pauli planck rydberg schrödinger sommerfeld von neumann weyl wien quantum mechanics science small body scientific principles explains behaviour matter interactions energy scale atoms subatomic particles classical physics explains matter energy scale human including behaviour key measurement modern science technology century scientists discovered phenomena large small worlds classical physics explain thomas explains analysis philosophy science structure scientific terms led major revolution physics created original scientific theory relativity development quantum mechanics article describes physicists discovered classical physics developed main concepts quantum theory early decades century concepts order discovered complete history subject history quantum mechanics word quantum sense minimum amount physical involved interaction characteristics matter discrete values light particles waves matter particles electrons atoms exhibits behaviour light sources including discrete frequencies light quantum mechanics light forms electromagnetic radiation discrete units called photons predicts energies colours spectral intensities aspects quantum mechanics describe behaviour larger length scales words richard feynman quantum mechanics deals nature uncertainty principle quantum mechanics measurement position particle precise measurement particle momentum contents hide quantum theory max planck black body radiation photons quantisation light photoelectric consequences light quantised quantisation matter bohr model atom wave particle duality double slit experiment application bohr model development modern quantum mechanics copenhagen interpretation uncertainty principle wave function collapse eigenstates eigenvalues pauli exclusion principle application hydrogen atom dirac wave equation quantum entanglement quantum field theory quantum electrodynamics interpretations applications notes references reading external links quantum theory max planck black body radiation edit hot glow visible thermal radiation emitted high temperature picture thermal radiation longer wavelengths human eye detect infrared camera radiation thermal radiation electromagnetic radiation emitted surface object object temperature object emit light red spectrum red hot change red white blue light wavelengths higher frequencies emitted perfect perfect cold object black light emits thermal black body radiation emits called black body radiation late century thermal radiation experimentally note classical physics explain relationship temperatures frequencies radiation physicists single theory explained experimental predictions amount thermal radiation frequencies emitted body correct values predicted planck law green classical values jeans law red wien blue model explain full spectrum thermal radiation forward max planck mathematical model thermal radiation set harmonic experimental oscillator produced integer number units energy single characteristic frequency emit arbitrary amount energy words energy oscillator quantized note quantum energy oscillator planck frequency oscillator constant planck constant planck constant written energy oscillator frequency planck law quantum theory physics planck won nobel prize services physics discovery energy quanta time planck view quantization mathematical fundamental change understanding world photons quantisation light edit albert einstein albert einstein step quantisation mathematical energy beam light individual called photons energy single photon frequency planck constant scientists theories light wave tiny particles century considered wave theory explain observed effects diffraction james maxwell light phenomenon electromagnetic field maxwell equations complete set laws classical electromagnetism describe light waves electric magnetic fields evidence wave theory einstein ideas initially great eventually photon model evidence explain properties photoelectric wave understand characteristics light diffraction photoelectric edit light red left metal light frequency energy electrons ejected blue main article photoelectric hertz observed light frequency hits surface emits electrons discovered energy ejected electron frequency light intensity frequency low electrons ejected intensity lowest frequency light electrons emitted called frequency observation classical electromagnetism predicts electron energy intensity radiation einstein explained beam light particles photons beam frequency photon energy equal electron single photon energy electron intensity beam note frequency determines energy electron explain einstein argued takes amount energy called work function denoted electron metal amount energy metal energy photon work function carry energy electron metal frequency frequency photon energy equal work function greater energy electron ejected electron kinetic energy equal photon energy energy electron metal einstein description light particles extended planck quantised energy single photon frequency amount energy words individual photons deliver energy frequencies photon particle wave property frequency particle account light note consequences light quantised edit cite references sources improve sources material september relationship frequency electromagnetic radiation energy individual photon ultraviolet light visible infrared light photon ultraviolet light deliver high amount energy photon infrared light deliver lower amount energy skin infrared large surface large people cold room individual photon identical energy correct talk high energy photon light high frequency deliver energy surface photons light low frequency deliver energy photons true photons carry energy photon double number energy units frequency light einstein wave dependent classical approach particle based analysis energy particle absolute frequency discrete steps quantised photons frequency identical energy photons frequencies energies nature single photons sun emits photons continuously electromagnetic frequencies continuous wave discrete units emission sources hertz century shared characteristic star red light piece red great deal energy continuously energy body red light light light green light blue light light order larger stars larger glow colours spectrum change body change temperature increase temperature quanta energy individual atoms higher levels emit photons higher frequencies energy emitted unit time star piece number photons emitted unit time amount energy photons involved words characteristic frequency body dependent temperature physicists beams light huge numbers individual photons difficult understand energy levels individual photons physicists discovered devices photoelectric initially expected higher intensity light produce higher photoelectric device discovered strong beams light red spectrum produce electrical potential weak beams light spectrum produce higher higher einstein idea individual units light energy frequency explain experimental energy photons frequency initial energy state electrons photoelectric device light occur case individual electrons instance electron level photoelectric device ejected low frequency characteristic behaviour photoelectric device behaviour vast electrons level point study individual particles quantum dynamics study particles classical physics quantisation matter bohr model atom edit century evidence model atom charged electrons small charged nucleus properties model electrons nucleus sun note atom model classical theory electrons electromagnetic radiation loss energy spiral nucleus puzzle emission spectrum atoms gas light discrete frequencies visible light hydrogen colours picture intensity light frequencies contrast white light continuous emission range visible frequencies century simple frequencies lines explaining making prediction intensities formula predicted additional spectral lines ultraviolet infrared light observed time lines observed experimentally formula emission spectrum hydrogen hydrogen gas light colours spectral lines visible spectrum number lines infrared ultraviolet mathematical formula describing hydrogen emission spectrum mathematician discovered wavelength visible spectrum hydrogen integer equation constant determined equal rydberg formula predicted integers rydberg formula rydberg constant equal greater rydberg formula visible wavelengths hydrogen predicts additional wavelengths emission spectrum emission spectrum ultraviolet wavelengths infrared wavelengths experimental observation wavelengths decades louis predicted infrared wavelengths predicted ultraviolet wavelengths note rydberg integers modern terms property atom quantised understanding property quantised major development quantum mechanics rest article bohr model atom showing electron orbit photon niels bohr proposed model atom quantized electron orbits electrons orbit nucleus orbit sun orbits orbit distance atom emitted energy electron move continuous trajectory orbit nucleus expected electron jump orbit emitted light form photon energies photons element determined energy orbits emission spectrum element number lines niels bohr young man starting simple assumption orbits bohr model observed spectral lines emission spectrum hydrogen bohr model electron simply emit energy continuously nucleus orbit bohr model explain orbits quantised accurate predictions atoms electron explain spectral lines fundamental bohr model wrong key result discrete lines emission property electrons atoms quantised correct electrons behave bohr atom world everyday modern quantum mechanical model atom discussed explanation bohr model bohr angular momentum electron quantised integer planck constant starting assumption law equations circular motion electron units angular momentum orbit proton distance constant mass electron charge electron written called bohr radius equal bohr radius radius orbit energy electron note bohr assumption angular momentum quantised electron orbits nucleus energies consequence electron nucleus continuously emit energy closer nucleus bohr radius electron energy original orbit lower orbit energy emitted form photon electron photon energy orbit nucleus photon atomic hydrogen electron moving higher orbit radius lower orbit energy photon difference energies electron planck equation photon energy wavelength wavelengths light emitted equation form rydberg formula predicts constant bohr model atom predict emission spectrum hydrogen terms fundamental note accurate predictions electron atoms explain spectral lines wave particle duality edit main article wave particle duality louis broglie broglie won nobel prize physics prediction matter acts wave light wave particle properties matter wave properties matter wave demonstrated experimentally electrons beam electrons exhibit diffraction beam light water wave note wave phenomena atoms small molecules wavelength object momentum planck constant relationship called broglie hypothesis holds types matter matter exhibits properties particles waves concept wave particle duality classical concept particle wave fully describe behaviour quantum scale objects photons matter wave particle duality principle complementarity quantum physics wave particle duality double slit experiment discussed double slit experiment edit main article double slit experiment diffraction pattern produced light slit top interference pattern produced slits complex pattern slits small scale interference demonstrates wave light double slit experiment originally performed thomas young beam light narrow slits interference pattern light dark screen slits intensity interference fact simpler pattern simple diffraction pattern slit simpler pattern open slit behaviour demonstrated water waves double slit experiment wave nature light play media double slit experiment classical particle wave quantum particle wave particle duality double slit experiment performed electrons atoms molecules type interference pattern demonstrated matter particle wave characteristics source intensity particle photon electron apparatus time interference pattern time quantum particle acts wave double slits particle feature quantum complementarity quantum particle wave experiment measure wave properties particle experiment measure particle properties point detector screen individual particle result random process distribution pattern individual particles diffraction pattern produced waves application bohr model edit broglie bohr model atom showing electron orbit nucleus thought wave properties electron observed situations standing wave nucleus standing wave string fixed waves created place moving motion wavelength standing wave length object conditions string fixed carry standing waves wavelengths length integer broglie electron orbits orbit integer number wavelengths electron wavelength determines bohr orbits distances nucleus turn distance nucleus smaller impossible orbit minimum distance nucleus called bohr radius broglie treatment quantum events starting point schrödinger set wave equation describe quantum theoretical events development modern quantum mechanics edit bohr colleagues finding explanation intensities lines hydrogen emission spectrum werner heisenberg forward success explaining simpler problem series mathematical wrote quantum mechanical classical computation intensities heisenberg max born heisenberg method probabilities transitions energy levels mathematical concept note erwin schrödinger age erwin schrödinger based broglie hypothesis half behaviour quantum mechanical wave mathematical model called schrödinger equation central quantum mechanics states quantum system describes quantum state physical system time wave mathematical function wave function represented letter paper schrödinger cat wave function probability measurement future schrödinger theory schrödinger equation schrödinger energy levels hydrogen hydrogen atom electron classical wave moving electrical potential created proton accurately energy levels bohr model schrödinger heisenberg matrix mechanics wave mechanics predictions properties behaviour electron mathematically theories identical men interpretation theory instance heisenberg problem theoretical prediction transitions electrons orbits atom schrödinger theory based continuous wave properties called wien quantum copenhagen interpretation edit main article copenhagen interpretation niels bohr institute copenhagen point researchers quantum mechanics world theoretical physicists time developing copenhagen interpretation quantum mechanics bohr heisenberg explain experimental mathematical models description copenhagen interpretation quantum mechanics describe nature reality measurements mathematical formulations quantum mechanics main principles copenhagen interpretation system completely wave function heisenberg time schrödinger equation description nature probabilistic probability event screen particle slit experiment square absolute amplitude wave function born max born physical meaning wave function copenhagen interpretation probability amplitude values properties system time properties precision probabilities heisenberg uncertainty principle matter energy exhibits wave particle duality experiment demonstrate particle properties matter wave properties time complementarity principle bohr measuring devices classical devices measure classical properties position momentum quantum mechanical description large systems classical description correspondence principle bohr heisenberg consequences principles discussed uncertainty principle edit main article uncertainty principle werner heisenberg age heisenberg won nobel prize physics work time measure position speed object car speed car definite position speed moment time accurately measure values quality measuring improve precision measuring result closer true precisely measure speed car affect position heisenberg correct quantum mechanics physical properties position speed arbitrary precision precisely property precisely statement uncertainty principle uncertainty principle isn statement accuracy measuring nature system assumption car definite position speed scale people small dealing atoms electrons heisenberg measurement position momentum electron photon light measuring electron position higher frequency photon accurate measurement position impact greater electron random amount energy measurement momentum uncertain momentum velocity mass measuring post impact momentum original momentum photon lower frequency uncertainty momentum accuracy measurement position impact uncertainty principle mathematically product uncertainty position momentum particle momentum velocity mass planck constant wave function collapse edit main article wave function collapse wave function collapse description uncertain state system description system definite state nature process controversial time photon detection screen set probabilities instance camera time space device photon wave function place physical change detection screen film change electric potential cell eigenstates eigenvalues edit introduction subject introduction eigenstates uncertainty principle position momentum particles probability position momentum difference state electron probability state definite object eigenstate pauli exclusion principle edit main article pauli exclusion principle pauli pauli proposed quantum degree quantum number values observed molecular predictions quantum mechanics spectrum atomic hydrogen pair lines small amount expected pauli formulated exclusion principle exist atom quantum state electrons set quantum numbers year pauli degree property called spin idea electrons behave spin spin account magnetic moment electrons orbital quantum states exclusion principle quantum number represented sense spin application hydrogen atom edit main article atomic orbital model bohr model atom electrons nuclear sun uncertainty principle states electron simultaneously exact location velocity planet classical orbits electrons atomic orbitals orbital electron distribution probabilities precise location orbital dimensional dimensional orbit dimensional region probability finding electron schrödinger energy levels hydrogen hydrogen atom electron wave represented wave function electric potential created proton solutions schrödinger equation probabilities electron orbitals range energies orbitals accurately energy levels bohr model schrödinger picture electron properties orbital particle wave closer nucleus energy nucleus energy shape orbital orbital magnetic moment orbital spin electron properties quantum state electron quantum state number properties electron quantum numbers quantum state electron wave function pauli exclusion principle electrons atom values numbers atomic orbitals colours phase wave function property describing orbital quantum number bohr model energy level orbital values integers quantum number quantum number denoted describes shape orbital shape consequence angular momentum orbital angular momentum represents object influence external force quantum number represents orbital angular momentum electron nucleus values integers shape orbital letter shape denoted letter shape denoted letter form orbitals complicated atomic orbital denoted quantum number magnetic quantum number describes magnetic moment electron denoted simply values integers magnetic quantum number measures angular momentum direction choice direction arbitrary direction quantum number spin quantum number electron spin denoted values wrote case helium atom electrons orbital pauli exclusion principle electrons quantum number values spin electron underlying structure symmetry atomic orbitals electrons periodic atomic orbitals atoms form molecular orbitals determines structure chemical atoms dirac wave equation edit main article dirac equation paul dirac paul dirac extended pauli equation electrons account special relativity result theory events speed electron orbits nucleus speed light electromagnetic interaction dirac predict magnetic moment electron spin experimentally observed large charged classical physics spectral lines hydrogen atom physical principles sommerfeld successful formula structure hydrogen spectrum dirac equations energy proposed solution existence led particle quantum field theory quantum entanglement edit main article quantum entanglement superposition quantum characteristics possibilities pauli exclusion principle electrons system state nature leaves open possibility electrons states wave functions simultaneously double slits detection screen state superposition collapse instant electron probability square absolute sum complex amplitudes situation abstract concrete thinking entangled photons photons states event superposition state blue state red state photons produced result atomic event produced photon frequency emits photons half original frequency photons experiment photons blue red experiment photon involved superposition blue red characteristics photon characteristics problem einstein situation photons bouncing laboratory earth star reveal blue red photon measured state quantum mechanics complete theory einstein started theory prediction particles properties measured explain interaction classical common spooky action distance famous paper einstein podolsky rosen epr called epr paradox called local epr quantum theory particle position momentum simultaneously copenhagen interpretation properties exists moment measured epr quantum theory physical properties exist nature einstein podolsky rosen einstein cited physics year erwin schrödinger word entanglement call characteristic quantum mechanics question entanglement real bell challenge einstein claims quantum field theory edit england series idea small worlds paul dirac studied discovery anti matter main article quantum field theory idea quantum field theory late physicist paul dirac electromagnetic field quantum theory starting classical theory field physics region space exists effects fields physicist richard wrote quantum mechanics quantum field theory refers system number particles fixed fields field continuous classical step particles quantum mechanics refer entire quantum view dirac proposed existence particles anti matter dirac shared nobel prize physics schrödinger discovery forms atomic theory quantum electrodynamics edit main article quantum electrodynamics quantum electrodynamics qed quantum theory electromagnetic force understanding qed understanding electromagnetism electromagnetism called electrodynamics interaction electrical magnetic forces electromagnetism electric charge electric charges sources create electric fields electric field field force particles carry electric charges point space includes electron proton force electric charges move current magnetic field produced magnetic field turn electric current moving electrons interacting electric magnetic field called electromagnetic field physical description interacting charged particles electrical electrical fields magnetic fields called electromagnetism paul dirac produced relativistic quantum theory electromagnetism modern quantum electrodynamics essential modern theory problem developed relativistic quantum theory years problem initially eventually consistent tool qed fields physics late feynman interactions event electromagnetic force interactions photons interacting particles prediction quantum electrodynamics verified experimentally refers quantum nature electromagnetic field energy levels atom result spectral lines split physicists qed extremely high energies standard model particle physics discovered higher energy theory standard model electromagnetic weak interactions theory called theory interpretations edit main article interpretations quantum mechanics physical measurements equations predictions quantum mechanics consistent high level question abstract models underlying nature real world applications edit main article quantum mechanics applications applications quantum mechanics include laser transistor electron magnetic resonance special class quantum mechanical applications macroscopic quantum phenomena superfluid helium study led transistor modern electronics simple light quantum tunnelling electrons electric current potential barrier memory quantum tunnelling memory cells edit macroscopic quantum phenomena philosophy physics quantum computer virtual particle notes edit jump number created describe experimental measurements thermal radiation wavelength radiation temperature wien law power emitted unit law theoretical explanation experimental jeans law experimental large wavelengths low frequencies short wavelengths high frequencies fact short wavelengths classical physics predicted energy emitted hot body infinite result wrong ultraviolet jump word quantum latin word quantized energy planck harmonic values money quantized quantum money lowest mechanics branch science deals action forces objects quantum mechanics mechanics deals objects properties quantized jump intensity dependent effects intensities laser sources effects jump einstein photoelectric equation explained concept photons electromagnetic radiation classical electromagnetic wave long electrons material laws quantum mechanics correct thermal light sources sun electron emission angular distribution point jump classical model atom called model model proposed based experiment demonstrated existence nucleus jump case energy electron sum kinetic potential energies electron kinetic energy actual motion nucleus potential energy electromagnetic interaction nucleus jump model easily modified account emission spectrum system nucleus single electron ions electron extended atom electrons helium jump electron diffraction demonstrated years broglie published hypothesis university beam electrons metal film observed diffraction predicted broglie hypothesis bell davisson guided electron beam broglie nobel prize physics hypothesis davisson shared nobel prize physics experimental work jump heisenberg quantum theory classical physics quantum mechanics heisenberg matrix mechanics references edit max born quantum theory american journal physics bibcode doi quantum making revolution university press bohr niels atomic physics human knowledge john wiley isbn broglie louis revolution physics press lccn einstein albert science philosophical library isbn lccn philosophy science century isbn lccn feynman richard space time approach quantum electrodynamics physical review bibcode doi feynman richard qed strange theory light matter books isbn michael bohr atom university heisenberg werner physics philosophy isbn lccn heisenberg matrix mechanics uncertainty principle resonance journal science education richard quantum mechanics robert henry foundations physics dover isbn lccn mcevoy zarate introducing quantum theory isbn quantum physics state university david uncertainty story science ideas century henry press hans foundations quantum mechanics university california press isbn lccn paul albert einstein scientist company lccn scientific american optics addison wesley isbn lccn title foundations quantum mechanics light technology physical society cited action distance professor quant quant physics knowledge university press isbn cite van correspondence principle statistical interpretation quantum mechanics wheeler john feynman richard classical electrodynamics terms direct action reviews modern physics bibcode doi physics education physics today bibcode doi quantum entanglement quant quant patrick quantum random single photons journal physics bibcode doi jump quantum mechanics national public jump thomas structure scientific london university press print jump feynman richard qed strange theory light matter princeton princeton princeton university press isbn jump result published german planck max der phys bibcode doi english translation law distribution energy normal spectrum jump mechanics wave motion heat addison wesley jump nobel prize physics nobel foundation retrieved jump max planck jump einstein albert die der bibcode doi translated english light term photon jump modern physics scientists engineers hall isbn jump stephen hawking universe jump introduction quantum mechanics jump jump modern physics scientists engineers hall isbn jump mcevoy zarate introducing quantum theory books isbn jump world book encyclopedia jump introduction quantum mechanics jump mcevoy zarate introducing quantum theory books isbn jump entanglement isbn jump mcevoy zarate introducing quantum theory books isbn jump introducing quantum theory jump van der sources quantum mechanics german translated english york dover werner heisenberg paper quantum theoretical interpretation mechanical jump nobel prize organization erwin schrödinger retrieved great discovery schrödinger wave equation half jump equation physics jump erwin schrödinger situation quantum mechanics translation originally published american philosophical society quantum theory measurement wheeler princeton university press paper http cat jump schrödinger life thought cambridge university press schrödinger words jump heisenberg nobel prize jump heisenberg published work uncertainty principle leading german physics journal heisenberg der phys bibcode doi jump nobel prize physics jump uncertainty principle jump nature chemical jump orbital chemistry physics jump schrödinger cambridge philosophical society systems states enter physical interaction forces time influence systems longer call characteristic quantum mechanics jump quantum nonlocality possibility effects john jump mechanics online dictionary jump field jump richard unknown universe books isbn jump physical world website jump nobel prize physics nobel foundation retrieved jump isbn reading edit working physicists attempt communicate quantum theory people minimum technical apparatus jim quantum guide isbn quantum mechanics john wiley isbn quantum universe isbn richard feynman qed strange theory light matter princeton university press isbn quantum world univ press includes elementary particle physics god princeton univ press technical works cited bra ket notation reading patrick quantum universe cambridge univ press includes technologies quantum theory isbn quantum dirac feynman universe human body mind world scientific company introduction mathematical terms introduction basic mathematical terms isbn david spooky distance mysteries cambridge univ press physicist communicate isbn understanding quantum mechanics princeton univ press isbn reality symmetry multiple universes books isbn facts mysteries elementary particle physics world scientific company isbn mcevoy zarate introducing quantum theory books isbn external links edit quantum mechanics topic introduction quantum mechanics microscopic world introduction quantum mechanics professor university quantum theory encyclopedia spooky quantum quantum open source learning atoms periodic single double slit interference time evolution square wave packet time experiments single photons introduction quantum physics interactive experiments quantum mechanics university retrieved http wikipedia org title introduction quantum mechanics categories quantum mechanics hidden categories articles additional references september articles additional references cite navigation menu personal tools create account log article talk views read edit view history search navigation main contents featured content current events random article donate wikipedia wikimedia shop interaction wikipedia community portal contact tools links upload file special permanent link cite print create book pdf version languages edit links modified november text creative commons attribution license additional terms apply site agree terms privacy policy wikipedia trademark wikimedia foundation profit organization privacy policy wikipedia contact wikipedia developers mobile view quantum mechanics support org provided electrons quantum mechanics point contact transistor transistor silicon transistor modern chip transistor quantum mechanics day day life understand world works basic laws physics gravity things ground move things place time turn century scientists thought basic rules apply nature study world small atoms electrons light waves things normal rules physicists niels bohr albert einstein study particles discovered physics laws quirky laws quantum mechanics work max planck max planck physicist called ultraviolet problem laws physics predicted heat box light black box produce infinite amount ultraviolet radiation real life thing box red blue white metal infinite amount sense laws physics light box accurately describe black box planck mathematical light continuous wave exist quanta energy planck true light fact referred math equations accurately describing box radiation agree eventually albert einstein interpreted planck equations light thought discrete particles electrons physicist photons quanta quanta idea particles energy areas physics decade niels bohr description atom electrons nucleus small large energy standard quantum energy eventually scientists explained materials atoms energy electron orbits understanding transistor materials waves quirky things quantum mechanics electron photon thought particle doesn wave fact experiments light acts wave particle wave nature effects electron nucleus wave position time concrete point electron space electrons don travel water direction electrons electrical current follow weird moving surface material electrons acting wave barrier understanding behavior electrons scientists control current particle wave scientists quantum mechanics tiny piece material photon electron particle wave experiment fact accurate photons electrons particle wave moment experiment particle wave side effects number particles defined theory werner heisenberg called uncertainty principle states measure speed position particle accurately measures speed measure position doesn doesn good measurement tools fundamental speed simply exist position electron wave albert einstein idea laws physics left room god play dice universe physicists today laws quantum mechanics accurate description subatomic world understanding laws transistor resources weirdness quantum mechanics strange strange david quantum mechanics physics adventure physics book albert einstein exhibit american institute 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online share news sports australia health science money video travel science login feedback thursday nov day moment man ferguson night michael brown behavior teen day shot dead ferguson exclusive darren wilson star michael brown case charged darren wilson shooting moment shot dead year boy days ferguson real good ferguson john sends york times darren wilson address holes michael brown stories changed story news shooting darren wilson reveals father time job people london michael brown shooting growing michael brown call darren wilson state step father call exclusive rosie rosie perez tells view don longer work bill cosby thing reveals bill quirky sex questions relationship pregnant woman shot dead baby daughter alive thanksgiving left power holiday travel thanksgiving hour million day turkey york state thanksgiving turkey reveal space station thanksgiving menu systems site twitter hide turkey body green work previous quantum physics claims scientist robert lanza claims theory biocentrism death life creates universe space time don exist linear famous double split experiment point space time linear death exist real sense published november updated view comments scientists concept expert claims evidence existence quantum physics professor robert lanza claims theory biocentrism death created consciousness professor robert lanza claims theory biocentrism death consciousness creates universe space time tools death exist real sense professor robert lanza theory explained book biocentrism life consciousness understanding true nature universe life activity molecules live ground scientist website lanza university school medicine humans death taught die consciousness life die articles previous job expert sex create share article share theory biocentrism explains death biocentrism theory life life biology central reality life creates universe suggests person consciousness determines shape size objects universe lanza world person blue sky told blue cells person brain changed sky green red lanza theory biocentrism biocentrism theory life life biology central reality life creates universe lanza world person blue sky told blue cells person brain changed sky green red consciousness sense world change interpretation universe point view space time don behave hard ways consciousness space time simply tools mind theory space time accepted death idea exist world linear theoretical physicists infinite number universes people situations taking place simultaneously lanza happen point death exist real sense lanza die life multiverse consciousness explained lanza consciousness sense world universe point view space time don behave hard ways consciousness space time simply tools mind theory space time accepted death idea exist world linear theoretical physicists infinite number universes people situations taking place simultaneously lanza double slit test claims scientists watch particle pass slits particle slit person doesn watch acts wave slits simultaneously behaviour based person double slit experiment lanza theory experiment scientists watch particle pass slits barrier particle slit person doesn watch particle acts wave slits time demonstrates matter energy display characteristics waves particles behaviour particle based person consciousness lanza happen point death exist real sense lanza die life multiverse life adventure ordinary linear thinking die random matrix life matrix lanza cited famous double slit experiment claims experiment scientists watch particle pass slits barrier particle slit person doesn watch particle acts wave slits time demonstrates matter energy display characteristics waves particles behaviour particle based person consciousness lanza full theory explained book biocentrism life consciousness understanding true nature universe read robert lanza biocentrism robert lanza theory share article sponsored links links iphone product money latest queen daily open extremely perez bizarre celebrity news videos previous boy shot woman ferguson content brown family sex student view bill cosby moving images drug time ferguson darren wilson job explain head live ferguson normal darren wilson moving forward call dead boy michael brown family moment ferguson darren wilson exclusive woman bill cosby admits twitter picture moment shot dead year boy ferguson year exclusive rosie rosie perez tells view good ferguson exclusive darren wilson star read news previous comments share loading comments views contents views loading longer comments article week top find top stories site web enter search term search daily mail follow follow daily mail daily mail today headlines read earth star style invisible shield scientists probe mysterious barrier launch don year book library age scientist creates precise measurements space eye earth rise common special forces drug researchers reveal powered privacy twitter app phone iphone square tests reveal early turkey reveal space station real eye machine complete age dna space life start earth headlines technology earth star style invisible shield scientists probe mysterious barrier killer electrons age discovered complete year tool left killer women sex men people brain change tech google working search language reveals lack colours god earth scientist admits technology developed global dogs understand researchers find process language humans year book library age tests reveal early measure online create global standard court life earth computer models reveal influence planet orbit read don happy plunging top high slit years question power stars putting spring step sponsored party harry year party cambridge snap display print figure celebrity row rise standing michael celeb food michael michael real cool hand celebrity asked michael heart celeb difficult relationship bit direction harry famous move australian music group heart reveals star henry court charge print kelly love david kelly star long latest magazine year form queue reveals single man life huge quirky magazine shares snap husband holiday skin hits red awards australia big night years space leaves early game quirky sex questions learn sends james hill michael brown behavior teen day shot dead side dress star thing thanksgiving plunging top factor long blue art opening london plays making time court daughter white australian reveals awards night thanksgiving family shares snap maxwell family team face find celeb art challenge celeb public face times celebrity husband huge harry party reveals direction australia rest boy factor world women baby bit takes easy baby chic call style night york big jump black friday husband early start stars share thanksgiving don years including rosie black leaves good thomas green sends shares direction history group number number year red hot relationship white awards universe won patrick continue factor display plunging top awards blue jeans chic christmas party work black simple black london pregnant chic growing baby jeans top london chic black christmas event dress beauty launch common kelly star models man alive reveals hits star day years ago high launch load hot fair james hill jim hill latest top magazine privacy images steps high play family life reveals father jim year disease foundation michael price steps red leaves father day takes model teen news face million million days reveals video million single million doesn couple christmas party jordan baby turn top bell husband perfect holiday pregnant holiday james list star jobs lead jobs film jeans chic style black jeans turn reviews night body claims long running weight husband years men years sex life man birth husband exclusive person lecture hits love husband reality series true perfect day daughter born ago women love men women style hand hand york thinking love harry support australian world jones head black shooting film don adventure admits living famously love life things thanksgiving hot lowest final star difficult time star high star film life tiny birth job form normal couple plays sex vogue sharing star time work takes star display dubai launch party james london red figure high intensity class weight good exclusive rosie rosie perez tells view don longer work cosby changed life rosie perez view music father tells industry forces ebola easy admits split times michael reveals move split plunging black dress night dubai long hits direction love body art full work snap takes body school jeans dress chic difference reveals life long active world business high star christmas london christmas early snap blue month thing form print dress thanksgiving couple strong won sign camera time star appears world woman changed world side kelly david steps woman david steps christmas kelly change heart husband baby time september left play people love alive natural woman california low key hits blue takes celebrity shares exclusive model complete natural free dubai star picks dress days dress style australian music awards standing man night husband heart thought job women acting support york london day daughter produce exploring life entertainment business long day happy life hybrid world time model reveals including red display style dress night christmas husband hugh work hard relationship alive husband twitter picture face bill cosby figure plunging dress big action set wave claims hard working model reality star exclusive woman bill cosby admits pregnant brown steps spanish display dress star launch party body continue celeb day top music awards post baby body birth daughter good christmas party short black models launch beauty happy watch christmas party christmas gadget reviews gadget review quality price range price main point doesn style screen comments headphones headphones strong good comments gadget week modern christmas years control car running comments gadget review sound quality headphones review case comments gadget week solar powered phone tool extremely developing world comments gadget review headphones headphones light good travel feature comments gadget week degree isn gadget buy thing week spiral unit comments video gadget review word mind product small comments gadget week light fact money sound comments gadget review headphones comments gadget review headphones control headphones perfect sound headphones won comments game play head start story man ferguson night place comments videos share picture link find find top news sports australia health science money video travel archive video archive mobile apps rss text based site top daily mail mail sunday network standard money mail travel location published daily mail mail sunday media group contact advertise terms privacy policy cookies quantum physics news sciencedaily quantum physics news wednesday november featured laser physicists electrons atomic molecular transitions nov dimensional equation researchers physicists characteristics laser electron behavior predict full story optics physics spintronics spintronics engineers sound loud bend light computer chip device improve communications systems nov engineering researchers developed chip sound wave light wave generated sound control full story optics physics acoustics mysterious action distance liquid containers nov years superfluid helium reservoirs located acts channels reservoirs narrow full story nature water thermodynamics physics quantum physics particles waves nov particles waves media small density affect time particle wave full story quantum physics physics optics global quantum communications longer stuff fiction nov quantum computers quantum cryptography technologies memory systems quantum easily scientists full story quantum computers quantum computing physics quantum physics van der waals force measured physicists verified increase growing molecular size nov van der waals forces quantum types matter measuring technique scientists experimentally determined time key details full story physics organic chemistry chemistry nature water cooling coldest matter world nov physicists developed cooling technique mechanical quantum systems ultracold atomic gas degree absolute full story physics quantum physics optics chemistry nanomaterials understanding surface structure quantum dots design solar devices nov potential path identify improve quality nanomaterials generation solar cells full story spintronics physics materials science nanotechnology quantum mechanical calculations reveal hidden states active sites nov carry fundamental biological processes metal atoms active sites scientists lack basic full story inorganic chemistry spintronics chemistry physicists discover subatomic particles nov physicists discovered particles finding expected major impact study full story quantum physics physics inorganic chemistry nuclear energy laser effects electron behavior loud bend light computer chip action distance liquid containers particles waves global quantum communications van der waals force measured cooling coldest matter world quantum dots solar devices quantum mechanics hidden states physicists discover subatomic particles top stories top stories featured videos reuters news services oxford university scientist physics oxford university scientist physics reuters video online scientist equations explaining physics david robert university oxford physics jim video provided reuters view video powered cern years science cern years science reuters business video online cern nuclear years science famous science turn large collider particle video provided reuters view video powered simpler simpler researchers university created type simple video provided view video powered stephen hawking god particle universe stephen hawking god particle universe professor stephen hawking higgs boson god particle high energies large collider larger god particle time space patrick jones patrick jones explains video provided view video powered quantum physics news updated view headlines view optics physics spintronics spintronics laser physicists electrons atomic molecular transitions nov dimensional equation researchers physicists characteristics laser electron behavior predict full story optics physics acoustics engineers sound loud bend light computer chip device improve communications systems nov engineering researchers developed chip sound wave light wave generated sound control full story nature water thermodynamics physics quantum physics mysterious action distance liquid containers nov years superfluid helium reservoirs located acts channels reservoirs narrow full story quantum physics physics optics particles waves nov particles waves media small density affect time particle wave full story quantum computers quantum computing physics quantum physics global quantum communications longer stuff fiction nov quantum computers quantum cryptography technologies memory systems quantum easily scientists full story quantum physics physics technology detectors particle scientists launch higgs project nov scientists higgs project general public study images large collider search full story physics organic chemistry chemistry nature water van der waals force measured physicists verified increase growing molecular size nov van der waals forces quantum types matter measuring technique scientists experimentally determined time key details full story physics quantum physics optics chemistry cooling coldest matter world nov physicists developed cooling technique mechanical quantum systems ultracold atomic gas degree absolute full story energy technology medical technology physics technology device security nov security travel type security detection radiation prove researchers developed full story spintronics physics materials science nanotechnology nanomaterials understanding surface structure quantum dots design solar devices nov potential path identify improve quality nanomaterials generation solar cells full story inorganic chemistry spintronics chemistry quantum mechanical calculations reveal hidden states active sites nov carry fundamental biological processes metal atoms active sites scientists lack full story quantum physics physics inorganic chemistry nuclear energy physicists discover subatomic particles nov physicists discovered particles finding expected major impact study full story dark matter astrophysics quantum physics physics physicists detect dark matter nov years physicists universe elusive dark matter wrong place physicists full story dark matter astrophysics quantum physics physics elusive dark matter nov everyday device find physicists global system tool directly full story optics physics quantum physics spintronics spiral laser beam creates quantum whirlpool nov physicists spiral laser beam create whirlpool hybrid light matter particles called hybrid particles properties matter light full story spintronics spintronics physics quantum physics topological promising spintronics quantum computers nov evidence class materials devices quantum full story quantum computers computers internet quantum physics quantum computing piece quantum puzzle nov scientists exploring qubits quantum bits quantum work researchers demonstrated quantum version law experiment full story materials science graphene physics spintronics topological cocktail success class materials nov ultracold atoms place laser beams top circular motion researchers idea class full story quantum physics physics black holes quantum computing quantum weirdness interacting parallel worlds physicist nov theory quantum mechanics developed bill poirier chemical physicist theory parallel worlds existence quantum effects observed full story optics physics twisted light waves vienna nov group researchers twisted beams light vienna time twisted light large distance full story load stories wednesday november laser physicists electrons atomic molecular transitions engineers sound loud bend light computer chip device improve communications systems mysterious action distance liquid containers particles waves global quantum communications longer stuff fiction particle scientists launch higgs project van der waals force measured physicists verified increase growing molecular size monday november cooling coldest matter world friday november device security thursday november nanomaterials understanding surface structure quantum dots design solar devices quantum mechanical calculations reveal hidden states active sites wednesday november physicists discover subatomic particles tuesday november physicists detect dark matter monday november elusive dark matter spiral laser beam creates quantum whirlpool thursday november topological promising spintronics quantum computers wednesday november piece quantum puzzle topological cocktail success class materials quantum weirdness interacting parallel worlds physicist tuesday november twisted light waves vienna monday november quantum particles heat graphene friday november scientists detect higgs particle wednesday november tuesday november dark matter standard model account stuff physicists narrow search solution proton spin puzzle monday november string field theory foundation quantum mechanics huge string theory sunday november ultracold matter waves move share space step quantum computers photons friday october universe face future dark matter dark energy thursday october laser scientists existence interaction parallel worlds interacting worlds theory challenges foundations quantum science physicists quantum tuesday october wave function electron physicists simple solution quantum technology challenge sunday october evidence exotic predicted state thursday october devices experiment macroscopic high mass moving quantum world quantum effects tuesday october scientists theory surface cosmic background cosmic structure finding quantum atomic scale memory monday october molecular interactions hydrogen physicists build laser beam american quantum technology friday october design power experimental computer thursday october light material search particles universe astronomy dark matter sunday october set silicon quantum computing future technologies friday october images detectors baby molecules reveal quantum properties thursday october discovery subatomic particle type understanding fundamental force nature tuesday october quantum probe electric field measurements dark matter search fundamentals physics confirmed experiments testing einstein time quantum electrodynamics monday october electron boson researchers body effects quantum robotics thursday october physicist cosmic detectors quantum putting qubit good exotic matter closer perfect fluid light big elusive particle observed approach chip quantum computing wednesday october hide elusive approach magnetic measurements atom atom network making tuesday september cold atom laboratory atoms light emission entanglement monday september math science mathematics problems sciences super computers friday september cosmic detector thursday september structure prediction discovery spin based computing based electrical putting quantum wednesday september final proof optical weak values quantum don key technique probe quantum systems quantum taking graphene security tuesday september graphene monday september engineers potential faster computing sunday september side molecules infrared spectrum charged time physicists quantum state photon friday september light work camera latest measurements experiment cosmic chemical studies elements element atom time thursday september insights world quantum materials wednesday september physicists heat graphene control ripples tuesday september electronics silicon making quantum dots glow monday september elusive quantum absolute sunday september detectors reveal entangled photon friday september math quantum mechanics fluid mechanics suggests alternative quantum thursday september scientists single photon sources solid matter electrons lead computing talking atoms scientists waves 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intelligence technology learning learning education topics latest headlines health medicine mind brain space time matter energy computers math plants animals earth climate fossils quantum physics news physics quantum physics researchers find qubits based ions promising hours ago quantum physics news hours hours day days day week month day week month popular day week month researchers find qubits based ions promising quantum computing phys org team researchers working university oxford quantum bits qubits based ions qubits higher quantum physics hours ago algorithm quantum computer time faster standard computer phys org team researchers working algorithm quantum computer time paper published physical review quantum physics nov spiral laser beam creates quantum whirlpool phys org physicists australian national university spiral laser beam create whirlpool hybrid light matter particles called quantum physics nov piece quantum puzzle high level explore ideas quantum quantum computation colleagues exploring qubits quantum bits quantum quantum physics nov topological cocktail success graphene material future single atoms material extremely quantum physics nov twisted light waves vienna group researchers twisted beams light vienna quantum physics nov famous problems quantum physics invented quantum teleportation interest scientists field hypothesis form quantum entanglement result quantum physics nov queen major life john stewart bell queen university today leading modern science years ago john stewart bell queen university nobel prize physics quantum physics nov string field theory foundation quantum mechanics researchers proposed link string field theory quantum mechanics open string field theory version called theory quantum physics nov photons light waves interact photons photons special materials light scientists vienna created quantum physics nov qubits quantum memory phys org quantum memory basic unit data qubit qubit exist superposition state time process quantum physics oct interacting worlds theory scientists existence interaction parallel worlds griffith university foundations quantum science theory based existence interactions parallel universes quantum physics oct study demonstrates quantum quantum memory biological understanding solution ions processes biological cells study quantum physics oct researchers control light matter level individual photons emitted researchers led university institute physics ultracold atoms surface light waves quantum physics oct physicists find simple solution quantum technology challenge solution key challenges development quantum technologies proposed university physicists quantum physics oct parallel worlds quantum mechanics born parallel universes worlds australia science fiction real quantum physics oct experiment macroscopic high mass university scientists experiment test foundations quantum mechanics large scale quantum physics oct quantum atomic scale memory scientists developed theoretical model quantum memory light concept quantum system findings quantum physics oct security device independent quantum key distribution general quantum cryptography security security quantum devices involved quantum physics oct quantum technology experimental state art quantum technology quantum control laboratory university published nature physics today quantum physics oct quantum test support epr concept quantum mechanics proposed completely understood today refers system affect quantum physics oct quantum computing silicon revolution increase amount time data single atom silicon play role development super computers quantum physics oct theoretical exotic state matter electrons interact bohm center matter science discovered unknown state matter occur matter exotic quantum quantum physics oct cold atom superfluid current strong weak link phys org exotic situations collection atoms superfluid state normal rules liquid behavior normal fluid atoms superfluid quantum physics oct quantum probe electric field measurements researchers national institute technology university demonstrated technique based quantum properties atoms directly links measurements quantum physics oct featured comments popular shared partners shape links macroscopic behavior natural systems hours ago biology genetic engineering elements design nov electric large power nov electric current heat nov researchers create nov news news quantum robotics quantum computing computers creative researchers superposition proposed double slit experiment paradox feynman path integral formalism phys org schrödinger cat thought experiment published erwin schrödinger widely explanation quantum superposition collapse superposition approach chip quantum computing devices exist today quantum optics generation photon tiny entangled particles light quantum putting qubit good quantum computers internet decades find decades entanglement scientists experiment quantum entanglement macroscopic realm experiment easy set shape links macroscopic behavior natural systems phys org shape impact natural systems time probabilistic measure degree energy system star invisible shield miles earth team led university discovered invisible shield miles earth called killer electrons planet light speed engineers sound loud bend light computer chip common sound miles hour light miles hour cool cool engineers high tech beam heat space stanford engineers invented material cool days heat directly space future energy find materials surface lead materials scientists people wired people brains wired language suggests move brain small study study finds potential promising experimental drug works initially cancer molecular ebola promising human researchers step closer developing ebola phase showing promising earliest field dogs words people person talking words features system play bigger role system play bigger role researchers learn role provide experiment cat things real quantum theory extremely complex process common reality years quantum features methods study researchers developing world accurate methods number photons team work world accurate methods number photons method precisely uncertainty numbers putting quantum institute advanced researchers quantum bits proof principle final proof optical data internet today society role optics time internet weak values quantum don phys org work key technique probe quantum systems quantum longer distance quantum teleportation physicists university quantum state photon optical physicists provide insights world quantum materials team physicists led experimentally observed properties particles fermi surface quantum gas work published science quantum mechanics charge top scientists mit professor medicine engineering graphene graphene easily pass university researchers phys org pair university queen genetic control life technology key solutions save user phone app taking dna entry earth genetic material dna survive space entry earth pass genetic team scientists hybrid systems key energy energy states forward technologies forms alternative energy systems provide world electronics discovery researchers team finds published medical journal brain louis university colleagues national health eye black holes measure cosmic distances major problems astronomy measuring large distances universe current common methods measure relative distances niels bohr institute demonstrates wednesday emission scientists discover treatment advanced cancer scientists queen university london developing advanced cancer major treatment years impact study place earth demonstrate ground key understanding worlds function researchers discover memory international genetic study medical study memory international team researchers including scientists university medical center researchers identify brain words story people reading harry taught easy university scientists chapter conflict human brain study human vast social humans high intelligence work skin disease cells form skin disease skin cells laboratory researchers stanford understand future years ago cold water turn physicists design quantum phys org real physical processes energy time work produced energy processes mechanical motion team finds elusive quantum absolute heat classical phase transitions solid liquid gas things happen temperature phase transitions occur coldest temperatures fluid mechanics suggests alternative quantum central quantum mechanics small matter behave particles waves century explanation tool measuring atomic properties quantum limit high high measurements light matter quantum limit tools atoms control sound atom researchers university technology sound communicate atom demonstrate phenomena quantum physics sound taking open business creates object space space station international space station object space future long term space brain rest levels essential activity years plays essential role health human brain including mysterious action distance liquid containers years superfluid helium reservoirs located acts channels reservoirs narrow long wrong travel forward aspects travel security launch post human produced dna models scientists approach developing work published today online edition science medicine find quantum physics news articles newsletter activity news sign register physics physics previews load moment general physics previews load moment matter previews load moment optics previews load moment previews load moment physics previews load moment matter previews load moment quantum physics previews load moment nanotechnology nanotechnology previews load moment medicine previews load moment previews load moment nanomaterials previews load moment earth earth previews load moment earth sciences previews load moment environment previews load moment astronomy space astronomy space previews load moment astronomy previews load moment space previews load moment chemistry chemistry previews load moment previews load moment previews load moment 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account newsletter rss feeds feature stories podcasts archive iphone apps app android app amazon version privacy policy terms phys org science network quantum mechanics wrong time wired wired won happy faa drone rules video dubai tiny electric concept car buy gadget full camera super cat humans reviews review amazon sports review science science real thanksgiving wrong sky blue energy studies science blogs hall tools phone save entertainment game life difficult game suggests shooting days man wired facebook build future wired guide version watch woman business business twitter apps twitter taught big thing tech build business conference today business world constant force wired business conference design creative power ideas people happen event faa drone rules narrow world computer internet app control environment innovation insights internet things bigger revolution role security room world computer developing level years world computer design design play food beauty comments product moving tiny room file mind reality space big opinion opinion great lives privacy latest behavior asked problems magazine current issue subscribe ways improve talking energy test happen oil year youtube product review video subscribe rss search science quanta magazine quantum mechanics science news follow wired twitter facebook rss quantum mechanics wrong time quanta magazine share facebook droplet bouncing surface liquid exhibit quantum properties including double slit interference tunneling energy quantization john bush century reality concept laws quantum physics particles time state basic properties definite location particle measured position dice original story quanta magazine independent org public understanding science mathematics physical life sciences idea nature probabilistic particles hard properties observed directly standard equations quantum mechanics set experiments bizarre interest version quantum mechanics idea single concrete reality experiments oil droplet bounces surface liquid droplet liquid time ripples bounces affect droplet interaction ripples form pilot wave exhibit behaviors thought elementary particles including behaviors evidence particles space waves location measured particles quantum scale things human scale objects discrete energy levels body reveals oil droplets guided pilot waves exhibit quantum features researchers experiments quantum objects definite droplets guided pilot waves case fluid space time life deterministic probabilistic theory microscopic world proposed birth quantum mechanics classical system exhibits behavior people thought exclusive quantum realm john bush professor mathematics institute technology led bouncing droplet experiments things understand provide physical difficult quantum mechanics measurements view quantum mechanics copenhagen interpretation city physicist niels bohr holds particles play simultaneously particle represented probability wave possibilities wave collapses definite state particle measured equations quantum mechanics address particle properties moment measurement reality picks form calculations work quantum physicist mit quantum mechanics light pair slits screen top places interference pattern pattern appears particles shot screen particle passes slits wave creative commons classic experiment quantum mechanics demonstrate probabilistic nature reality involves beam particles electrons pair slits screen electron trajectory pass slits simultaneously time electron beam creates interference pattern dark side screen detector slits measurement particles collapse definite states travel slit interference pattern great century physicist richard feynman double slit experiment heart quantum mechanics impossible impossible explain classical physicists quantum mechanics successful wrong paul professor mathematics university england computer models bouncing droplet dynamics fact fundamental quantum mechanics waves idea pilot waves explain particles early days quantum mechanics physicist louis broglie earliest version pilot wave theory solvay conference famous field broglie explained day bohr albert einstein erwin schrödinger werner heisenberg physicists pilot wave theory predictions probabilistic formulation quantum mechanics referred copenhagen interpretation mysterious collapse probabilistic version bohr involves single equation represents particles wave bohr interpreted probability wave equation complete particle broglie colleagues equations describing real physical wave trajectory actual concrete particle variables wave equation particle wave defined double slit experiment broglie pilot wave picture electron passes slits pilot wave slits current particle places broglie predict exact place individual particle bohr version events pilot wave theory predicts statistical distribution dark men interpreted bohr particles don definite trajectories broglie argued measure particle initial position exact path principle pilot wave theory deterministic future exact state particles universe instant states future times solvay conference einstein probabilistic universe god play dice broglie alternative bohr told einstein god won day american mathematician john von neumann probabilistic wave equation quantum mechanics hidden variables broglie particle defined trajectory pilot wave theory physicists von neumann proof reading translation solvay conference quantum mechanics louis broglie row argued deterministic formulation quantum mechanics called pilot wave theory probabilistic version theory niels bohr row won day years pass von neumann proof physicist david bohm pilot wave theory modified form einstein work theory broglie bohm theory mechanics physicist john stewart bell prove theorem physicists today hidden variables impossible bell pilot wave theory von neumann original proof wrote pilot wave theory natural simple wave particle ordinary great century standard probabilistic formulation quantum mechanics einstein theory special relativity developed standard model precise description particles forces universe weirdness quantum mechanics physicists deterministic alternative people field professor mathematics physics philosophy university pilot wave theory theory decades researchers careers quantum quantum droplet bounces surface liquid pair barrier passes opening pilot wave ripples liquid surface passes quantum interference pattern appears distribution droplet trajectories couder pilot wave theory fluid people developing quantum mechanics century access experiments history quantum mechanics experiments decade ago couder colleagues university discovered silicon oil frequency droplet surface droplet path guided liquid surface generated droplet bounces particle wave interaction broglie pilot wave concept experiment researchers droplet demonstrate single double slit interference discovered droplet bounces pair barrier passes slit pilot wave passes pilot wave droplets places apparent interference pattern quantum double slit experiment feynman impossible explain classical measuring trajectories particles collapse pilot wave bouncing droplet experiment interference pattern droplets orbit bound states exhibit properties quantum spin electromagnetic circular areas called form standing waves generated electrons quantum matter particles test droplet path time statistical distribution fluid system expected particles quantum scale lack reality quantum effects researchers path memory droplet leaves form ripples ripples influence droplet future bounces lead quantum statistical path memory fluid exhibits ripples quantum statistics memory chaos probabilities couder explained path memory system doesn exists quantum objects suggests quantum statistics apparent droplets external forces test couder colleagues center oil observed magnetic droplet electron fixed energy levels nucleus bouncing droplet discrete set orbits set energy level angular momentum quantization properties discrete understood feature quantum realm droplet path liquid surface quantum statistics space time behave superfluid fluid path memory rise strange quantum phenomenon entanglement einstein referred spooky action distance particles entangled measurement state entanglement holds particles light years standard quantum mechanics collapse particles probability wave pilot wave version events interaction particles superfluid universe interaction superfluid particles move wave field generated particles bush explained words pilot wave experimental test droplet entanglement subatomic fluid involved classical fluid explanation quantum mechanics bush led topic review paper experiments review fluid mechanics quantum physicists findings fluid provide direct evidence pilot waves particles quantum scale electrons oil droplets calculations quantum mechanics nobel prize particle physicist university quantum theory pilot wave theory working quantum physicists question successful standard model experiments mind professor physics mit nobel steps long classical underlying theory successful quantum mechanics visible pilot wave phenomenon mind actual quantum mechanics current state pilot wave formulation quantum mechanics describes simple interactions matter electromagnetic fields physics university oxford england physics ordinary light physics view problem theory fair active pilot wave theory standard quantum mechanics researchers theory dealing identical particles describing interactions special relativity quantum mechanics approach simply matter predictions quantum mechanics pilot wave language professor physics university nobel time matter personal don hand bohm argued paper alternative formulation quantum mechanics predictions standard version quantum scale smaller scales nature search unified theory physics scales easily wrong long time interpretation quantum theory bohm wrote fluid approach key long standing conflict quantum mechanics einstein theory gravity scales possibility exists unified theory standard model gravity terms underlying superfluid reality computer scientist mathematician university cambridge england paper fluid quantum future study behavior particle superfluid helium closer superfluid model reality quantum gravity young researchers ideas bush couder fluid hope growing number quantum phenomena deterministic fluid picture quantum mechanics physicists controversial thing people bush time share facebook reddit email quanta magazine quantum mechanics science news comments wired science blogs network star science david brain watch physics map wired map proof social read latest wired science blogs articles follow twitter space day wired won happy faa drone rules twitter apps wired guide version video dubai tiny internet things bigger wired years won happy faa drone rules moving tiny room wired science staff staff send subscribe wired magazine advertisement services links contact login register newsletter rss feeds wired jobs wired mobile faq collapse previous article lives article month faq 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physics physics dictionary physics real world physics classical mechanics thermodynamics light optics atoms particles small things theory relativity quantum physics cosmology astrophysics fields physics blog basic physics concepts theoretical physics physics experiments updated articles resources view free email newsletter send latest physics expert problem sign time refer privacy policy contact quantum physics quantum physics study behavior matter energy molecular atomic nuclear smaller microscopic levels early century discovered laws macroscopic objects function small quantum quantum latin meaning refers discrete units matter energy predicted observed quantum physics space time extremely continuous values developed quantum mechanics scientists technology measure greater precision strange phenomena observed birth quantum physics max planck paper radiation development field max planck albert einstein niels bohr werner heisenberg erwin schroedinger albert einstein theoretical issues quantum mechanics years special quantum physics realm quantum physics physical processes taking place light waves particles particles waves called wave particle duality matter moving space called quantum tunnelling vast distances fact quantum mechanics discover entire universe series probabilities dealing large objects demonstrated schroedinger cat thought experiment quantum entanglement key concepts quantum entanglement describes situation multiple particles measuring quantum state particle places measurements particles epr paradox originally thought experiment confirmed experimentally tests bell theorem quantum optics quantum optics branch quantum physics behavior light photons level quantum optics behavior individual photons light classical optics developed application study quantum optics quantum electrodynamics qed quantum electrodynamics qed study electrons photons interact developed late richard feynman predictions qed scattering photons electrons accurate places unified field theory unified field theory collection quantum physics einstein theory general relativity fundamental forces physics types unified theories include quantum gravity string theory theory theory grand unified theory quantum gravity theory quantum physics called quantum mechanics quantum field theory discussed quantum physics quantum physics term major quantum physics niels bohr richard feynman albert einstein major findings experiments thought experiments basic earliest findings black body radiation photoelectric wave particle duality young double slit experiment broglie hypothesis compton heisenberg uncertainty principle causality quantum physics thought experiments interpretations copenhagen interpretation schroedinger cat epr paradox worlds interpretation articles max planck max planck quantum theory epr paradox expert fundamental forces physics wave particle duality broglie hypothesis radiation photoelectric young double slit experiment quantum optics unified field theory quantum physics physics physics fields physicists study fields physics major laws physics explain universe physics great problems physics physics weird physics ideas physics education resources key intelligence questions identify test test test top archaeology news stories decade archaeology readers quantum physics explains invisible universe physicists define heat density define energy major laws physics explain universe today top picks education talking turkey expert facts latin american history expert english words spanish spanish language expert expert explore earliest days classic classic expert view education education videos don spanish spanish station spanish view education physics quantum physics quantum physics overview education follow deliver education enter email address time refer privacy policy contact story advertise news site map topics careers user policy privacy policy policy rights reserved guide quantum physics guide quantum physics james quantum physics easy science things small quantum nature reality quantum discrete amount max planck discovered smaller minimum amount minimum amount called planck unit weird niels bohr father copenhagen interpretation quantum physics quantum theory understood understand weirdness completely experiments light slits schroedinger cat slits experiment demonstrate quantum weirdness involves light parallel slits screen single photon particle light slits light light photon random direction erwin schroedinger letter long equation predicts finding photon point wave photon wavefunction collapses single point photon schroedinger cat experiment cat box detector electron determines spin spin characteristic random spin cat open box cat alive dead question state cat detector opening box experiment knowledge paradox interpretations things menu consciousness behaviour subatomic particles particles move time places universe planck time parallel universes universe faster light full english interpretations quantum physics interpretations physicists interpretation moment interpretation categories meaning quantum physics bit subject bit meaning thing interpretations thing common explains facts predicts experiment copenhagen interpretation interpretations niels bohr copenhagen university einstein conference sponsored man called solvay bohr generation bit interpretation schroedinger equation tool particle asked copenhagen consciousness particle physics book called henry university california written quantum theories mind central brain small quantum effects quantum uncertainty degree nature interaction mind matter cat worlds interpretation copenhagen interpretation rise famously schroedinger cat einstein spooky action distance led find interpretation forward student hugh everett simply schroedinger equation collapse photon place places couple decades issue concept decoherence idea universes branch relationship tiny led called post everett interpretation called popular interpretations won beauty physics discrete universes exists universe set hard digest concepts fact year exists universes birth max princeton university proposed experiment prove correct involved head survive universes time high level true universes family cat dead half universes alive half pilot waves hidden variables order david bohm physicist people complicated theory explain set phenomena complicated theories principle bohm theory original insights louis broglie studied wave properties behaviour particles broglie normal wavefunction copenhagen interpretation wave determines precise position particle time theory hidden determines precise position photon john von neumann wrote paper theory impossible von neumann great mathematician john bell hidden variables particles communicate faster light called nonlocality demonstrated exist david bohm theory wave faster light distance entire universe acting guide photon called pilot wave theory explains quantum physics faster light wave hidden create order scientists travel light bohm order books physics behaviour physicist cat dead alive consistent histories consistent histories interpretation forward robert works result experiment histories consistent rules quantum mechanics idea popular doesn explain particle slits interpretation quantum mechanics wrote equations single chapter consistent histories interpretation copenhagen cat histories histories interpretation worlds interpretation actual real world don exist collapse cat time richard feynman developed approach quantum mechanics quantum electrodynamics accurate scientific theory developed feynman represents interaction particles particle time space interaction forward time electron point point photon space time photon sends forward time direction space places feynman predict subatomic experiment physicists power tool step time travel reality university book hard understand photon bounces appears slits cat dead alive simultaneously don macroscopic measurement problem transactional interpretation john transactional interpretation fundamental time symmetry universe particles interacting sends wave forward time sends time cat interpretation time green time subatomic particles explains observed experimental theory principle interpretation find scientific community watch space cat access access org http org additional access access org http org additional concepts quantum references molecules quantum physics howstuffworks subscribe adventure animals entertainment health money science tech video engineering science forces nature innovation life science physical science dictionary science space science innovation science questions quantum works introduction quantum works quantum physics heisenberg uncertainty principle worlds theory woman measure quantum particles images quantum physics scientific method evidence study quantum level physicists thought experiments experiments data observed quantum physics observed quantum level questions behavior quantum particles understanding probability photons measure light exist particle wave states direction particles thought travel time direction times quantum world knowledge holds result understanding universe led quantum physics basic understanding ago sun god scientists quantum systems reveal order chaos quantum systems understood traditional models science article quantum reveals universe theories support physicist simply measure particles study learn fundamental quantum observation explained heisenberg uncertainty principle print cite close text cite howstuffworks article quantum works october howstuffworks http science howstuffworks innovation science questions quantum november feedback introduction quantum works quantum physics heisenberg uncertainty principle worlds theory copenhagen interpretation implications quantum physics explore things science power facts fact fiction top things women invented strange spooky watch videos works field infrared originally search infrared radiation objects earth objects change space 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matter time string theory predicts time big november matter time physicists time november matter time build time machine november build november matter time time november observations wrong travel november matter time einstein universe time november cocktail party physics physics week review november november matter time approach final november cocktail party physics physics week review november november ebola lines nov ebola expert nov small oct podcasts science videos turkey instant nov picks tech podcast solar baby steps nov citizen scientists living things citizen science scientific american advertisement latest news read isn ebola dna survive space project cancer stephen hawking scientific american strange true water scientific american complex theory consciousness scientific american modified food scientific american science tells scientific american follow scientific american isn hour ago integral ferguson library hours ago http hours ago innovation challenges challenge details 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safely includes quantum mechanics title text science quantum mechanics complicated search rss atom word world content strong language advanced mathematics arts algorithm algorithm finds algorithm algorithm algorithm algorithm finds algorithm close work creative commons attribution license free share details parallel worlds explain quantum physics tech health planet earth space strange news animals history human nature shop tech health planet earth space strange news animals history human nature shop ebola tech human day parallel worlds explain quantum physics kelly staff november view full size idea infinite number parallel worlds exist hard mind version called worlds theory provide controversial idea quantum mechanics interpretations bill poirier professor physics tech university proposed theory parallel worlds exist interaction explain quantum mechanics weirdness observable universe poirier published idea years ago physicists started idea demonstrated mathematically latest published oct journal physical review quantum mechanics branch physics describes rules universe microscopic scale explain subatomic particles behave particles waves explanation particles exist multiple time mysteries physics wave function equation predicts particle wave function collapses measures actual position particle multiverse theory physicists particle position measured wave function split create parallel worlds original hugh everett physicist possibility multiverse infinite number parallel universes exist published worlds theory idea world everett physics physicists multiverse parallel worlds idea poirier worlds theory abstract interacting worlds miw theory explain weird world quantum mechanics quantum mechanics century interpretation controversial today years ago poirier wrote original paper albert einstein quantum mechanics idea particle exist probability definite location sense famously god play dice universe miw theory einstein mind miw theory quantum particles don waves parallel world normal particles physical objects wave function equation doesn exist study poirier idea physicists griffith university australia university california demonstrate takes interacting parallel worlds infinite number produce weird quantum behavior physicists observed worlds researchers wrote paper force explain bizarre quantum effects particles physicists prove living worlds worlds interact poirier time test idea experimental observations test theory poirier statement interacting worlds predictions standard quantum theory correct paper hope miw theory lead ways test parallel worlds explain quantum mechanics richard feynman physicist project safely understands quantum mechanics poirier colleagues physicists follow kelly twitter follow facebook google original article live science live multiverse images world equations mysterious physics everyday things ways einstein theory relativity real life art science travel people study finds cosmic case stars scientists physics explain sky 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loading loading loading press blogs copyright partners advertising developers youtube terms privacy policy send feedback loading working sign watch quantum mechanics motion potential interference bohm tunneling identical particles introduction background concepts schrödinger equation method quantum mechanics mathematical theory describe behavior objects times smaller human quantum particles move point waves detector discrete matter behavior world day form objects move understanding study basic elements quantum mechanics essential behavior complicated quantum systems approach quantum mechanics mathematical solution model problems physics quantum phenomena mathematical work model problems mathematical structure solution complicated additional basic concepts fundamental phenomena quantum physics computer tool computer quantum system time method basic features quantum mechanics images produce computer created hand data process data computers iii based time change model real time learn fundamentals quantum mechanics knowledge mathematics understand showing examples motion free particle particle electric field examples sense longer classical physics describe features classical set examples examples understood explain behavior systems mathematical apparatus solutions model problems computer technique problems including prove copyright rights reserved contact personal hans bethe reading lecture lecture lecture introduction click version lecture click version lecture click version lecture click version click version lectures hans bethe theoretical physicist hans bethe lectures quantum theory community university professor bethe age lectures videos talking material professor bethe lectures mathematics personal quantum theory physics years video introduction provided professor physicist science professor bethe white professor physical science post student professor bethe hans bethe reading videos videos university library http library videos materials hans bethe hans bethe collection http library hans bethe university published internet university press quantum mechanics theory parallel universes exist interact news story simple app latest headlines applications rss live search nov news business motion news quantum mechanics theory parallel universes exist interact published time november time november short reuters australia physics science space person quantum mechanics science fiction branch physics theory plays parallel universes exist interact scientists test physicist griffith university australia michael hall griffith university university california mathematician published interacting worlds miw theory journal physical review universes real exist vast numbers influence idea parallel universes quantum mechanics statement worlds interpretation universe universes time quantum measurement possibilities universes earth australia griffith quantum dynamics professor griffith university question reality universes influence universe interacting worlds approach completely main miw theory griffith statement universe live unknown number worlds identical worlds real continuously time precisely defined properties quantum phenomena force worlds quantum effects interaction worlds physicists explained abstract hall theory create possibility testing existence worlds beauty approach world theory mechanics number worlds quantum mechanics statement predicts theory quantum theory picture quantum effects experiments test quantum phenomena american theoretical physicist richard feynman safely understands quantum mechanics miw group admits theory bit explanation quantum phenomena weird standard quantum mechanics explanation predictions laboratory experiments told post email explanation ordinary quantum parallel worlds interact professor math asked theory suggests humans interact universes theory idea human interactions universes longer quantum mechanics field post interacting worlds exist interact completely happy interpretations change email happy current interpretations hope start working questions sponsored links links pregnant teen elusive dark matter sun atomic particle observed matter sponsored links links web company doesn iphone people sports sports dogs won watch black holes scientist claims mathematical proof google quantum computer top university team time photons general relativity quantum mechanics discovery cosmic big theory physics universe universe cosmology prize scientists understand universe life quantum effects watch news motion business live watch privacy policy feedback contact news english apps android phone español applications rss privacy policy feedback contact applications rss nonprofit organization rights reserved news business motion quantum mechanics wikiquote wikiquote running quantum mechanics wikiquote jump navigation search quantum theory understood niels bohr quantum mechanics quantized quantum theory classical mechanics atomic subatomic levels fundamental branch physics underlying mathematical fields physics chemistry quantum mechanics general sense quantum physics edit safely understands quantum mechanics richard feynman lack john stewart bell pilot wave cern quantum principles john stewart bell opening quoted edition bell quantum bell quantum springer isbn price explanation impossible great david bohm quantum theory understood niels bohr quoted heisenberg werner physics york row direct treatment electrodynamics maxwell deals problems charges interactions current elements predicts physical action distance close field theory richard feynman john wheeler phys paradox conflict reality reality richard feynman feynman lectures physics vol iii safely understands quantum mechanics richard feynman physical law great deal understanding world view quantum mechanics represents man point stuff idea takes generation real problem define real problem real problem real problem richard feynman physics computers international journal theoretical physics quantum theory split people describe languages physicists david physical process physical law edition physics quantum process press isbn erwin calculations thing translated quoted michael magnetic resonance medicine story james theories proposed century quantum theory fact thing quantum theory correct scientists broglie wave mechanics experimental findings science ideas causality time space public great popular success einstein thing public intelligence technique intelligence man wave mechanics science love god external links edit wikipedia article quantum mechanics retrieved http wikiquote org title quantum mechanics category physics navigation menu personal tools create account log views read edit view history search navigation main community portal random donate contact wikiquote wikiquote links people works categories tools links upload file special version permanent link cite languages español edit links modified november text creative commons attribution license additional terms apply site agree terms privacy policy privacy policy wikiquote developers mobile view personal hans bethe reading lecture lecture lecture introduction click version lecture click version lecture click version lecture click version click version lectures hans bethe theoretical physicist hans bethe lectures quantum theory community university professor bethe age lectures videos talking material professor bethe lectures mathematics personal quantum theory physics years video introduction provided professor physicist science professor bethe white professor physical science post student professor bethe hans bethe reading videos videos university library http library videos materials hans bethe hans bethe collection http library hans bethe university published internet university press quantum mechanics wikiquote wikiquote running quantum mechanics wikiquote jump navigation search quantum theory understood niels bohr quantum mechanics quantized quantum theory classical mechanics atomic subatomic levels fundamental branch physics underlying mathematical fields physics chemistry quantum mechanics general sense quantum physics edit safely understands quantum mechanics richard feynman lack john stewart bell pilot wave cern quantum principles john stewart bell opening quoted edition bell quantum bell quantum springer isbn price explanation impossible great david bohm quantum theory understood niels bohr quoted heisenberg werner physics york row direct treatment electrodynamics maxwell deals problems charges interactions current elements predicts physical action distance close field theory richard feynman john wheeler phys paradox conflict reality reality richard feynman feynman lectures physics vol iii safely understands quantum mechanics richard feynman physical law great deal understanding world view quantum mechanics represents man point stuff idea takes generation real problem define real problem real problem real problem richard feynman physics computers international journal theoretical physics quantum theory split people describe languages physicists david physical process physical law edition physics quantum process press isbn erwin calculations thing translated quoted michael magnetic resonance medicine story james theories proposed century quantum theory fact thing quantum theory correct scientists broglie wave mechanics experimental findings science ideas causality time space public great popular success einstein thing public intelligence technique intelligence man wave mechanics science love god external links edit wikipedia article quantum mechanics retrieved http wikiquote org title quantum mechanics category physics navigation menu personal tools create account log views read edit view history search navigation main community portal random donate contact wikiquote wikiquote links people works categories tools links upload file special version permanent link cite languages español edit links modified november text creative commons attribution license additional terms apply site 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data/benchmark/profile.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+require 'glove'
+require 'ruby-prof'
+
+bm_dir = File.expand_path File.dirname(__FILE__)
+data_path = File.join(bm_dir, 'data')
+output_dir = File.join(bm_dir, 'results')
+
+result = RubyProf.profile do
+  model = Glove::Model.new
+
+  filepath = File.join(data_path, 'quantum-physics.txt')
+  text = File.read(filepath)
+
+  model.fit(text)
+  model.train
+end
+
+printer = RubyProf::MultiPrinter.new(result)
+printer.print(path: "#{output_dir}", profile: 'multi', application: 'glove')

data/glove.gemspec

@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+# coding: utf-8
+lib = File.expand_path('../lib', __FILE__)
+$LOAD_PATH.unshift(lib) unless $LOAD_PATH.include?(lib)
+require 'glove/version'
+
+Gem::Specification.new do |spec|
+  spec.name          = "glove"
+  spec.version       = Glove::VERSION
+  spec.authors       = ["Veselin Vasilev"]
+  spec.email         = ["vesselinv@me.com"]
+  spec.summary       = %q{Global Vectors for Word Representation}
+  spec.description   = %q{GloVe is an unsupervised learning algorithm for obtaining vector representations for words. Training is performed on aggregated global word-word co-occurrence statistics from a corpus, and the resulting representations showcase interesting linear substructures of the word vector space. This is a pure Ruby implementation of GloVe utilizing GSL.}
+  spec.homepage      = "https://github.com/vesselinv/glove"
+  spec.license       = "MIT"
+
+  spec.files         = `git ls-files -z`.split("\x0")
+  spec.executables   = spec.files.grep(%r{^bin/}) { |f| File.basename(f) }
+  spec.test_files    = spec.files.grep(%r{^(test|spec|features)/})
+  spec.require_paths = ["lib"]
+
+  spec.add_development_dependency "bundler", "~> 1.7"
+  spec.add_development_dependency "rake",    "~> 10.0"
+  spec.add_development_dependency "rspec",   "~> 3.1"
+
+  spec.add_dependency "rb-gsl",       "~> 1.16"
+  spec.add_dependency "fast-stemmer", "~> 1.0"
+  spec.add_dependency "parallel",     "~> 1.3"
+end

data/lib/glove.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+require 'glove/version'
+require 'gsl'
+require 'fast_stemmer'
+require 'parallel'
+
+module Glove
+  # Return the root path of the gem
+  # @return [String] the full path to the gem
+  def self.root_path
+    File.expand_path File.join(File.dirname(__FILE__), '../')
+  end
+end
+
+require 'glove/token_pair'
+require 'glove/parser'
+require 'glove/corpus'
+require 'glove/workers'
+require 'glove/model'

data/lib/glove/corpus.rb

@@ -0,0 +1,103 @@
+module Glove
+  # Class responsible for building the token count, token index and token pairs
+  # hashes from a given text
+  class Corpus
+    # @!attribute [r] tokens
+    #   @return [Fixnum] Returns the parsed tokens array. Holds all the tokens
+    #     in the exact order they appear in the text
+    attr_reader :tokens, :window, :min_count
+
+    # Convenience method for creating an instance and building the token count,
+    # index and pairs (see #initialize)
+    def self.build(text, options={})
+      new(text, options).build_tokens
+    end
+
+    # Create a new {Glove::Corpus} instance
+    #
+    # @param [Hash] options the options to initialize the instance with.
+    # @option options [Integer] :window (2) Number of context words to the left
+    #   and to the right
+    # @option options [Integer] :min_count (5) Lower limit such that words which
+    #   occur fewer than :min_count times are discarded.
+    def initialize(text, options={})
+      @tokens = Parser.new(text, options).tokenize
+      @window = options[:window] || 2
+      @min_count = options[:min_count] || 5
+    end
+
+    # Builds the token count, token index and token pairs
+    #
+    # @return [Glove::Corpus]
+    def build_tokens
+      build_count
+      build_index
+      build_pairs
+      self
+    end
+
+    # Hash that stores the occurence count of unique tokens
+    #
+    # @return [Hash{String=>Integer}] Token-Count pairs where count is total occurences of
+    #   token in the (non-unique) tokens hash
+    def count
+      @count ||= tokens.inject(Hash.new(0)) do |hash,item|
+        hash[item] += 1
+        hash
+      end.to_h.keep_if{ |word,count| count >= min_count }
+    end
+    alias_method :build_count, :count
+
+    # A hash whose values hold the senquantial index of a word as it appears in
+    # the #count hash
+    #
+    # @return [Hash{String=>Integer}] Token-Index pairs where index is the sequential index
+    #   of the token in the unique vocabulary pool
+    def index
+      @index ||= @count.keys.each_with_index.inject({}) do |hash,(word,idx)|
+        hash[word] = idx
+        hash
+      end
+    end
+    alias_method :build_index, :index
+
+    # Iterates over the tokens array and contructs {Glove::TokenPair}s where
+    # neighbors holds the adjacent (context) words. The number of neighbours is
+    # controlled by the :window option (on each side)
+    #
+    # @return [Array<(Glove::TokenPair)>] Array of {Glove::TokenPair}s
+    def pairs
+      @pairs ||= tokens.map.with_index do |word, index|
+        next unless count[word] >= min_count
+
+        TokenPair.new(word, token_neighbors(word, index))
+      end.compact
+    end
+    alias_method :build_pairs, :pairs
+
+    # Construct array of neighbours to the given word and its index in the tokens
+    # array
+    #
+    # @param [String] word The word to get neighbours for
+    # @param [Integer] index Index of the word in the @tokens array
+    # @return [Array<(String)>] List of the nighbours
+    def token_neighbors(word, index)
+      start_pos = index - window < 0 ? 0 : index - window
+      end_pos   = (index + window >= tokens.size) ? tokens.size - 1 : index + window
+
+      tokens[start_pos..end_pos].map do |neighbor|
+        neighbor unless word == neighbor
+      end.compact
+    end
+
+    # Data to dump with Marshal.dump
+    def marshal_dump
+      [@tokens, @count, @index, @pairs]
+    end
+
+    # Reconstruct the instance data via Marshal.load
+    def marshal_load(contents)
+      @tokens, @count, @index, @pairs = contents
+    end
+  end
+end